Greene_econometric_5ta edición.pdf

Greene-50240 gree50240˙FM July 10, 2002 12:51
FIFTH EDITION
ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS
Q
William H. Greene
New York University
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
iii

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ISBN 0-13-066189-9
iv

B R I E F C O N T E N T S
Q
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 The Classical Multiple Linear Regression Model 7
Chapter 3 Least Squares 19
Chapter 4 Finite-Sample Properties of the Least Squares Estimator 41
Chapter 5 Large-Sample Properties of the Least Squares and Instrumental
Variables Estimators 65
Chapter 6 Inference and Prediction 93
Chapter 7 Functional Form and Structural Change 116
Chapter 8 Specification Analysis and Model Selection 148
Chapter 9 Nonlinear Regression Models 162
Chapter 10 Nonspherical Disturbances—The Generalized
Regression Model 191
Chapter 11 Heteroscedasticity 215
Chapter 12 Serial Correlation 250
Chapter 13 Models for Panel Data 283
Chapter 14 Systems of Regression Equations 339
Chapter 15 Simultaneous-Equations Models 378
Chapter 16 Estimation Frameworks in Econometrics 425
Chapter 17 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 468
Chapter 18 The Generalized Method of Moments 525
Chapter 19 Models with Lagged Variables 558
Chapter 20 Time-Series Models 608
Chapter 21 Models for Discrete Choice 663
Chapter 22 Limited Dependent Variable and Duration Models 756
Appendix A Matrix Algebra 803
Appendix B Probability and Distribution Theory 845
Appendix C Estimation and Inference 877
Appendix D Large Sample Distribution Theory 896
vii

viii Brief Contents
Appendix E Computation and Optimization 919
Appendix F Data Sets Used in Applications 946
Appendix G Statistical Tables 953
References 959
Author Index 000
Subject Index 000

C O N T E N T S
Q
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Econometrics 1
1.2 Econometric Modeling 1
1.3 Data and Methodology 4
1.4 Plan of the Book 5
CHAPTER 2 The Classical Multiple Linear Regression Model 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 The Linear Regression Model 7
2.3 Assumptions of the Classical Linear Regression Model 10
2.3.1 Linearity of the Regression Model 11
2.3.2 Full Rank 13
2.3.3 Regression 14
2.3.4 Spherical Disturbances 15
2.3.5 Data Generating Process for the Regressors 16
2.3.6 Normality 17
2.4 Summary and Conclusions 18
CHAPTER 3 Least Squares 19
3.1 Introduction 19
3.2 Least Squares Regression 19
3.2.1 The Least Squares Coefficient Vector 20
3.2.2 Application: An Investment Equation 21
3.2.3 Algebraic Aspects of The Least Squares Solution 24
3.2.4 Projection 24
3.3 Partitioned Regression and Partial Regression 26
3.4 Partial Regression and Partial Correlation Coefficients 28
3.5 Goodness of Fit and the Analysis of Variance 31
3.5.1 The Adjusted R-Squared and a Measure of Fit 34
3.5.2 R-Squared and the Constant Term in the Model 36
3.5.3 Comparing Models 37
ix

x Contents
CHAPTER 4 Finite-Sample Properties of the Least Squares Estimator 41
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Motivating Least Squares 42
4.2.1 The Population Orthogonality Conditions 42
4.2.2 Minimum Mean Squared Error Predictor 43
4.2.3 Minimum Variance Linear Unbiased Estimation 44
4.3 Unbiased Estimation 44
4.4 The Variance of the Least Squares Estimator and the Gauss Markov
Theorem 45
4.5 The Implications of Stochastic Regressors 47
4.6 Estimating the Variance of the Least Squares Estimator 48
4.7 The Normality Assumption and Basic Statistical Inference 50
4.7.1 Testing a Hypothesis About a Coefficient 50
4.7.2 Confidence Intervals for Parameters 52
4.7.3 Confidence Interval for a Linear Combination of Coefficients:
The Oaxaca Decomposition 53
4.7.4 Testing the Significance of the Regression 54
4.7.5 Marginal Distributions of the Test Statistics 55
4.8 Finite-Sample Properties of Least Squares 55
4.9 Data Problems 56
4.9.1 Multicollinearity 56
4.9.2 Missing Observations 59
4.9.3 Regression Diagnostics and Influential Data Points 60
CHAPTER 5 Large-Sample Properties of the Least Squares and Instrumental
Variables Estimators 65
5.1 Introduction 65
5.2 Asymptotic Properties of the Least Squares Estimator 65
5.2.1 Consistency of the Least Squares Estimator of β 66
5.2.2 Asymptotic Normality of the Least Squares Estimator 67
5.2.3 Consistency of s2
and the Estimator of Asy. Var[b] 69
5.2.4 Asymptotic Distribution of a Function of b: The Delta
Method 70
5.2.5 Asymptotic Efficiency 70
5.3 More General Cases 72
5.3.1 Heterogeneity in the Distributions of xi 72
5.3.2 Dependent Observations 73
5.4 Instrumental Variable and Two Stage Least Squares
Estimation 74
5.5 Hausman’s Specification Test and an Application to Instrumental Variable
Estimation 80

Contents xi
5.6 Measurement Error 83
5.6.1 Least Squares Attenuation 84
5.6.2 Instrumental Variables Estimation 86
5.6.3 Proxy Variables 87
5.6.4 Application: Income and Education and a Study of Twins 88
CHAPTER 6 Inference and Prediction 93
6.1 Introduction 93
6.2 Restrictions and Nested Models 93
6.3 Two Approaches to Testing Hypotheses 95
6.3.1 The F Statistic and the Least Squares Discrepancy 95
6.3.2 The Restricted Least Squares Estimator 99
6.3.3 The Loss of Fit from Restricted Least Squares 101
6.4 Nonnormal Disturbances and Large Sample Tests 104
6.5 Testing Nonlinear Restrictions 108
6.6 Prediction 111
CHAPTER 7 Functional Form and Structural Change 116
7.1 Introduction 116
7.2 Using Binary Variables 116
7.2.1 Binary Variables in Regression 116
7.2.2 Several Categories 117
7.2.3 Several Groupings 118
7.2.4 Threshold Effects and Categorical Variables 120
7.2.5 Spline Regression 121
7.3 Nonlinearity in the Variables 122
7.3.1 Functional Forms 122
7.3.2 Identifying Nonlinearity 124
7.3.3 Intrinsic Linearity and Identification 127
7.4 Modeling and Testing for a Structural Break 130
7.4.1 Different Parameter Vectors 130
7.4.2 Insufficient Observations 131
7.4.3 Change in a Subset of Coefficients 132
7.4.4 Tests of Structural Break with Unequal Variances 133
7.5 Tests of Model Stability 134
7.5.1 Hansen’s Test 134
7.5.2 Recursive Residuals and the CUSUMS Test 135
7.5.3 Predictive Test 137
7.5.4 Unknown Timing of the Structural Break 139

xii Contents
CHAPTER 8 Specification Analysis and Model Selection 148
8.2 Specification Analysis and Model Building 148
8.2.1 Bias Caused by Omission of Relevant Variables 148
8.2.2 Pretest Estimation 149
8.2.3 Inclusion of Irrelevant Variables 150
8.2.4 Model Building—A General to Simple Strategy 151
8.3 Choosing Between Nonnested Models 152
8.3.1 Testing Nonnested Hypotheses 153
8.3.2 An Encompassing Model 154
8.3.3 Comprehensive Approach—The J Test 154
8.3.4 The Cox Test 155
8.4 Model Selection Criteria 159
CHAPTER 9 Nonlinear Regression Models 162
9.2 Nonlinear Regression Models 162
9.2.1 Assumptions of the Nonlinear Regression Model 163
9.2.2 The Orthogonality Condition and the Sum of Squares 164
9.2.3 The Linearized Regression 165
9.2.4 Large Sample Properties of the Nonlinear Least Squares
Estimator 167
9.2.5 Computing the Nonlinear Least Squares Estimator 169
9.3 Applications 171
9.3.1 A Nonlinear Consumption Function 171
9.3.2 The Box–Cox Transformation 173
9.4 Hypothesis Testing and Parametric Restrictions 175
9.4.1 Significance Tests for Restrictions: F and Wald Statistics 175
9.4.2 Tests Based on the LM Statistic 177
9.4.3 A Specification Test for Nonlinear Regressions: The PE Test 178
9.5 Alternative Estimators for Nonlinear Regression Models 180
9.5.1 Nonlinear Instrumental Variables Estimation 181
9.5.2 Two-Step Nonlinear Least Squares Estimation 183
9.5.3 Two-Step Estimation of a Credit Scoring Model 186
CHAPTER 10 Nonspherical Disturbances—The Generalized
10.2 Least Squares and Instrumental Variables Estimation 192
10.2.1 Finite-Sample Properties of Ordinary Least Squares 193
10.2.2 Asymptotic Properties of Least Squares 194
10.2.3 Asymptotic Properties of Nonlinear Least Squares 196

Contents xiii
10.2.4 Asymptotic Properties of the Instrumental Variables
Estimator 196
10.3 Robust Estimation of Asymptotic Covariance Matrices 198
10.4 Generalized Method of Moments Estimation 201
10.5 Efficient Estimation by Generalized Least Squares 207
10.5.1 Generalized Least Squares (GLS) 207
10.5.2 Feasible Generalized Least Squares 209
10.6 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 211
CHAPTER 11 Heteroscedasticity 215
11.2 Ordinary Least Squares Estimation 216
11.2.1 Inefficiency of Least Squares 217
11.2.2 The Estimated Covariance Matrix of b 217
11.2.3 Estimating the Appropriate Covariance Matrix for Ordinary
Least Squares 219
11.3 GMM Estimation of the Heteroscedastic Regression Model 221
11.4 Testing for Heteroscedasticity 222
11.4.1 White’s General Test 222
11.4.2 The Goldfeld–Quandt Test 223
11.4.3 The Breusch–Pagan/Godfrey LM Test 223
11.5 Weighted Least Squares When is Known 225
11.6 Estimation When Contains Unknown Parameters 227
11.6.1 Two-Step Estimation 227
11.6.2 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 228
11.6.3 Model Based Tests for Heteroscedasticity 229
11.7 Applications 232
11.7.1 Multiplicative Heteroscedasticity 232
11.7.2 Groupwise Heteroscedasticity 235
11.8 Autoregressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity 238
11.8.1 The ARCH(1) Model 238
11.8.2 ARCH(q), ARCH-in-Mean and Generalized ARCH
Models 240
11.8.3 Maximum Likelihood Estimation of the GARCH Model 242
11.8.4 Testing for GARCH Effects 244
11.8.5 Pseudo-Maximum Likelihood Estimation 245
CHAPTER 12 Serial Correlation 250
12.2 The Analysis of Time-Series Data 253
12.3 Disturbance Processes 256

