Chapter 4. -- Approaches to Learners’ Performance- ALL.ppt

Chapter 4
Approaches to
Learners’ Performance

Environment
INPUT
Processing
OUTPUT
Actual utterances
(Learner’s performance)

4-1 Introduction :
 Learners’ performance is the actual
utterances that the learner produces .
 Learners’ performance contains
both acceptable (i.e. correct ) and
non-acceptable utterances (i.e. errors
) . Errors are considered important
determinants of SLA process.

4-1 Introduction :
Errors are considered important
determinants of SLA process.

In order to deal with errors made by L2
learners, three approaches to
learners' performance (i.e.
linguistic behaviour ) will be discussed
here:

In order to deal with errors made by L2
learners, three approaches to
learners' performance (i.e. linguistic
behaviour ) will be discussed here:
1. Contrastive Analysis CA.
2. Error Analysis EA
3. Interlanguage IL.

What is CA?
CA is a term introduced by the
behaviourists in order to explain
how L1 habits interfere with or
affect the L2 learning process.
.

The goal of CA
The goal of CA was to “identify and
catalogue the structural similarities
and differences between languages.”

Contrastive Analysis
The importance of CA:
Areas of
similarities
Areas of
differences
Are predicted to aid the
acquisition process
Are predicted to impede
the acquisition process

4.2.1 The rationale of CA
The rationale for undertaking CA in L2
learning is derived mainly from the
following two factors :

(i) Practical experience of L2 teachers:
 A number of errors made by students can be attributed
to their first languages. For instance , Arab learners of
English substitute /p/ with /b/ because /p/ does not
occur in Arabic as a separate phoneme . It occurs in
few cases as allophones of /b/ as in the word ' prison'
or ' holding or keeping back'

(ii) The theory of transfer:
Transfer in learning a task of an L2 is either
facilitated or impeded by learning of a previous
task of an L2.

The rationale of CA
Practical experience of L2 teachers
The theory of transfer

Transfer
Look at Types of Transfer on page 53. Figure 4.1

Transfer
Transfer is divided into two types
(i) Positive Transfer .
(ii) Negative Transfer .

Transfer
(i) Positive Transfer : Facilitates learning or
has a positive influence on the command of
a skill or part of the L2 due to similarity
between L1 & L2. (e.g. the sound /s/ is
available in English and Arabic also the
words 'Mango' and 'Lemon' are also found
in both Arabic and English .

Transfer
(ii) Negative transfer : Impedes learning
or has a negative influence on the
command of a skill or part of the L2
due to differences between L1 & L2.
(e.g. the sound /v/ is available in
English but not in Arabic . For more
example of negative transfer see page
53 .

Transfer
Positive
Negative
Facilitates learning or
has a positive influence
on the command of a
skill or part of the L2
due to similarity
between L1 & L2.
Mango, Lemon

Transfer
Impedes learning or has
a negative influence on
the command of a skill
or part of the L2 due to
differences between L1
& L2.
Positive
Negative
This Ahmed.

4.2.2 Factors of Negative Transfer
There are a number of factors responsible for
negative transfer in the learner's
performance

(i) Limited quantity of L2 input

(i) Limited quantity of L2 input
(ii) Age : Negative transfer seems to appear
more in adults performance rather
than in children's performance
particularly in the first stages of an L2
learning process.

(iii) Linguistic distance between L2 and L1 :
Negative transfer increases proportionally to
the linguistic differences between the L2
and the learner's L1, as between English
which is an Indo-European language and
Arabic which is a Semitic language.

(iv) Focus : Negative transfer is likely to
occur if the learner's focus is only on
correct grammatical forms rather than
on successful communication .

Limited quantity of L2 input
Factors of Negative Transfer
Age
Linguistic distance between L2 and L1
Focus

4-2-3 CAAssumptions
Lee (1968) stated the assumptions for
CA in the following manner :

4-2-3 CAAssumptions
(i) The prime cause of difficulty and error in L2
learning is interference coming from the
learners' L1.

4-2-3 CAAssumptions
(i) The prime cause of difficulty and
error in L2 learning is interference
coming from the learners' L1.
(ii) The greater these differences are , the
harder the learning difficulties will be.

4-2-3 CAAssumptions
(iii) The results of the comparison
between the two languages are needed
to predict the difficulties and errors
which may occur in learning the L2.

4-2-3 CAAssumptions
(iii) The results of the comparison
between the two languages are needed
to predict the difficulties and errors
which may occur in learning the L2.
(iv) The differences found by CA will be
the focus of language teaching.