xiv Contents
12.3.1 Characteristics of Disturbance Processes 256
12.3.2 AR(1) Disturbances 257
12.4 Some Asymptotic Results for Analyzing Time Series Data 259
12.4.1 Convergence of Moments—The Ergodic Theorem 260
12.4.2 Convergence to Normality—A Central Limit Theorem 262
12.5 Least Squares Estimation 265
12.5.1 Asymptotic Properties of Least Squares 265
12.5.2 Estimating the Variance of the Least Squares Estimator 266
12.6 GMM Estimation 268
12.7 Testing for Autocorrelation 268
12.7.1 Lagrange Multiplier Test 269
12.7.2 Box and Pierce’s Test and Ljung’s Refinement 269
12.7.3 The Durbin–Watson Test 270
12.7.4 Testing in the Presence of a Lagged Dependent Variables 270
12.7.5 Summary of Testing Procedures 271
12.8 Efficient Estimation When Is Known 271
12.9 Estimation When Is Unknown 273
12.9.3 Application: Estimation of a Model with Autocorrelation 274
12.9.4 Estimation with a Lagged Dependent Variable 277
12.10 Common Factors 278
12.11 Forecasting in the Presence of Autocorrelation 279
CHAPTER 13 Models for Panel Data 283
13.2 Panel Data Models 283
13.3 Fixed Effects 287
13.3.1 Testing the Significance of the Group Effects 289
13.3.2 The Within- and Between-Groups Estimators 289
13.3.3 Fixed Time and Group Effects 291
13.3.4 Unbalanced Panels and Fixed Effects 293
13.4 Random Effects 293
13.4.1 Generalized Least Squares 295
13.4.2 Feasible Generalized Least Squares When Is Unknown 296
13.4.3 Testing for Random Effects 298
13.4.4 Hausman’s Specification Test for the Random Effects
Model 301
13.5 Instrumental Variables Estimation of the Random Effects Model 303
13.6 GMM Estimation of Dynamic Panel Data Models 307
13.7 Nonspherical Disturbances and Robust Covariance Estimation 314
13.7.1 Robust Estimation of the Fixed Effects Model 314

Contents xv
13.7.2 Heteroscedasticity in the Random Effects Model 316
13.7.3 Autocorrelation in Panel Data Models 317
13.8 Random Coefficients Models 318
13.9 Covariance Structures for Pooled Time-Series Cross-Sectional
Data 320
13.9.1 Generalized Least Squares Estimation 321
13.9.2 Feasible GLS Estimation 322
13.9.3 Heteroscedasticity and the Classical Model 323
13.9.4 Specification Tests 323
13.9.5 Autocorrelation 324
13.9.7 Application to Grunfeld’s Investment Data 329
13.9.8 Summary 333
CHAPTER 14 Systems of Regression Equations 339
14.2 The Seemingly Unrelated Regressions Model 340
14.2.1 Generalized Least Squares 341
14.2.2 Seemingly Unrelated Regressions with Identical Regressors 343
14.2.3 Feasible Generalized Least Squares 344
14.2.5 An Application from Financial Econometrics:
The Capital Asset Pricing Model 351
14.2.6 Maximum Likelihood Estimation of the Seemingly Unrelated
Regressions Model with a Block of Zeros in the
Coefficient Matrix 357
14.2.7 Autocorrelation and Heteroscedasticity 360
14.3 Systems of Demand Equations: Singular Systems 362
14.3.1 Cobb–Douglas Cost Function 363
14.3.2 Flexible Functional Forms: The Translog Cost Function 366
14.4 Nonlinear Systems and GMM Estimation 369
14.4.1 GLS Estimation 370
14.4.3 GMM Estimation 372
CHAPTER 15 Simultaneous-Equations Models 378
15.2 Fundamental Issues in Simultaneous-Equations Models 378
15.2.1 Illustrative Systems of Equations 378
15.2.2 Endogeneity and Causality 381
15.2.3 A General Notation for Linear Simultaneous Equations
Models 382
15.3 The Problem of Identification 385

xvi Contents
15.3.1 The Rank and Order Conditions for Identification 389
15.3.2 Identification Through Other Nonsample Information 394
15.3.3 Identification Through Covariance Restrictions—The Fully
Recursive Model 394
15.4 Methods of Estimation 396
15.5 Single Equation: Limited Information Estimation Methods 396
15.5.1 Ordinary Least Squares 396
15.5.2 Estimation by Instrumental Variables 397
15.5.3 Two-Stage Least Squares 398
15.5.5 Limited Information Maximum Likelihood and the k Class of
Estimators 401
15.5.6 Two-Stage Least Squares in Models That Are Nonlinear in
Variables 403
15.6 System Methods of Estimation 404
15.6.1 Three-Stage Least Squares 405
15.6.2 Full-Information Maximum Likelihood 407
15.6.4 Recursive Systems and Exactly Identified Equations 411
15.7 Comparison of Methods—Klein’s Model I 411
15.8 Specification Tests 413
15.9 Properties of Dynamic Models 415
15.9.1 Dynamic Models and Their Multipliers 415
15.9.2 Stability 417
15.9.3 Adjustment to Equilibrium 418
CHAPTER 16 Estimation Frameworks in Econometrics 425
16.2 Parametric Estimation and Inference 427
16.2.1 Classical Likelihood Based Estimation 428
16.2.2 Bayesian Estimation 429
16.2.2.a Bayesian Analysis of the Classical Regression Model 430
16.2.2.b Point Estimation 434
16.2.2.c Interval Estimation 435
16.2.2.d Estimation with an Informative Prior Density 435
16.2.2.e Hypothesis Testing 437
16.2.3 Using Bayes Theorem in a Classical Estimation Problem: The
Latent Class Model 439
16.2.4 Hierarchical Bayes Estimation of a Random Parameters Model
by Markov Chain Monte Carlo Simulation 444
16.3 Semiparametric Estimation 447
16.3.1 GMM Estimation in Econometrics 447
16.3.2 Least Absolute Deviations Estimation 448

Contents xvii
16.3.3 Partially Linear Regression 450
16.3.4 Kernel Density Methods 452
16.4 Nonparametric Estimation 453
16.4.1 Kernel Density Estimation 453
16.4.2 Nonparametric Regression 457
16.5 Properties of Estimators 460
16.5.1 Statistical Properties of Estimators 460
16.5.2 Extremum Estimators 461
16.5.3 Assumptions for Asymptotic Properties of Extremum
Estimators 461
16.5.4 Asymptotic Properties of Estimators 464
16.5.5 Testing Hypotheses 465
CHAPTER 17 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 468
17.2 The Likelihood Function and Identification of the Parameters 468
17.3 Efficient Estimation: The Principle of Maximum Likelihood 470
17.4 Properties of Maximum Likelihood Estimators 472
17.4.1 Regularity Conditions 473
17.4.2 Properties of Regular Densities 474
17.4.3 The Likelihood Equation 476
17.4.4 The Information Matrix Equality 476
17.4.5 Asymptotic Properties of the Maximum
Likelihood Estimator 476
17.4.5.a Consistency 477
17.4.5.b Asymptotic Normality 478
17.4.5.c Asymptotic Efficiency 479
17.4.5.d Invariance 480
17.4.5.e Conclusion 480
17.4.6 Estimating the Asymptotic Variance of the Maximum
Likelihood Estimator 480
17.4.7 Conditional Likelihoods and Econometric Models 482
17.5 Three Asymptotically Equivalent Test Procedures 484
17.5.1 The Likelihood Ratio Test 484
17.5.2 The Wald Test 486
17.5.3 The Lagrange Multiplier Test 489
17.5.4 An Application of the Likelihood Based Test Procedures 490
17.6 Applications of Maximum Likelihood Estimation 492
17.6.1 The Normal Linear Regression Model 492
17.6.2 Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Nonlinear
Regression Models 496
17.6.3 Nonnormal Disturbances—The Stochastic Frontier Model 501
17.6.4 Conditional Moment Tests of Specification 505

xviii Contents
17.7 Two-Step Maximum Likelihood Estimation 508
17.8 Maximum Simulated Likelihood Estimation 512
17.9 Pseudo-Maximum Likelihood Estimation and Robust Asymptotic
Covariance Matrices 518
CHAPTER 18 The Generalized Method of Moments 525
18.2 Consistent Estimation: The Method of Moments 526
18.2.1 Random Sampling and Estimating the Parameters of
Distributions 527
18.2.2 Asymptotic Properties of the Method of Moments
Estimator 531
18.2.3 Summary—The Method of Moments 533
18.3 The Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) Estimator 533
18.3.1 Estimation Based on Orthogonality Conditions 534
18.3.2 Generalizing the Method of Moments 536
18.3.3 Properties of the GMM Estimator 540
18.3.4 GMM Estimation of Some Specific Econometric Models 544
18.4 Testing Hypotheses in the GMM Framework 548
18.4.1 Testing the Validity of the Moment Restrictions 548
18.4.2 GMM Counterparts to the Wald, LM, and LR Tests 549
18.5 Application: GMM Estimation of a Dynamic Panel Data Model of
Local Government Expenditures 551
CHAPTER 19 Models with Lagged Variables 558
19.2 Dynamic Regression Models 559
19.2.1 Lagged Effects in a Dynamic Model 560
19.2.2 The Lag and Difference Operators 562
19.2.3 Specification Search for the Lag Length 564
19.3 Simple Distributed Lag Models 565
19.3.1 Finite Distributed Lag Models 565
19.3.2 An Infinite Lag Model: The Geometric Lag Model 566
19.4 Autoregressive Distributed Lag Models 571
19.4.1 Estimation of the ARDL Model 572
19.4.2 Computation of the Lag Weights in the ARDL
Model 573
19.4.3 Stability of a Dynamic Equation 573
19.4.4 Forecasting 576
19.5 Methodological Issues in the Analysis of Dynamic Models 579
19.5.1 An Error Correction Model 579
19.5.2 Autocorrelation 581

Contents xix
19.5.3 Specification Analysis 582
19.5.4 Common Factor Restrictions 583
19.6 Vector Autoregressions 586
19.6.1 Model Forms 587
19.6.2 Estimation 588
19.6.3 Testing Procedures 589
19.6.4 Exogeneity 590
19.6.5 Testing for Granger Causality 592
19.6.6 Impulse Response Functions 593
19.6.7 Structural VARs 595
19.6.8 Application: Policy Analysis with a VAR 596
19.6.9 VARs in Microeconomics 602
CHAPTER 20 Time-Series Models 608
20.2 Stationary Stochastic Processes 609
20.2.1 Autoregressive Moving-Average Processes 609
20.2.2 Stationarity and Invertibility 611
20.2.3 Autocorrelations of a Stationary Stochastic Process 614
20.2.4 Partial Autocorrelations of a Stationary Stochastic
Process 617
20.2.5 Modeling Univariate Time Series 619
20.2.6 Estimation of the Parameters of a Univariate Time
Series 621
20.2.7 The Frequency Domain 624
20.2.7.a Theoretical Results 625
20.2.7.b Empirical Counterparts 627
20.3 Nonstationary Processes and Unit Roots 631
20.3.1 Integrated Processes and Differencing 631
20.3.2 Random Walks, Trends, and Spurious Regressions 632
20.3.3 Tests for Unit Roots in Economic Data 636
20.3.4 The Dickey–Fuller Tests 637
20.3.5 Long Memory Models 647
20.4 Cointegration 649
20.4.1 Common Trends 653
20.4.2 Error Correction and VAR Representations 654
20.4.3 Testing for Cointegration 655
20.4.4 Estimating Cointegration Relationships 657
20.4.5 Application: German Money Demand 657
20.4.5.a Cointegration Analysis and a Long Run
Theoretical Model 659
20.4.5.b Testing for Model Instability 659

xx Contents
CHAPTER 21 Models for Discrete Choice 663
21.2 Discrete Choice Models 663
21.3 Models for Binary Choice 665
21.3.1 The Regression Approach 665
21.3.2 Latent Regression—Index Function Models 668
21.3.3 Random Utility Models 670
21.4 Estimation and Inference in Binary Choice Models 670
21.4.1 Robust Covariance Matrix Estimation 673
21.4.2 Marginal Effects 674
21.4.3 Hypothesis Tests 676
21.4.4 Specification Tests for Binary Choice Models 679
21.4.4.a Omitted Variables 680
21.4.4.b Heteroscedasticity 680
21.4.4.c A Specification Test for Nonnested Models—Testing
for the Distribution 682
21.4.5 Measuring Goodness of Fit 683
21.4.6 Analysis of Proportions Data 686
21.5 Extensions of the Binary Choice Model 689
21.5.1 Random and Fixed Effects Models for Panel Data 689
21.5.1.a Random Effects Models 690
21.5.1.b Fixed Effects Models 695
21.5.2 Semiparametric Analysis 700
21.5.3 The Maximum Score Estimator (MSCORE) 702
21.5.4 Semiparametric Estimation 704
21.5.5 A Kernel Estimator for a Nonparametric Regression
Function 706
21.5.6 Dynamic Binary Choice Models 708
21.6 Bivariate and Multivariate Probit Models 710
21.6.2 Testing for Zero Correlation 712
21.6.3 Marginal Effects 712
21.6.4 Sample Selection 713
21.6.5 A Multivariate Probit Model 714
21.6.6 Application: Gender Economics Courses in Liberal
Arts Colleges 715
21.7 Logit Models for Multiple Choices 719
21.7.1 The Multinomial Logit Model 720
21.7.2 The Conditional Logit Model 723
21.7.3 The Independence from Irrelevant Alternatives 724
21.7.4 Nested Logit Models 725
21.7.5 A Heteroscedastic Logit Model 727
21.7.6 Multinomial Models Based on the Normal Distribution 727
21.7.7 A Random Parameters Model 728

Contents xxi
21.7.8 Application: Conditional Logit Model for Travel
Mode Choice 729
21.8 Ordered Data 736
21.9 Models for Count Data 740
21.9.1 Measuring Goodness of Fit 741
21.9.2 Testing for Overdispersion 743
21.9.3 Heterogeneity and the Negative Binomial
21.9.4 Application: The Poisson Regression Model 745
21.9.5 Poisson Models for Panel Data 747
21.9.6 Hurdle and Zero-Altered Poisson Models 749
CHAPTER 22 Limited Dependent Variable and Duration Models 756
22.2 Truncation 756
22.2.1 Truncated Distributions 757
22.2.2 Moments of Truncated Distributions 758
22.2.3 The Truncated Regression Model 760
22.3 Censored Data 761
22.3.1 The Censored Normal Distribution 762
22.3.2 The Censored Regression (Tobit) Model 764
22.3.4 Some Issues in Specification 768
22.3.4.a Heteroscedasticity 768
22.3.4.b Misspecification of Prob[y* 0] 770
22.3.4.c Nonnormality 771
22.3.4.d Conditional Moment Tests 772
22.3.5 Censoring and Truncation in Models for Counts 773
22.3.6 Application: Censoring in the Tobit and Poisson
Regression Models 774
22.4 The Sample Selection Model 780
22.4.1 Incidental Truncation in a Bivariate Distribution 781
22.4.2 Regression in a Model of Selection 782
22.4.4 Treatment Effects 787
22.4.5 The Normality Assumption 789
22.4.6 Selection in Qualitative Response Models 790
22.5 Models for Duration Data 790
22.5.1 Duration Data 791
22.5.2 A Regression-Like Approach: Parametric Models
of Duration 792
22.5.2.a Theoretical Background 792
22.5.2.b Models of the Hazard Function 793
22.5.2.c Maximum Likelihood Estimation 794

xxii Contents
22.5.2.d Exogenous Variables 796
22.5.2.e Heterogeneity 797
22.5.3 Other Approaches 798
APPENDIX A Matrix Algebra 803
A.1 Terminology 803
A.2 Algebraic Manipulation of Matrices 803
A.2.1 Equality of Matrices 803
A.2.2 Transposition 804
A.2.3 Matrix Addition 804
A.2.4 Vector Multiplication 805
A.2.5 A Notation for Rows and Columns of a Matrix 805
A.2.6 Matrix Multiplication and Scalar Multiplication 805
A.2.7 Sums of Values 807
A.2.8 A Useful Idempotent Matrix 808
A.3 Geometry of Matrices 809
A.3.1 Vector Spaces 809
A.3.2 Linear Combinations of Vectors and Basis Vectors 811
A.3.3 Linear Dependence 811
A.3.4 Subspaces 813
A.3.5 Rank of a Matrix 814
A.3.6 Determinant of a Matrix 816
A.3.7 A Least Squares Problem 817
A.4 Solution of a System of Linear Equations 819
A.4.1 Systems of Linear Equations 819
A.4.2 Inverse Matrices 820
A.4.3 Nonhomogeneous Systems of Equations 822
A.4.4 Solving the Least Squares Problem 822
A.5 Partitioned Matrices 822
A.5.1 Addition and Multiplication of Partitioned Matrices 823
A.5.2 Determinants of Partitioned Matrices 823
A.5.3 Inverses of Partitioned Matrices 823
A.5.4 Deviations from Means 824
A.5.5 Kronecker Products 824
A.6 Characteristic Roots and Vectors 825
A.6.1 The Characteristic Equation 825
A.6.2 Characteristic Vectors 826
A.6.3 General Results for Characteristic Roots and Vectors 826
A.6.4 Diagonalization and Spectral Decomposition of a Matrix 827
A.6.5 Rank of a Matrix 827
A.6.6 Condition Number of a Matrix 829
A.6.7 Trace of a Matrix 829
A.6.8 Determinant of a Matrix 830
A.6.9 Powers of a Matrix 830

Contents xxiii
A.6.10 Idempotent Matrices 832
A.6.11 Factoring a Matrix 832
A.6.12 The Generalized Inverse of a Matrix 833
A.7 Quadratic Forms and Definite Matrices 834
A.7.1 Nonnegative Definite Matrices 835
A.7.2 Idempotent Quadratic Forms 836
A.7.3 Comparing Matrices 836
A.8 Calculus and Matrix Algebra 837
A.8.1 Differentiation and the Taylor Series 837
A.8.2 Optimization 840
A.8.3 Constrained Optimization 842
A.8.4 Transformations 844
APPENDIX B Probability and Distribution Theory 845
B.1 Introduction 845
B.2 Random Variables 845
B.2.1 Probability Distributions 845
B.2.2 Cumulative Distribution Function 846
B.3 Expectations of a Random Variable 847
B.4 Some Specific Probability Distributions 849
B.4.1 The Normal Distribution 849
B.4.2 The Chi-Squared, t, and F Distributions 851
B.4.3 Distributions With Large Degrees of Freedom 853
B.4.4 Size Distributions: The Lognormal Distribution 854
B.4.5 The Gamma and Exponential Distributions 855
B.4.6 The Beta Distribution 855
B.4.7 The Logistic Distribution 855
B.4.8 Discrete Random Variables 855
B.5 The Distribution of a Function of a Random Variable 856
B.6 Representations of a Probability Distribution 858
B.7 Joint Distributions 860
B.7.1 Marginal Distributions 860
B.7.2 Expectations in a Joint Distribution 861
B.7.3 Covariance and Correlation 861
B.7.4 Distribution of a Function of Bivariate Random Variables 862
B.8 Conditioning in a Bivariate Distribution 864
B.8.1 Regression: The Conditional Mean 864
B.8.2 Conditional Variance 865
B.8.3 Relationships Among Marginal and Conditional
Moments 865
B.8.4 The Analysis of Variance 867
B.9 The Bivariate Normal Distribution 867
B.10 Multivariate Distributions 868
B.10.1 Moments 868

xxiv Contents
B.10.2 Sets of Linear Functions 869
B.10.3 Nonlinear Functions 870
B.11 The Multivariate Normal Distribution 871
B.11.1 Marginal and Conditional Normal Distributions 871
B.11.2 The Classical Normal Linear Regression Model 872
B.11.3 Linear Functions of a Normal Vector 873
B.11.4 Quadratic Forms in a Standard Normal Vector 873
B.11.5 The F Distribution 875
B.11.6 A Full Rank Quadratic Form 875
B.11.7 Independence of a Linear and a Quadratic Form 876
APPENDIX C Estimation and Inference 877
C.1 Introduction 877
C.2 Samples and Random Sampling 878
C.3 Descriptive Statistics 878
C.4 Statistics as Estimators—Sampling Distributions 882
C.5 Point Estimation of Parameters 885
C.5.1 Estimation in a Finite Sample 885
C.5.2 Efficient Unbiased Estimation 888
C.6 Interval Estimation 890
C.7 Hypothesis Testing 892
C.7.1 Classical Testing Procedures 892
C.7.2 Tests Based on Confidence Intervals 895
C.7.3 Specification Tests 896
APPENDIX D Large Sample Distribution Theory 896
D.1 Introduction 896
D.2 Large-Sample Distribution Theory 897
D.2.1 Convergence in Probability 897
D.2.2 Other Forms of Convergence and Laws of Large Numbers 900
D.2.3 Convergence of Functions 903
D.2.4 Convergence to a Random Variable 904
D.2.5 Convergence in Distribution: Limiting Distributions 906
D.2.6 Central Limit Theorems 908
D.2.7 The Delta Method 913
D.3 Asymptotic Distributions 914
D.3.1 Asymptotic Distribution of a Nonlinear Function 916
D.3.2 Asymptotic Expectations 917
D.4 Sequences and the Order of a Sequence 918
APPENDIX E Computation and Optimization 919
E.1 Introduction 919
E.2 Data Input and Generation 920
E.2.1 Generating Pseudo-Random Numbers 920

Contents xxv
E.2.2 Sampling from a Standard Uniform Population 921
E.2.3 Sampling from Continuous Distributions 921
E.2.4 Sampling from a Multivariate Normal Population 922
E.2.5 Sampling from a Discrete Population 922
E.2.6 The Gibbs Sampler 922
E.3 Monte Carlo Studies 923
E.4 Bootstrapping and the Jackknife 924
E.5 Computation in Econometrics 925
E.5.1 Computing Integrals 926
E.5.2 The Standard Normal Cumulative Distribution Function 926
E.5.3 The Gamma and Related Functions 927
E.5.4 Approximating Integrals by Quadrature 928
E.5.5 Monte Carlo Integration 929
E.5.6 Multivariate Normal Probabilities and Simulated
Moments 931
E.5.7 Computing Derivatives 933
E.6 Optimization 933
E.6.1 Algorithms 935
E.6.2 Gradient Methods 935
E.6.3 Aspects of Maximum Likelihood Estimation 939
E.6.4 Optimization with Constraints 941
E.6.5 Some Practical Considerations 942
E.6.6 Examples 943
APPENDIX F Data Sets Used in Applications 946
APPENDIX G Statistical Tables 953
References 959
Author Index 000
Subject Index 000