4.2.4 CA Hierarchy of difficulty
( i) Split : L1 has one form , whereas the L
has two or more form ( Arabic has one bilabia
stop /b/ , whereas English has two bilabia
stops /p/ and /b/ )

(ii) New category : it exists in the L2 but
not in the L1 ( Arabic does not have
forms for indefiniteness but English has
two ''a'' and '' an'')

(iii) Absent category : English nouns have
natural gender whereas Arabic nouns have
grammatical gender

(iv) Coalesced forms : L1 has two
forms or more , whereas the L2 has one
( Arabic has several negators , ‫ال‬
‫ما‬
‫ليس‬
‫لم‬
‫لن‬ whereas English has mainly one ,
not )

(v) Complete correspondence : A form in
an L1 is the same or roughly the same
as a form in an L2 . ( The past tense is
available in English and Arabic )

Absent Category
Split
New Category
CA Hierarchy of difficulty
Coalesced forms
Complete correspondence
L1 has one form L2 has two or more:
(Arabic has one /b/ English has /p/ & /b/)
It exists in L2 but not in L1: (Arabic
doesn’t have forms of indefiniteness
but English has ‘a’ & ‘an’)
English nouns have natural gender
Arabic nouns have grammatical gender
L1 has two forms or more, L2 has one:
(Arabic has many negators, ‫ال‬
,
‫ما‬
,
‫لم‬ ،‫لن‬
English has mainly one ‘not’)
A form in an L1 is the same or roughly
the same as a form in L2:
(past simple in English and Arabic)

4-2-5 CA Methodology
 Accurate and explicit descriptions of
languages under comparison are a
prerequisite for any CA.
 With the availability of the descriptions ,
the CA will be undertaken by using the
following techniques :

(i) Select tasks to be compared.

(ii) The tasks selected should be
compatible from the theoretical point of
view.

(iii) The tasks selected should be
described in the same way, i.e. using the
same model of description such as
traditional, structural, generative .

(iv) Find out points of similarity and
contrasts .

5- Develop teaching material on
the possible positive and
negative transfers.

New supporters of CA propose the following
steps of CA:

New supporters of CA propose the following
steps of CA:
(1) Build hypotheses on the possible positive
and negative transfer and empirically test
these hypotheses.

(2) Analyze the data and then
accept or reject hypotheses or
predictions.

(2) Analyze the data and then
accept or reject hypotheses or
predictions.
(3) Build teaching materials on
the obtained results.

4.2.6 CA and L2 Teaching
On the basis of the CA assumptions
discussed above , a number of claims
have been made in L2 teaching :

On the basis of the CA assumptions
discussed above , a number of claims
have been made in L2 teaching :
(i) The most effective teaching
materials are based upon a CA
between a learner’s L1 and L2.

(ii) Criteria for selecting testing items
can ideally be done on the basis of CA.

(ii) Criteria for selecting testing items
can ideally be done on the basis of CA.
(iii) The importance of CA in choosing
teaching material as a method of
preventing L1 transfer and remedying
errors.

(iv) CA could be very helpful in
drawing up a curriculum.

(iv) CA could be very helpful in
drawing up curriculums.
(v) CA is very useful in homogeneous
classroom more than in heterogeneous
classroom

4.2.7 CA Critics
CA is mainly criticized for :
(i) CA is based on the notion of
‘habit-formation’ which neglects
the role of the mind in the SLA
process.

4.2.7 CA Critics
(ii) The adequate knowledge of
languages to be contrasted may not
be possessed by some researchers.

4.2.7 CA Critics
(iii) Overpredictions of errors :
The English affricate /tʃ/ , for example , is
predicted to be difficult for Arab learners since
it does not exist in Arabic , but from experience
with Saudi Arabian learners is not so .

4.2.7 CA Critics
(iv) Underprediction of errors :
Certain errors cannot be discovered or justified
on the basis of CA such as : '' goed, comed
and hurted '' .

4.2.7 CA Critics
(v) Contrast between an L1 & L2 alone does not
tell much about how a learner goes about the
learning process of a task.

4.2.8 CA Defense
(a) CA is not necessarily connect with '
habit –formation ' but it is based on
transfer theory as being an integral
factor in the L2 learning process .
One- third of the errors committed
by L2 learners can be traced to L1
transfer , hence, CA is actually
indispensable in explaining L1
transfer into L2 learning.

4.2.8 CA Defense
(b) At present, different aspects of most
known languages are written in
English . This may reduce the
criticism against the researchers who
do not have adequate knowledge of
the languages to be contrasted ,
since through the help of English
language , languages may be
compared.