P R E FA C E
Q
1. THE FIFTH EDITION OF ECONOMETRIC
ANALYSIS
Econometric Analysis is intended for a one-year graduate course in econometrics for
social scientists. The prerequisites for this course should include calculus, mathematical
statistics,andanintroductiontoeconometricsatthelevelof,say,Gujarati’sBasicEcono-
metrics (McGraw-Hill, 1995) or Wooldridge’s Introductory Econometrics: A Modern
Approach [South-Western (2000)]. Self-contained (for our purposes) summaries of the
matrix algebra, mathematical statistics, and statistical theory used later in the book are
given in Appendices A through D. Appendix E contains a description of numerical
methods that will be useful to practicing econometricians. The formal presentation of
econometrics begins with discussion of a fundamental pillar, the linear multiple regres-
sion model, in Chapters 2 through 8. Chapters 9 through 15 present familiar extensions
of the single linear equation model, including nonlinear regression, panel data models,
the generalized regression model, and systems of equations. The linear model is usually
not the sole technique used in most of the contemporary literature. In view of this, the
(expanding) second half of this book is devoted to topics that will extend the linear
regression model in many directions. Chapters 16 through 18 present the techniques
and underlying theory of estimation in econometrics, including GMM and maximum
likelihood estimation methods and simulation based techniques. We end in the last four
chapters, 19 through 22, with discussions of current topics in applied econometrics, in-
cluding time-series analysis and the analysis of discrete choice and limited dependent
variable models.
This book has two objectives. The first is to introduce students to applied econo-
metrics, including basic techniques in regression analysis and some of the rich variety
of models that are used when the linear model proves inadequate or inappropriate.
The second is to present students with sufficient theoretical background that they will
recognize new variants of the models learned about here as merely natural extensions
that fit within a common body of principles. Thus, I have spent what might seem to be
a large amount of effort explaining the mechanics of GMM estimation, nonlinear least
squares, and maximum likelihood estimation and GARCH models. To meet the second
objective, this book also contains a fair amount of theoretical material, such as that on
maximum likelihood estimation and on asymptotic results for regression models. Mod-
ern software has made complicated modeling very easy to do, and an understanding of
the underlying theory is important.
I had several purposes in undertaking this revision. As in the past, readers continue
to send me interesting ideas for my “next edition.” It is impossible to use them all, of
xxvii

xxviii Preface
course. Because the five volumes of the Handbook of Econometrics and two of the
Handbook of Applied Econometrics already run to over 4,000 pages, it is also unneces-
sary. Nonetheless, this revision is appropriate for several reasons. First, there are new
and interesting developments in the field, particularly in the areas of microeconometrics
(panel data, models for discrete choice) and, of course, in time series, which continues
its rapid development. Second, I have taken the opportunity to continue fine-tuning the
text as the experience and shared wisdom of my readers accumulates in my files. For this
revision, that adjustment has entailed a substantial rearrangement of the material—the
main purpose of that was to allow me to add the new material in a more compact and
orderly way than I could have with the table of contents in the 4th edition. The litera-
ture in econometrics has continued to evolve, and my third objective is to grow with it.
This purpose is inherently difficult to accomplish in a textbook. Most of the literature is
written by professionals for other professionals, and this textbook is written for students
who are in the early stages of their training. But I do hope to provide a bridge to that
literature, both theoretical and applied.
This book is a broad survey of the field of econometrics. This field grows con-
tinually, and such an effort becomes increasingly difficult. (A partial list of journals
devoted at least in part, if not completely, to econometrics now includes the Journal
of Applied Econometrics, Journal of Econometrics, Econometric Theory, Econometric
Reviews, Journal of Business and Economic Statistics, Empirical Economics, and Econo-
metrica.) Still, my view has always been that the serious student of the field must start
somewhere, and one can successfully seek that objective in a single textbook. This text
attempts to survey, at an entry level, enough of the fields in econometrics that a student
can comfortably move from here to practice or more advanced study in one or more
specialized areas. At the same time, I have tried to present the material in sufficient
generality that the reader is also able to appreciate the important common foundation
of all these fields and to use the tools that they all employ.
There are now quite a few recently published texts in econometrics. Several have
gathered in compact, elegant treatises, the increasingly advanced and advancing theo-
retical background of econometrics. Others, such as this book, focus more attention on
applications of econometrics. One feature that distinguishes this work from its prede-
cessors is its greater emphasis on nonlinear models. [Davidson and MacKinnon (1993)
is a noteworthy, but more advanced, exception.] Computer software now in wide use
has made estimation of nonlinear models as routine as estimation of linear ones, and the
recent literature reflects that progression. My purpose is to provide a textbook treat-
ment that is in line with current practice. The book concludes with four lengthy chapters
on time-series analysis, discrete choice models and limited dependent variable models.
These nonlinear models are now the staples of the applied econometrics literature. This
book also contains a fair amount of material that will extend beyond many first courses
in econometrics, including, perhaps, the aforementioned chapters on limited dependent
variables, the section in Chapter 22 on duration models, and some of the discussions
of time series and panel data models. Once again, I have included these in the hope of
providing a bridge to the professional literature in these areas.
I have had one overriding purpose that has motivated all five editions of this work.
For the vast majority of readers of books such as this, whose ambition is to use, not
develop econometrics, I believe that it is simply not sufficient to recite the theory of
estimation, hypothesis testing and econometric analysis. Understanding the often subtle

Preface xxix
background theory is extremely important. But, at the end of the day, my purpose in
writing this work, and for my continuing efforts to update it in this now fifth edition,
is to show readers how to do econometric analysis. I unabashedly accept the unflatter-
ing assessment of a correspondent who once likened this book to a “user’s guide to
econometrics.”
2. SOFTWARE AND DATA
There are many computer programs that are widely used for the computations described
in this book. All were written by econometricians or statisticians, and in general, all
are regularly updated to incorporate new developments in applied econometrics. A
sampling of the most widely used packages and Internet home pages where you can
find information about them are:
E-Views www.eviews.com (QMS, Irvine, Calif.)
Gauss www.aptech.com (Aptech Systems, Kent, Wash.)
LIMDEP www.limdep.com (Econometric Software, Plainview, N.Y.)
RATS www.estima.com (Estima, Evanston, Ill.)
SAS www.sas.com (SAS, Cary, N.C.)
Shazam shazam.econ.ubc.ca (Ken White, UBC, Vancouver, B.C.)
Stata www.stata.com (Stata, College Station, Tex.)
TSP www.tspintl.com (TSP International, Stanford, Calif.)
Programs vary in size, complexity, cost, the amount of programming required of the user,
and so on. Journals such as The American Statistician, The Journal of Applied Econo-
metrics, and The Journal of Economic Surveys regularly publish reviews of individual
packages and comparative surveys of packages, usually with reference to particular
functionality such as panel data analysis or forecasting.
With only a few exceptions, the computations described in this book can be carried
out with any of these packages. We hesitate to link this text to any of them in partic-
ular. We have placed for general access a customized version of LIMDEP, which was
also written by the author, on the website for this text, http://www.stern.nyu.edu/
∼wgreene/Text/econometricanalysis.htm. LIMDEP programs used for many of
the computations are posted on the sites as well.
The data sets used in the examples are also on the website. Throughout the text,
these data sets are referred to “TableFn.m,” for example Table F4.1. The F refers to
Appendix F at the back of the text, which contains descriptions of the data sets. The
actual data are posted on the website with the other supplementary materials for the
text. (The data sets are also replicated in the system format of most of the commonly
used econometrics computer programs, including in addition to LIMDEP, SAS, TSP,
SPSS, E-Views, and Stata, so that you can easily import them into whatever program
you might be using.)
I should also note, there are now thousands of interesting websites containing soft-
ware, data sets, papers, and commentary on econometrics. It would be hopeless to
attempt any kind of a survey here. But, I do note one which is particularly agree-
ably structured and well targeted for readers of this book, the data archive for the

xxx Preface
Journal of Applied Econometrics. This journal publishes many papers that are precisely
at the right level for readers of this text. They have archived all the nonconfidential
data sets used in their publications since 1994. This useful archive can be found at
http://qed.econ.queensu.ca/jae/.
3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to express my appreciation to those who have influenced this work. I am
grateful to Arthur Goldberger and Arnold Zellner for their encouragement, guidance,
and always interesting correspondence. Dennis Aigner and Laurits Christensen were
also influential in shaping my views on econometrics. Some collaborators to the earlier
editions whose contributions remain in this one include Aline Quester, David Hensher,
and Donald Waldman. The number of students and colleagues whose suggestions have
helped to produce what you find here is far too large to allow me to thank them all
individually. I would like to acknowledge the many reviewers of my work whose care-
ful reading has vastly improved the book: Badi Baltagi, University of Houston: Neal
Beck, University of California at San Diego; Diane Belleville, Columbia University;
Anil Bera, University of Illinois; John Burkett, University of Rhode Island; Leonard
Carlson, Emory University; Frank Chaloupka, City University of New York; Chris
Cornwell, University of Georgia; Mitali Das, Columbia University; Craig Depken II,
University of Texas at Arlington; Edward Dwyer, Clemson University; Michael Ellis,
Wesleyan University; Martin Evans, New York University; Ed Greenberg, Washington
University at St. Louis; Miguel Herce, University of North Carolina; K. Rao Kadiyala,
Purdue University; Tong Li, Indiana University; Lubomir Litov, New York University;
William Lott, University of Connecticut; Edward Mathis, Villanova University; Mary
McGarvey, University of Nebraska-Lincoln; Ed Melnick, New York University; Thad
Mirer, State University of New York at Albany; Paul Ruud, University of California at
Berkeley; Sherrie Rhine, Chicago Federal Reserve Board; Terry G. Seaks, University
of North Carolina at Greensboro; Donald Snyder, California State University at Los
Angeles; Steven Stern, University of Virginia; Houston Stokes, University of Illinois
at Chicago; Dimitrios Thomakos, Florida International University; Paul Wachtel, New
York University; Mark Watson, Harvard University; and Kenneth West, University
of Wisconsin. My numerous discussions with B. D. McCullough have improved Ap-
pendix E and at the same time increased my appreciation for numerical analysis. I
am especially grateful to Jan Kiviet of the University of Amsterdam, who subjected
my third edition to a microscopic examination and provided literally scores of sugges-
tions, virtually all of which appear herein. Chapters 19 and 20 have also benefited from
previous reviews by Frank Diebold, B. D. McCullough, Mary McGarvey, and Nagesh
Revankar. I would also like to thank Rod Banister, Gladys Soto, Cindy Regan, Mike
Reynolds, Marie McHale, Lisa Amato, and Torie Anderson at Prentice Hall for their
contributions to the completion of this book. As always, I owe the greatest debt to my
wife, Lynne, and to my daughters, Lesley, Allison, Elizabeth, and Julianna.
William H. Greene

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 10:36
1
INTRODUCTION
Q
1.1 ECONOMETRICS
In the first issue of Econometrica, the Econometric Society stated that
its main object shall be to promote studies that aim at a unification of the
theoretical-quantitative and the empirical-quantitative approach to economic
problems and that are penetrated by constructive and rigorous thinking similar
to that which has come to dominate the natural sciences.
But there are several aspects of the quantitative approach to economics, and
no single one of these aspects taken by itself, should be confounded with econo-
metrics. Thus, econometrics is by no means the same as economic statistics. Nor
is it identical with what we call general economic theory, although a consider-
able portion of this theory has a definitely quantitative character. Nor should
econometrics be taken as synonomous [sic] with the application of mathematics
to economics. Experience has shown that each of these three viewpoints, that
of statistics, economic theory, and mathematics, is a necessary, but not by itself
a sufficient, condition for a real understanding of the quantitative relations in
modern economic life. It is the unification of all three that is powerful. And it
is this unification that constitutes econometrics.
Frisch (1933) and his society responded to an unprecedented accumulation of statisti-
cal information. They saw a need to establish a body of principles that could organize
what would otherwise become a bewildering mass of data. Neither the pillars nor the
objectives of econometrics have changed in the years since this editorial appeared.
Econometrics is the field of economics that concerns itself with the application of math-
ematical statistics and the tools of statistical inference to the empirical measurement of
relationships postulated by economic theory.
1.2 ECONOMETRIC MODELING
Econometric analysis will usually begin with a statement of a theoretical proposition.
Consider, for example, a canonical application:
Example 1.1 Keynes’s Consumption Function
From Keynes’s (1936) General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money:
We shall therefore define what we shall call the propensity to consume as the func-
tional relationship f between X, a given level of income and C, the expenditure on
consumption out of the level of income, so that C = f ( X).
The amount that the community spends on consumption depends (i) partly on
the amount of its income, (ii) partly on other objective attendant circumstances, and
1

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 10:36
2 CHAPTER 1 ✦ Introduction
(iii) partly on the subjective needs and the psychological propensities and habits of
the individuals composing it. The fundamental psychological law upon which we are
entitled to depend with great confidence, both a priori from our knowledge of human
nature and from the detailed facts of experience, is that men are disposed, as a rule
and on the average, to increase their consumption as their income increases, but not
by as much as the increase in their income.1
That is, . . . dC/dX is positive and less
than unity.
But, apart from short period changes in the level of income, it is also obvious that
a higher absolute level of income will tend as a rule to widen the gap between income
and consumption. . . . These reasons will lead, as a rule, to a greater proportion of
income being saved as real income increases.
The theory asserts a relationship between consumption and income, C = f ( X), and claims
in the third paragraph that the marginal propensity to consume (MPC), dC/dX, is between
0 and 1. The final paragraph asserts that the average propensity to consume (APC), C/X,
falls as income rises, or d(C/X)/dX = (MPC − APC)/X 0. It follows that MPC APC.
The most common formulation of the consumption function is a linear relationship, C =
α + βX, that satisfies Keynes’s “laws” if β lies between zero and one and if α is greater
than zero.
These theoretical propositions provide the basis for an econometric study. Given an ap-
propriate data set, we could investigate whether the theory appears to be consistent with
the observed “facts.” For example, we could see whether the linear specification appears to
be a satisfactory description of the relationship between consumption and income, and, if
so, whether α is positive and β is between zero and one. Some issues that might be stud-
ied are (1) whether this relationship is stable through time or whether the parameters of the
relationship change from one generation to the next (a change in the average propensity to
save, 1—APC, might represent a fundamental change in the behavior of consumers in the
economy); (2) whether there are systematic differences in the relationship across different
countries, and, if so, what explains these differences; and (3) whether there are other factors
that would improve the ability of the model to explain the relationship between consumption
and income. For example, Figure 1.1 presents aggregate consumption and personal income
in constant dollars for the U.S. for the 10 years of 1970–1979. (See Appendix Table F1.1.)
Apparently, at least superficially, the data (the facts) are consistent with the theory. The rela-
tionship appears to be linear, albeit only approximately, the intercept of a line that lies close
to most of the points is positive and the slope is less than one, although not by much.
Economic theories such as Keynes’s are typically crisp and unambiguous. Models
of demand, production, and aggregate consumption all specify precise, deterministic
relationships. Dependent and independent variables are identified, a functional form is
specified, and in most cases, at least a qualitative statement is made about the directions
of effects that occur when independent variables in the model change. Of course, the
model is only a simplification of reality. It will include the salient features of the rela-
tionship of interest, but will leave unaccounted for influences that might well be present
but are regarded as unimportant. No model could hope to encompass the myriad essen-
tially random aspects of economic life. It is thus also necessary to incorporate stochastic
elements. As a consequence, observations on a dependent variable will display varia-
tion attributable not only to differences in variables that are explicitly accounted for,
but also to the randomness of human behavior and the interaction of countless minor
influences that are not. It is understood that the introduction of a random “disturbance”
into a deterministic model is not intended merely to paper over its inadequacies. It is
1Modern economists are rarely this confident about their theories. More contemporary applications generally
begin from first principles and behavioral axioms, rather than simple observation.

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 10:36
CHAPTER 1 ✦ Introduction 3
700
650
750 800 850
X
900 950 1000 1050
700
750
800
C
850
900
950
FIGURE 1.1 Consumption Data, 1970–1979.
essential to examine the results of the study, in a sort of postmortem, to ensure that the
allegedly random, unexplained factor is truly unexplainable. If it is not, the model is, in
fact, inadequate. The stochastic element endows the model with its statistical proper-
ties. Observations on the variable(s) under study are thus taken to be the outcomes of
a random process. With a sufficiently detailed stochastic structure and adequate data,
the analysis will become a matter of deducing the properties of a probability distri-
bution. The tools and methods of mathematical statistics will provide the operating
principles.
A model (or theory) can never truly be confirmed unless it is made so broad as to
include every possibility. But it may be subjected to ever more rigorous scrutiny and,
in the face of contradictory evidence, refuted. A deterministic theory will be invali-
dated by a single contradictory observation. The introduction of stochastic elements
into the model changes it from an exact statement to a probabilistic description about
expected outcomes and carries with it an important implication. Only a preponder-
ance of contradictory evidence can convincingly invalidate the probabilistic model, and
what constitutes a “preponderance of evidence” is a matter of interpretation. Thus, the
probabilistic model is less precise but at the same time, more robust.2
The process of econometric analysis departs from the specification of a theoreti-
cal relationship. We initially proceed on the optimistic assumption that we can obtain
precise measurements on all the variables in a correctly specified model. If the ideal
conditions are met at every step, the subsequent analysis will probably be routine.
Unfortunately, they rarely are. Some of the difficulties one can expect to encounter are
the following:
2See Keuzenkamp and Magnus (1995) for a lengthy symposium on testing in econometrics.

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 10:36
• The data may be badly measured or may correspond only vaguely to the variables
in the model. “The interest rate” is one example.
• Some of the variables may be inherently unmeasurable. “Expectations” are a case
in point.
• The theory may make only a rough guess as to the correct functional form, if it
makes any at all, and we may be forced to choose from an embarrassingly long
menu of possibilities.
• The assumed stochastic properties of the random terms in the model may be
demonstrably violated, which may call into question the methods of estimation
and inference procedures we have used.
• Some relevant variables may be missing from the model.
The ensuing steps of the analysis consist of coping with these problems and attempting
to cull whatever information is likely to be present in such obviously imperfect data.
The methodology is that of mathematical statistics and economic theory. The product
is an econometric model.
1.3 DATA AND METHODOLOGY
The connection between underlying behavioral models and the modern practice of
econometrics is increasingly strong. Practitioners rely heavily on the theoretical tools
of microeconomics including utility maximization, profit maximization, and market
equilibrium. Macroeconomic model builders rely on the interactions between economic
agents and policy makers. The analyses are directed at subtle, difficult questions that
often require intricate, complicated formulations. A few applications:
• What are the likely effects on labor supply behavior of proposed negative income
taxes? [Ashenfelter and Heckman (1974).]
• Does a monetary policy regime that is strongly oriented toward controlling
inflation impose a real cost in terms of lost output on the U.S. economy?
[Cecchetti and Rich (2001).]
• Did 2001’s largest federal tax cut in U.S. history contribute to or dampen the
concurrent recession? Or was it irrelevant? (Still to be analyzed.)
• Does attending an elite college bring an expected payoff in lifetime expected
income sufficient to justify the higher tuition? [Krueger and Dale (2001) and
Krueger (2002).]
• Does a voluntary training program produce tangible benefits? Can these benefits
be accurately measured? [Angrist (2001).]
Each of these analyses would depart from a formal model of the process underlying the
observed data.
The field of econometrics is large and rapidly growing. In one dimension, we
can distinguish between theoretical and applied econometrics. Theorists develop new
techniques and analyze the consequences of applying particular methods when the as-
sumptions that justify them are not met. Applied econometricians are the users of these
techniques and the analysts of data (real world and simulated). Of course, the distinction
is far from clean; practitioners routinely develop new analytical tools for the purposes of

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 10:36
CHAPTER 1 ✦ Introduction 5
the study that they are involved in. This book contains a heavy dose of theory, but it is di-
rected toward applied econometrics. I have attempted to survey techniques, admittedly
some quite elaborate and intricate, that have seen wide use “in the field.”
Another loose distinction can be made between microeconometrics and macro-
econometrics. The former is characterized largely by its analysis of cross section and
panel data and by its focus on individual consumers, firms, and micro-level decision mak-
ers. Macroeconometrics is generally involved in the analysis of time series data, usually
of broad aggregates such as price levels, the money supply, exchange rates, output, and
so on. Once again, the boundaries are not sharp. The very large field of financial econo-
metrics is concerned with long-time series data and occasionally vast panel data sets,
but with a very focused orientation toward models of individual behavior. The analysis
of market returns and exchange rate behavior is neither macro- nor microeconometric
in nature, or perhaps it is some of both. Another application that we will examine in
this text concerns spending patterns of municipalities, which, again, rests somewhere
between the two fields.
Applied econometric methods will be used for estimation of important quantities,
analysis of economic outcomes, markets or individual behavior, testing theories, and for
forecasting. The last of these is an art and science in itself, and (fortunately) the subject
of a vast library of sources. Though we will briefly discuss some aspects of forecasting,
our interest in this text will be on estimation and analysis of models. The presentation,
where there is a distinction to be made, will contain a blend of microeconometric and
macroeconometric techniques and applications. The first 18 chapters of the book are
largely devoted to results that form the platform of both areas. Chapters 19 and 20 focus
on time series modeling while Chapters 21 and 22 are devoted to methods more suited
to cross sections and panels, and used more frequently in microeconometrics. Save for
some brief applications, we will not be spending much time on financial econometrics.
For those with an interest in this field, I would recommend the celebrated work by
Campbell, Lo, and Mackinlay (1997). It is also necessary to distinguish between time
series analysis (which is not our focus) and methods that primarily use time series data.
The former is, like forecasting, a growth industry served by its own literature in many
fields. While we will employ some of the techniques of time series analysis, we will spend
relatively little time developing first principles.
The techniques used in econometrics have been employed in a widening variety
of fields, including political methodology, sociology [see, e.g., Long (1997)], health eco-
nomics, medical research (how do we handle attrition from medical treatment studies?)
environmental economics, transportation engineering, and numerous others. Practi-
tioners in these fields and many more are all heavy users of the techniques described in
this text.
1.4 PLAN OF THE BOOK
The remainder of this book is organized into five parts:
1. Chapters 2 through 9 present the classical linear and nonlinear regression models.
We will discuss specification, estimation, and statistical inference.
2. Chapters 10 through 15 describe the generalized regression model, panel data