4.2.8 CA Defense
(c) Overprediction may be due to poor
analysis or poor predictions about
what is difficult and what is not . It
could be due to avoidance strategy.

4.2.8 CA Defense
(d) For underprediction , CA is not the
only substantial approach for L2
learning and teaching , but it can be a
very useful approach for teachers
and can assist them in their duties .

At the end of the 1960s , researchers
began to realize that not all errors
in L2 learning could be explained on
the basis of linguistic differences
between L1 and L2

It also that CA was seen to concentrate on the
L2 teacher rather than on the L2 learner.
This led to a shift from teaching to learning
and concentration on error ( i.e.
inappropriate form ) that learners regularly
produce in the process of learning an L2 .

This approach focuses on the learner , and it is
called error analysis (EA)

Error Analysis
What is EA?
EA is a technique which aims to
describe and explain the systematic
nature of deviations or errors
generated in the learner’s language.

4.3.1 The importance of EA
The importance of EA techniques is listed in
the following points :
(i) EA helps to understand the process of
SLA.
(ii) EA figures out statistically the
troublesome linguistic areas or errors that
L2 learners encounter in learning.

4.3.1 The importance of EA
(iii) Errors provide valuable feedback to
both teachers and learners regarding
learner strategies and progress.
(iv) Errors provide researchers with insights
into the nature of SLA process.

4.3.2 EA and CA differences
EA is different from CA in :
1- EA is not restricted to errors caused by
negative transfer from the L1, it covers all
types of errors such as overgeneralization
errors.

2.EA, unlike CA, provides data on real
problems and this may lead to correct
solutions in the L2 teaching.

3. EA is not confronted with problems such as
accurate and explicit descriptions of languages,
compatibility, adequate knowledge of the
contrasted languages, etc, that may face .

4.3.3 EA Methodology
EA is undertaken by using the following
techniques :
1. Collection of errors
2-Identification of errors : by telling what kind of
deviation from the L2 norm is .
3. Classification of error types (See figure 4.2. /
page 64 -for errors classification with examples
for EFL Arab students)
4. Statement of relative frequency of error types

4.3.3 EA Methodology
5-Identification of the areas of difficulty in the L2
6- Determination of the source of errors such as L1
transfer , overgeneralization , inconsistencies in the
spelling system of the L2 , etc.
7. Determination of the seriousness of the error in
terms of communication and L2.
8. Remedy by the teacher in the classroom by
designing special drills , lessons, etc.

1. Collection of errors
2. Identification of errors
EA Methodology
3. Classification of error types

EA Methodology
4. Statement of relative
frequency of error types
5. Identification of the areas
of difficulty in the L2
6. Determination of
the source of errors

EA Methodology
7. Determination of
the seriousness of the error
8. Remedy by the teacher
in the classroom

Classification of Errors
Interlingual Errors Intralingual Errors
Or
Transfer Errors,
i.e. Errors due to
the effect from
L1.
Or
Overgeneralization
Errors, i.e. Errors
due to the effect
from L2.

Interlingual Errors Intralingual Errors
Phonological
Syntactic
Semantic
/b/ for /p/
*Ali good student
Literal translation:
Close the TV.
Pocket,
important, tap

Interlingual Errors
Intralingual Errors
Phonological
Syntactic
Semantic
Count vs. Country
I am agree.
Idiomatic expressions:
*What’s up Mike!!
Both words have the
syllable (count-)

4.3.4 EA Critics
EA is mainly criticized for :
1-Classification of errors :
Errors may be wrongly classified between
language tasks. The same error may be
classified as interlingual and intralingual

4.3.4 EA Critics
2- EA stresses only on what the learner
cannot do at a given point in time

4.3.4 EA Critics
3-Difficulty of error identification.

4.3.4 EA Critics
4-Avoidance strategy:
Learners avoid certain linguistic structures in
which they would be likely to commit errors .

4-4 Interlanguage
 General remarks…
A new look at learners’ performance
has emerged. This new approach is
no longer based on deviations (i.e.
error) from the L2 norm at a given
point in time , but on the process of
L2 development (i.e. at all levels :
phonological , morphological ,
syntactic and semantic ) as a whole in
different stages.

Interlanguage
 The idea or the hypothesis of IL:
Adult learners of an L2 produce speech/writing
which is different from acceptable L2 forms, and
it is not always attributed to L1 transfer.

Interlanguage
 The definition of IL:
IL is a linguistic system which represents the
intermediate status of the learner’s system (language)
between his L1 and the L2.