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 10:36
applications, and systems of equations.
3. Chapters 16 through 18 present general results on different methods of estimation
including maximum likelihood, GMM, and simulation methods. Various
estimation frameworks, including non- and semiparametric and Bayesian
estimation are presented in Chapters 16 and 18.
4. Chapters 19 through 22 present topics in applied econometrics. Chapters 19 and 20
are devoted to topics in time series modeling while Chapters 21 and 22 are about
microeconometrics, discrete choice modeling, and limited dependent variables.
5. Appendices A through D present background material on tools used in
econometrics including matrix algebra, probability and distribution theory,
estimation, and asymptotic distribution theory. Appendix E presents results on
computation. Appendices A through D are chapter-length surveys of the tools
used in econometrics. Since it is assumed that the reader has some previous
training in each of these topics, these summaries are included primarily for those
who desire a refresher or a convenient reference. We do not anticipate that these
appendices can substitute for a course in any of these subjects. The intent of these
chapters is to provide a reasonably concise summary of the results, nearly all of
which are explicitly used elsewhere in the book.
The data sets used in the numerical examples are described in Appendix F. The actual
data sets and other supplementary materials can be downloaded from the website for
the text,
www.prenhall.com/greene

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
2
THE CLASSICAL MULTIPLE
LINEAR REGRESSION
MODEL
Q
2.1 INTRODUCTION
An econometric study begins with a set of propositions about some aspect of the
economy. The theory specifies a set of precise, deterministic relationships among vari-
ables. Familiar examples are demand equations, production functions, and macroeco-
nomic models. The empirical investigation provides estimates of unknown parameters
in the model, such as elasticities or the effects of monetary policy, and usually attempts to
measure the validity of the theory against the behavior of observable data. Once suitably
constructed, the model might then be used for prediction or analysis of behavior. This
book will develop a large number of models and techniques used in this framework.
The linear regression model is the single most useful tool in the econometrician’s
kit. Though to an increasing degree in the contemporary literature, it is often only
the departure point for the full analysis, it remains the device used to begin almost all
empirical research. This chapter will develop the model. The next several chapters will
discuss more elaborate specifications and complications that arise in the application of
techniques that are based on the simple models presented here.
2.2 THE LINEAR REGRESSION MODEL
The multiple linear regression model is used to study the relationship between a depen-
dent variable and one or more independent variables. The generic form of the linear
regression model is
y = f (x1, x2, . . . , xK) + ε
= x1β1 + x2β2 + · · · + xKβK + ε
(2-1)
where y is the dependent or explained variable and x1, . . . , xK are the independent
or explanatory variables. One’s theory will specify f (x1, x2, . . . , xK). This function is
commonly called the population regression equation of y on x1, . . . , xK. In this set-
ting, y is the regressand and xk, k= 1, . . . , K, are the regressors or covariates. The
underlying theory will specify the dependent and independent variables in the model.
It is not always obvious which is appropriately defined as each of these—for exam-
ple, a demand equation, quantity = β1 + price × β2 + income × β3 + ε, and an inverse
demand equation, price = γ1 + quantity × γ2 + income × γ3 + u are equally valid rep-
resentations of a market. For modeling purposes, it will often prove useful to think in
terms of “autonomous variation.” One can conceive of movement of the independent
7

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
8 CHAPTER 2 ✦ The Classical Multiple Linear Regression Model
variables outside the relationships defined by the model while movement of the depen-
dent variable is considered in response to some independent or exogenous stimulus.1
The term ε is a random disturbance, so named because it “disturbs” an otherwise
stable relationship. The disturbance arises for several reasons, primarily because we
cannot hope to capture every influence on an economic variable in a model, no matter
how elaborate. The net effect, which can be positive or negative, of these omitted factors
is captured in the disturbance. There are many other contributors to the disturbance
in an empirical model. Probably the most significant is errors of measurement. It is
easy to theorize about the relationships among precisely defined variables; it is quite
another to obtain accurate measures of these variables. For example, the difficulty of
obtaining reasonable measures of profits, interest rates, capital stocks, or, worse yet,
flows of services from capital stocks is a recurrent theme in the empirical literature.
At the extreme, there may be no observable counterpart to the theoretical variable.
The literature on the permanent income model of consumption [e.g., Friedman (1957)]
provides an interesting example.
We assume that each observation in a sample (yi , xi1, xi2, . . . , xi K), i = 1, . . . , n, is
generated by an underlying process described by
yi = xi1β1 + xi2β2 + · · · + xi KβK + εi .
The observed value of yi is the sum of two parts, a deterministic part and the random
part, εi . Our objective is to estimate the unknown parameters of the model, use the
data to study the validity of the theoretical propositions, and perhaps use the model to
predict the variable y. How we proceed from here depends crucially on what we assume
about the stochastic process that has led to our observations of the data in hand.
Example 2.1 Keynes’s Consumption Function
Example 1.1 discussed a model of consumption proposed by Keynes and his General Theory
(1936). The theory that consumption, C, and income, X, are related certainly seems consistent
with the observed “facts” in Figures 1.1 and 2.1. (These data are in Data Table F2.1.) Of
course, the linear function is only approximate. Even ignoring the anomalous wartime years,
consumption and income cannot be connected by any simple deterministic relationship.
The linear model, C = α + βX, is intended only to represent the salient features of this part
of the economy. It is hopeless to attempt to capture every influence in the relationship. The
next step is to incorporate the inherent randomness in its real world counterpart. Thus, we
write C = f ( X, ε), where ε is a stochastic element. It is important not to view ε as a catchall
for the inadequacies of the model. The model including ε appears adequate for the data
not including the war years, but for 1942–1945, something systematic clearly seems to be
missing. Consumption in these years could not rise to rates historically consistent with these
levels of income because of wartime rationing. A model meant to describe consumption in
this period would have to accommodate this influence.
It remains to establish how the stochastic element will be incorporated in the equation.
The most frequent approach is to assume that it is additive. Thus, we recast the equation
in stochastic terms: C = α + βX + ε. This equation is an empirical counterpart to Keynes’s
theoretical model. But, what of those anomalous years of rationing? If we were to ignore
our intuition and attempt to “fit” a line to all these data—the next chapter will discuss
at length how we should do that—we might arrive at the dotted line in the figure as our best
guess. This line, however, is obviously being distorted by the rationing. A more appropriate
1By this definition, it would seem that in our demand relationship, only income would be an independent
variable while both price and quantity would be dependent. That makes sense—in a market, price and quantity
are determined at the same time, and do change only when something outside the market changes. We will
return to this specific case in Chapter 15.

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
CHAPTER 2 ✦ The Classical Multiple Linear Regression Model 9
350
325
300
275
250
225
225 250 275 300 325 350 375
X
C
1940
1941
1942
1944
1943
1945
1946
1947 1948
1949
1950
FIGURE 2.1 Consumption Data, 1940–1950.
specification for these data that accommodates both the stochastic nature of the data and
the special circumstances of the years 1942–1945 might be one that shifts straight down
in the war years, C = α + βX + dwaryearsδw + ε, where the new variable, dwaryears equals one in
1942–1945 and zero in other years and w ∅.
One of the most useful aspects of the multiple regression model is its ability to identify
the independent effects of a set of variables on a dependent variable. Example 2.2
describes a common application.
Example 2.2 Earnings and Education
A number of recent studies have analyzed the relationship between earnings and educa-
tion. We would expect, on average, higher levels of education to be associated with higher
incomes. The simple regression model
earnings = β1 + β2 education + ε,
however, neglects the fact that most people have higher incomes when they are older than
when they are young, regardless of their education. Thus, β2 will overstate the marginal
impact of education. If age and education are positively correlated, then the regression model
will associate all the observed increases in income with increases in education. A better
specification would account for the effect of age, as in
earnings = β1 + β2 education + β3 age + ε.
It is often observed that income tends to rise less rapidly in the later earning years than in
the early ones. To accommodate this possibility, we might extend the model to
earnings = β1 + β2 education + β3 age + β4 age2
+ ε.
We would expect β3 to be positive and β4 to be negative.
The crucial feature of this model is that it allows us to carry out a conceptual experiment
that might not be observed in the actual data. In the example, we might like to (and could)
compare the earnings of two individuals of the same age with different amounts of “education”
even if the data set does not actually contain two such individuals. How education should be

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
measured in this setting is a difficult problem. The study of the earnings of twins by Ashenfelter
and Krueger (1994), which uses precisely this specification of the earnings equation, presents
an interesting approach. We will examine this study in some detail in Section 5.6.4.
A large literature has been devoted to an intriguing question on this subject. Education
is not truly “independent” in this setting. Highly motivated individuals will choose to pursue
more education (for example, by going to college or graduate school) than others. By the
same token, highly motivated individuals may do things that, on average, lead them to have
higher incomes. If so, does a positive β2 that suggests an association between income and
education really measure the effect of education on income, or does it reflect the effect of
some underlying effect on both variables that we have not included in our regression model?
We will revisit the issue in Section 22.4.
2.3 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE CLASSICAL LINEAR
REGRESSION MODEL
The classical linear regression model consists of a set of assumptions about how a data
set will be produced by an underlying “data-generating process.” The theory will specify
a deterministic relationship between the dependent variable and the independent vari-
ables. The assumptions that describe the form of the model and relationships among its
parts and imply appropriate estimation and inference procedures are listed in Table 2.1.
2.3.1 LINEARITY OF THE REGRESSION MODEL
Let the column vector xk be the n observations on variable xk, k = 1, . . . , K, and as-
semble these data in an n × K data matrix X. In most contexts, the first column of X is
assumed to be a column of 1s so that β1 is the constant term in the model. Let y be the
n observations, y1, . . . , yn, and let ε be the column vector containing the n disturbances.
TABLE 2.1 Assumptions of the Classical Linear Regression Model
A1. Linearity: yi = xi1β1 + xi2β2 + · · · + xi KβK + εi . The model specifies a linear relationship
between y and x1, . . . , xK.
A2. Full rank: There is no exact linear relationship among any of the independent variables
in the model. This assumption will be necessary for estimation of the parameters of the
model.
A3. Exogeneity of the independent variables: E[εi | xj1, xj2, . . . , xj K] = 0. This states that
the expected value of the disturbance at observation i in the sample is not a function of the
independent variables observed at any observation, including this one. This means that the
independent variables will not carry useful information for prediction of εi .
A4. Homoscedasticity and nonautocorrelation: Each disturbance, εi has the same finite
variance, σ2
and is uncorrelated with every other disturbance, εj . This assumption limits the
generality of the model, and we will want to examine how to relax it in the chapters to
follow.
A5. Exogenously generated data: The data in (xj1, xj2, . . . , xj K) may be any mixture of
constants and random variables. The process generating the data operates outside the
assumptions of the model—that is, independently of the process that generates εi . Note that
this extends A3. Analysis is done conditionally on the observed X.
A6. Normal distribution: The disturbances are normally distributed. Once again, this is a
convenience that we will dispense with after some analysis of its implications.

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
The model in (2-1) as it applies to all n observations can now be written
y = x1β1 + · · · + xKβK + ε, (2-2)
or in the form of Assumption 1,
ASSUMPTION: y = Xβ + ε. (2-3)
A NOTATIONAL CONVENTION.
Henceforth, to avoid a possibly confusing and cumbersome notation, we will use a
boldface x to denote a column or a row of X. Which applies will be clear from the
context. In (2-2), xk is the kth column of X. Subscripts j and k will be used to denote
columns (variables). It will often be convenient to refer to a single observation in (2-3),
which we would write
yi = x
i β + εi . (2-4)
Subscripts i and t will generally be used to denote rows (observations) of X. In (2-4), xi
is a column vector that is the transpose of the ith 1 × K row of X.
Our primary interest is in estimation and inference about the parameter vector β.
Note that the simple regression model in Example 2.1 is a special case in which X has
only two columns, the first of which is a column of 1s. The assumption of linearity of the
regression model includes the additive disturbance. For the regression to be linear in
the sense described here, it must be of the form in (2-1) either in the original variables
or after some suitable transformation. For example, the model
y = Axβ
eε
is linear (after taking logs on both sides of the equation), whereas
y = Axβ
+ ε
is not. The observed dependent variable is thus the sum of two components, a deter-
ministic element α + βx and a random variable ε. It is worth emphasizing that neither
of the two parts is directly observed because α and β are unknown.
The linearity assumption is not so narrow as it might first appear. In the regression
context, linearity refers to the manner in which the parameters and the disturbance enter
the equation, not necessarily to the relationship among the variables. For example, the
equations y = α + βx + ε, y = α + β cos(x) + ε, y = α + β/x + ε, and y = α + β ln x + ε
are all linear in some function of x by the definition we have used here. In the examples,
only x has been transformed, but y could have been as well, as in y = Axβ
eε
, which is a
linear relationship in the logs of x and y; ln y = α + β ln x + ε. The variety of functions
is unlimited. This aspect of the model is used in a number of commonly used functional
forms. For example, the loglinear model is
ln y = β1 + β2 ln X2 + β3 ln X3 + · · · + βK ln XK + ε.
This equation is also known as the constant elasticity form as in this equation, the
elasticity of y with respect to changes in x is ∂ ln y/∂ ln xk = βk, which does not vary

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
with xk. The log linear form is often used in models of demand and production. Different
values of β produce widely varying functions.
Example 2.3 The U.S. Gasoline Market
Data on the U.S. gasoline market for the years 1960—1995 are given in Table F2.2 in
Appendix F. We will use these data to obtain, among other things, estimates of the income,
own price, and cross-price elasticities of demand in this market. These data also present an
interesting question on the issue of holding “all other things constant,” that was suggested
in Example 2.2. In particular, consider a somewhat abbreviated model of per capita gasoline
consumption:
ln(G/pop) = β1 + β2 ln income + β3 ln priceG + β4 ln Pnewcars + β5 ln Pusedcars + ε.
This model will provide estimates of the income and price elasticities of demand for gasoline
and an estimate of the elasticity of demand with respect to the prices of new and used cars.
What should we expect for the sign of β4? Cars and gasoline are complementary goods, so if
the prices of new cars rise, ceteris paribus, gasoline consumption should fall. Or should it? If
the prices of new cars rise, then consumers will buy fewer of them; they will keep their used
cars longer and buy fewer new cars. If older cars use more gasoline than newer ones, then
the rise in the prices of new cars would lead to higher gasoline consumption than otherwise,
not lower. We can use the multiple regression model and the gasoline data to attempt to
answer the question.
A semilog model is often used to model growth rates:
ln yt = x
t β + δt + εt .
In this model, the autonomous (at least not explained by the model itself) proportional,
per period growth rate is d ln y/dt = δ. Other variations of the general form
f (yt ) = g(x
t β + εt )
will allow a tremendous variety of functional forms, all of which fit into our definition
of a linear model.
The linear regression model is sometimes interpreted as an approximation to some
unknown,underlyingfunction.(SeeSectionA.8.1fordiscussion.)Bythisinterpretation,
however, the linear model, even with quadratic terms, is fairly limited in that such
an approximation is likely to be useful only over a small range of variation of the
independent variables. The translog model discussed in Example 2.4, in contrast, has
proved far more effective as an approximating function.
Example 2.4 The Translog Model
Modern studies of demand and production are usually done in the context of a flexible func-
tional form. Flexible functional forms are used in econometrics because they allow analysts
to model second-order effects such as elasticities of substitution, which are functions of the
second derivatives of production, cost, or utility functions. The linear model restricts these to
equal zero, whereas the log linear model (e.g., the Cobb–Douglas model) restricts the inter-
esting elasticities to the uninteresting values of –1 or +1. The most popular flexible functional
form is the translog model, which is often interpreted as a second-order approximation to
an unknown functional form. [See Berndt and Christensen (1973).] One way to derive it is
as follows. We first write y = g(x1, . . . , xK ). Then, ln y = ln g(. . .) = f (. . .). Since by a trivial
transformation xk = exp(ln xk), we interpret the function as a function of the logarithms of
the x’s. Thus, ln y = f (ln x1, . . . , ln xK ).

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
Now, expand this function in a second-order Taylor series around the point x = [1, 1, . . . , 1]
so that at the expansion point, the log of each variable is a convenient zero. Then
ln y = f (0) +
K

k=1
[∂ f (·)/∂ ln xk]| ln x=0 ln xk
+
1
2
K

k=1
K

l=1
[∂2
f (·)/∂ ln xk∂ ln xl ]| ln x=0 ln xk ln xl + ε.
The disturbance in this model is assumed to embody the familiar factors and the error of
approximation to the unknown function. Since the function and its derivatives evaluated at
the fixed value 0 are constants, we interpret them as the coefficients and write
ln y = β0 +
K

k=1
βk ln xk +
1
2
K

k=1
K

l=1
γkl ln xk ln xl + ε.
This model is linear by our definition but can, in fact, mimic an impressive amount of curvature
when it is used to approximate another function. An interesting feature of this formulation is
that the log linear model is a special case, γkl = 0. Also, there is an interesting test of the
underlying theory possible because if the underlying function were assumed to be continuous
and twice continuously differentiable, then by Young’s theorem it must be true that γkl = γlk.
We will see in Chapter 14 how this feature is studied in practice.
Despite its great flexibility, the linear model does not include all the situations we
encounter in practice. For a simple example, there is no transformation that will reduce
y = α + 1/(β1 + β2x) + ε to linearity. The methods we consider in this chapter are not
appropriate for estimating the parameters of such a model. Relatively straightforward
techniques have been developed for nonlinear models such as this, however. We shall
treat them in detail in Chapter 9.
2.3.2 FULL RANK
Assumption 2 is that there are no exact linear relationships among the variables.
ASSUMPTION: X is an n × K matrix with rank K. (2-5)
Hence, X has full column rank; the columns of X are linearly independent and there
are at least K observations. [See (A-42) and the surrounding text.] This assumption is
known as an identification condition. To see the need for this assumption, consider an
example.
Example 2.5 Short Rank
Suppose that a cross-section model specifies
C = β1 + β2 nonlabor income + β3 salary + β4 total income + ε,
where total income is exactly equal to salary plus nonlabor income. Clearly, there is an exact
linear dependency in the model. Now let
β
2 = β2 + a,
β
3 = β3 + a,
and
β
4 = β4 − a,

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
where a is any number. Then the exact same value appears on the right-hand side of C if
we substitute β
2, β
3, and β
4 for β2, β3, and β4. Obviously, there is no way to estimate the
parameters of this model.
If there are fewer than K observations, then X cannot have full rank. Hence, we make
the (redundant) assumption that n is at least as large as K.
In a two-variable linear model with a constant term, the full rank assumption means
that there must be variation in the regressor x. If there is no variation in x, then all our
observations will lie on a vertical line. This situation does not invalidate the other
assumptions of the model; presumably, it is a flaw in the data set. The possibility that
this suggests is that we could have drawn a sample in which there was variation in x,
but in this instance, we did not. Thus, the model still applies, but we cannot learn about
it from the data set in hand.
2.3.3 REGRESSION
The disturbance is assumed to have conditional expected value zero at every observa-
tion, which we write as
E[εi | X] = 0. (2-6)
For the full set of observations, we write Assumption 3 as:
ASSUMPTION: E[ε | X] =





E[ε1 | X]
E[ε2 | X]
.
.
.
E[εn | X]





= 0. (2-7)
There is a subtle point in this discussion that the observant reader might have noted.
In (2-7), the left-hand side states, in principle, that the mean of each εi conditioned on
all observations xi is zero. This conditional mean assumption states, in words, that no
observations on x convey information about the expected value of the disturbance.
It is conceivable—for example, in a time-series setting—that although xi might pro-
vide no information about E[εi |·], xj at some other observation, such as in the next
time period, might. Our assumption at this point is that there is no information about
E[εi | ·] contained in any observation xj . Later, when we extend the model, we will
study the implications of dropping this assumption. [See Woolridge (1995).] We will
also assume that the disturbances convey no information about each other. That is,
E[εi | ε1, . . . , εi–1, εi+1, . . . , εn] = 0. In sum, at this point, we have assumed that the
disturbances are purely random draws from some population.
The zero conditional mean implies that the unconditional mean is also zero, since
E[εi ] = Ex[E[εi | X]] = Ex[0] = 0.
Since,foreachεi ,Cov[E[εi | X], X] = Cov[εi , X],Assumption3impliesthatCov[εi , X]=
0 for all i. (Exercise: Is the converse true?)
In most cases, the zero mean assumption is not restrictive. Consider a two-variable
model and suppose that the mean of ε is µ = 0. Then α + βx + ε is the same as
(α + µ) + βx + (ε – µ). Letting α
= α + µ and ε
= ε–µ produces the original model.
For an application, see the discussion of frontier production functions in Section 17.6.3.