 The different terms of IL:
This linguistic system has been called different terms ,
such as :
1- Approximate systems
2- Interlanguage
3- Transitional competence

Interlanguage
L1 L2
0 1 2 3 4 8 9 10
……
Low
proficiency
High
proficiency
Stages of acquisition

4.4.1 ILAssumptions
The main IL assumptions are the
following :
1-Learners internally construct a linguistic system which is
different from both the learner’s L1 & the L2, but it is based
on L2 input that he receives. internally construct a
linguistic system which is different from
both the learner’s L1 & the L2 but it is
based on L2 input that he receives.

4.4.1 ILAssumptions
2- At the successive stages of learning,
learners keep linguistic systems being
reconstructed and will approximate a certain
variety of L2 which rarely becomes identical
to the L2 norm

4.4.2 IL Cognitive Processes
Selinker (1972) argued that IL is a product of five central
cognitive processes involved in L2 learning :
(i) L1 transfer
(ii) Transfer of training , which comes from learners' teachers.
(iii) Strategies of L2 learning which are approaches by learners
to the elements to be learned.

4.4.2 IL Cognitive Processes
(iv) Strategies of L2 communication which are ways of
communicating with native speakers of the L2.
(v) Overgeneralization of L2 rules , which is a process by
which a learner extends the L2 rule beyond its acceptable
use.

Strategies of L2 learning
L1 transfer
Transfer of training
IL Cognitive Processes
Overgeneralization of L2 rules
Strategies of L2 communication

4-4-3 Similarities between
IL & Natural languages
1-IL is assumed to be systematic.

2-IL obeys universal constraints at all levels (
i.e. phonological , morphological , syntactic
and semantic )

3- IL shows evidence for internal
consistency.(happens in the same way)

4-4-4 Differences between
IL & Natural language Rules
1. Reduced system : IL's are reduced systems
with regard to number and complexity of
different rules

2-Permeability : IL rules are permeable in the
sense that they are incomplete and in a state
of flux.

3-Fossilization : The learner reaches to a level
that nearly stops developing the L2 .

Causes of Fossilization
(i) Low motivation
(ii) Age : age with old learners usually retain a
recognizable foreign accent .
(iii)Limited range of L2 input

Causes of fossilization
Low motivation
Age
Limited range of L2 input

1. L1 utterances produced by the learner
2. IL utterances produced by the learner .
4-4-5 IL Methodology
3. L2 utterances used by its native
speakers
The essential components for IL analysis are the following:

In this way , IL methodology incorporates
the assumptions of CA and EA.
CA contrasts the learner's L1 and the L2 ,
whereas EA basically contrasts the
learner's performance and the L2.
4-4-5 IL Methodology

4-4-6-IL and L2 Teaching
On the basis of the above IL assumptions , a
number of claims have been made in the L2
teaching :
1-IL provides L2 teachers with a clearer
picture of the learner’s transitional
competence, i.e. how he develops the
language.

2-IL helps the L2 teacher to plan the syllabus
for different stages of development.
3-IL demonstrates both psychological and
linguistic processes of SLA by giving good
description of the transitional competence of
L2 learner,

4-The realistic aim of IL in L2 teaching and
learning is not to achieve a native speaker
competence but something near it

4-4-7 IL Critics
IL's are mainly criticized for
1.No concrete hints are made in IL
literature on how to describe the changing
linguistic systems in IL . That is to say , IL
mainly depends on both CA and EA in
describing the changing linguistic systems
of the L2 learner.

4-4-7 IL Critics
2- A large body of data is needed to
ascertain a linguistic rule in the learner's
IL.

4-4-7 IL Critics
3-Observation of the most truly systematic form of
a learner’s IL is not an easy process since it
needs a number of considerations related to
social status of the learners and the researcher ,
the topic of the discourse, the spoken or written
language , etc.

Reference
 Noor, H. & Al- Qadi, N. (2016). A Course in
Applied Linguistics for EFL/ESL Arab Students.
Berlin: Peter Lang International Academic
Publishers.

•Thank you so much
•Dr. Fawzi Eltayeb Yousuf Ahmed
email: feltayb12@gmail.com

Chapter 4. -- Approaches to Learners’ Performance- ALL.ppt

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Chapter 4. -- Approaches to Learners’ Performance- ALL.ppt

Similar to Chapter 4. -- Approaches to Learners’ Performance- ALL.ppt (20)

More from FawziEltayeb

More from FawziEltayeb (6)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Chapter 4. -- Approaches to Learners’ Performance- ALL.ppt