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
But, if the original model does not contain a constant term, then assuming E[εi ] = 0
could be substantive. If E[εi ] can be expressed as a linear function of xi , then, as before, a
transformation of the model will produce disturbances with zero means. But, if not, then
the nonzero mean of the disturbances will be a substantive part of the model structure.
This does suggest that there is a potential problem in models without constant terms. As
a general rule, regression models should not be specified without constant terms unless
this is specifically dictated by the underlying theory.2
Arguably, if we have reason to
specify that the mean of the disturbance is something other than zero, we should build it
into the systematic part of the regression, leaving in the disturbance only the unknown
part of ε. Assumption 3 also implies that
E[y | X] = Xβ. (2-8)
Assumptions 1 and 3 comprise the linear regression model. The regression of y on X is
the conditional mean, E[y | X], so that without Assumption 3, Xβ is not the conditional
mean function.
The remaining assumptions will more completely specify the characteristics of the
disturbances in the model and state the conditions under which the sample observations
on x are obtained.
2.3.4 SPHERICAL DISTURBANCES
The fourth assumption concerns the variances and covariances of the disturbances:
Var[εi | X] = σ2
, for all i = 1, . . . , n,
and
Cov[εi , εj | X] = 0, for all i = j.
Constant variance is labeled homoscedasticity. Consider a model that describes the prof-
its of firms in an industry as a function of, say, size. Even accounting for size, measured in
dollar terms, the profits of large firms will exhibit greater variation than those of smaller
firms. The homoscedasticity assumption would be inappropriate here. Also, survey data
on household expenditure patterns often display marked heteroscedasticity, even after
accounting for income and household size.
Uncorrelatedness across observations is labeled generically nonautocorrelation. In
Figure 2.1, there is some suggestion that the disturbances might not be truly independent
across observations. Although the number of observations is limited, it does appear
that, on average, each disturbance tends to be followed by one with the same sign. This
“inertia” is precisely what is meant by autocorrelation, and it is assumed away at this
point. Methods of handling autocorrelation in economic data occupy a large proportion
oftheliteratureandwillbetreatedatlengthinChapter12.Notethatnonautocorrelation
does not imply that observations yi and yj are uncorrelated. The assumption is that
deviations of observations from their expected values are uncorrelated.
2Models that describe first differences of variables might well be specified without constants. Consider yt – yt–1.
If there is a constant term α on the right-hand side of the equation, then yt is a function of αt, which is an
explosive regressor. Models with linear time trends merit special treatment in the time-series literature. We
will return to this issue in Chapter 19.

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
The two assumptions imply that
E[εε
| X] =





E[ε1ε1 | X] E[ε1ε2 | X] · · · E[ε1εn | X]
E[ε2ε1 | X] E[ε2ε2 | X] · · · E[ε2εn | X]
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
E[εnε1 | X] E[εnε2 | X] · · · E[εnεn | X]





=





σ2
0 · · · 0
0 σ2
· · · 0
.
.
.
0 0 · · · σ2





,
which we summarize in Assumption 4:
ASSUMPTION: E[εε
| X] = σ2
I. (2-9)
By using the variance decomposition formula in (B-70), we find
Var[ε] = E[Var[ε | X]] + Var[E[ε | X]] = σ2
I.
Once again, we should emphasize that this assumption describes the information about
the variances and covariances among the disturbances that is provided by the indepen-
dent variables. For the present, we assume that there is none. We will also drop this
assumption later when we enrich the regression model. We are also assuming that the
disturbances themselves provide no information about the variances and covariances.
Although a minor issue at this point, it will become crucial in our treatment of time-
series applications. Models such as Var[εt | εt–1] = σ2
+ αε2
t−1—a “GARCH” model (see
Section 11.8)—do not violate our conditional variance assumption, but do assume that
Var[εt | εt–1] = Var[εt ].
Disturbances that meet the twin assumptions of homoscedasticity and nonautocor-
relation are sometimes called spherical disturbances.3
2.3.5 DATA GENERATING PROCESS FOR THE REGRESSORS
It is common to assume that xi is nonstochastic, as it would be in an experimental
situation. Here the analyst chooses the values of the regressors and then observes yi .
This process might apply, for example, in an agricultural experiment in which yi is yield
and xi is fertilizer concentration and water applied. The assumption of nonstochastic
regressors at this point would be a mathematical convenience. With it, we could use the
results of elementary statistics to obtain our results by treating the vector xi simply as a
known constant in the probability distribution of yi . With this simplification, Assump-
tions A3 and A4 would be made unconditional and the counterparts would now simply
state that the probability distribution of εi involves none of the constants in X.
Social scientists are almost never able to analyze experimental data, and relatively
few of their models are built around nonrandom regressors. Clearly, for example, in
3The term will describe the multivariate normal distribution; see (B-95). If = σ2I in the multivariate normal
density, then the equation f (x) = c is the formula for a “ball” centered at µ with radius σ in n-dimensional
space. The name spherical is used whether or not the normal distribution is assumed; sometimes the “spherical
normal” distribution is assumed explicitly.

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
any model of the macroeconomy, it would be difficult to defend such an asymmetric
treatment of aggregate data. Realistically, we have to allow the data on xi to be random
the same as yi so an alternative formulation is to assume that xi is a random vector and
our formal assumption concerns the nature of the random process that produces xi . If xi
is taken to be a random vector, then Assumptions 1 through 4 become a statement about
the joint distribution of yi and xi . The precise nature of the regressor and how we view
the sampling process will be a major determinant of our derivation of the statistical
properties of our estimators and test statistics. In the end, the crucial assumption is
Assumption 3, the uncorrelatedness of X and ε. Now, we do note that this alternative
is not completely satisfactory either, since X may well contain nonstochastic elements,
including a constant, a time trend, and dummy variables that mark specific episodes
in time. This makes for an ambiguous conclusion, but there is a straightforward and
economically useful way out of it. We will assume that X can be a mixture of constants
and random variables, but the important assumption is that the ultimate source of the
data in X is unrelated (statistically and economically) to the source of ε.
ASSUMPTION: X may be fixed or random, but it is generated by a
mechanism that is unrelated to ε.
(2-10)
2.3.6 NORMALITY
It is convenient to assume that the disturbances are normally distributed, with zero mean
and constant variance. That is, we add normality of the distribution to Assumptions 3
and 4.
ASSUMPTION: ε | X ∼ N[0, σ2
I]. (2-11)
In view of our description of the source of ε, the conditions of the central limit the-
orem will generally apply, at least approximately, and the normality assumption will be
reasonable in most settings. A useful implication of Assumption 6 is that it implies that
observations on εi are statistically independent as well as uncorrelated. [See the third
pointinSectionB.8,(B-97)and(B-99).]Normalityisoftenviewedasanunnecessaryand
possibly inappropriate addition to the regression model. Except in those cases in which
some alternative distribution is explicitly assumed, as in the stochastic frontier model
discussed in Section 17.6.3, the normality assumption is probably quite reasonable.
Normalityisnotnecessarytoobtainmanyoftheresultsweuseinmultipleregression
analysis, although it will enable us to obtain several exact statistical results. It does prove
useful in constructing test statistics, as shown in Section 4.7. Later, it will be possible
to relax this assumption and retain most of the statistical results we obtain here. (See
Sections 5.3, 5.4 and 6.4.)
2.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This chapter has framed the linear regression model, the basic platform for model build-
ing in econometrics. The assumptions of the classical regression model are summarized
in Figure 2.2, which shows the two-variable case.

Greene-50240 book May 24, 2002 13:34
E(y|x)
x0 x1 x2
␣ ⫹ ␤x
N(␣ ⫹ ␤x2, ␴2)
E(y|x ⫽ x2)
x
E(y|x ⫽ x1)
E(y|x ⫽ x0)
FIGURE 2.2 The Classical Regression Model.
Key Terms and Concepts
• Autocorrelation
• Constant elasticity
• Covariate
• Dependent variable
• Deterministic relationship
• Disturbance
• Exogeneity
• Explained variable
• Explanatory variable
• Flexible functional form
• Full rank
• Heteroscedasticity
• Homoscedasticity
• Identification condition
• Independent variable
• Linear regression model
• Loglinear model
• Multiple linear regression
model
• Nonautocorrelation
• Nonstochastic regressors
• Normality
• Normally distributed
• Population regression
equation
• Regressand
• Regression
• Regressor
• Second-order effects
• Semilog
• Spherical disturbances
• Translog model

Greene-50240 book June 3, 2002 9:52
3
LEAST SQUARES
Q
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2 defined the linear regression model as a set of characteristics of the population
that underlies an observed sample of data. There are a number of different approaches
to estimation of the parameters of the model. For a variety of practical and theoretical
reasons that we will explore as we progress through the next several chapters, the
method of least squares has long been the most popular. Moreover, in most cases in
which some other estimation method is found to be preferable, least squares remains
the benchmark approach, and often, the preferred method ultimately amounts to a
modification of least squares. In this chapter, we begin the analysis of this important set
of results by presenting a useful set of algebraic tools.
3.2 LEAST SQUARES REGRESSION
The unknown parameters of the stochastic relation yi = x
i β + εi are the objects of
estimation. It is necessary to distinguish between population quantities, such as β and εi ,
and sample estimates of them, denoted b and ei . The population regression is E[yi | xi ] =
x
i β, whereas our estimate of E[yi | xi ] is denoted
ŷi = x
i b.
The disturbance associated with the ith data point is
εi = yi − x
i β.
For any value of b, we shall estimate εi with the residual
ei = yi − x
i b.
From the definitions,
yi = x
i β + εi = x
i b + ei .
These equations are summarized for the two variable regression in Figure 3.1.
The population quantity β is a vector of unknown parameters of the probability
distribution of yi whose values we hope to estimate with our sample data, (yi , xi ), i =
1, . . . , n. This is a problem of statistical inference. It is instructive, however, to begin by
considering the purely algebraic problem of choosing a vector b so that the fitted line
x
i b is close to the data points. The measure of closeness constitutes a fitting criterion.
19

Greene-50240 book June 3, 2002 9:52
20 CHAPTER 3 ✦ Least Squares
y
␧
e
a bx
E(y) ␣ ␤x
x
␣ ␤x
ŷ a bx
FIGURE 3.1 Population and Sample Regression.
Although numerous candidates have been suggested, the one used most frequently is
least squares.1
3.2.1 THE LEAST SQUARES COEFFICIENT VECTOR
The least squares coefficient vector minimizes the sum of squared residuals:
n

i=1
e2
i0 =
n

i=1
(yi − x
i b0)2
, (3-1)
where b0 denotes the choice for the coefficient vector. In matrix terms, minimizing the
sum of squares in (3-1) requires us to choose b0 to
Minimizeb0
S(b0) = e
0e0 = (y − Xb0)
(y − Xb0). (3-2)
Expanding this gives
e
0e0 = y
y − b
0X
y − y
Xb0 + b
0X
Xb0 (3-3)
or
S(b0) = y
y − 2y
Xb0 + b0X
Xb0.
The necessary condition for a minimum is
∂S(b0)
∂b0
= −2X
y + 2X
Xb0 = 0. (3-4)
1We shall have to establish that the practical approach of fitting the line as closely as possible to the data by
least squares leads to estimates with good statistical properties. This makes intuitive sense and is, indeed, the
case. We shall return to the statistical issues in Chapters 4 and 5.

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