2. Design Phase
2
Input Process Output
Training
Needs
Organizational
Constraints
Learning
Theory
Develop
Training
Objectives
Determine factors
that facilitate
learning & transfer
Identify alternative
method of
instruction
Chapter 6, 7
Evaluation
objectives
Chapter 9
3. Training Design: Overview
• The training design phase determines what the
actual training will look like
• To do this, we use the three inputs discussed
earlier:
• 1. Learning Theory (Ch 3)- Our Understanding of how
people learn
• 2. Training Needs (Ch 4)- Our understanding of what
people need to learn (output of the TNA)
• 3. Organizational Constraints (General)- Availability of
resources such as time, money, facilities etc. which will
shape the design of the training program
3
4. Training Design: Overview
• These inputs are used to form training objectives, or
learning objectives….i.e. what the training program
will actually teach employees. (in summary)
• These training objectives are then used to create
the design of the training program (i.e. the method
of delivery, content, materials, frequency etc.)
• Examples of questions at the Training design stage:
– What method of training to use?
– How much time to allot for training?
– Size of training class
– Whether training is compulsory or optional?
– Will training be conducted on-site or off-site?
– Will training be conducted on working hours or separate hours? 4
5. The Input Phase: A Guide to determining time
required to prepare training – Part 1 of 3
5
Variables Level Of Effort For Design
Low Medium High
Who
2. Trainer knowledge
of subject matter
extensive
knowledge
some knowledge no knowledge
1. Trainer knowledge
and skills related to
instructional design
extensive
knowledge and
skills
Moderate
knowledge and skills
minimal knowledge
and skills
3. Size and complexity of
training class
small,
homogeneous
medium size,
moderately complex
large, complex
group
4. Designer’s and client’s
track record for sticking
to plans
always stick sometimes stick never stick
6. The Input Phase: A Guide to determining time
required to prepare training – Part 2 of 3
6
Variables Level Of Effort to create Design
Low Medium High
What
6. Elements included in
the training materials
trainee manual
only
instructor and
participant manuals
instructor and
participant manuals,
job aids, etc
5. The number of
instruction modules
few (5 modules) several (8
modules)
many (12
modules)
7. client’s or organization’s
expectations regarding
packaging
minimal
(produced in-
house)
modest (desktop
publishing)
extensive
(professionally
produced)
8. What is considered
final product ?
first draft by
designer, client
does rest
designer
completes up to the
pilot
designer
completes all drafts,
finalizes after pilot
7. The Input Phase: A Guide to determining time
required to prepare training – Part 3 of 3
7
Variables Level Of Effort to create Design
Low Medium High
How
10. designer’s
interaction with the
client
deals directly with
top decision maker
deals with more
than one level of
decision makers
deals with a
complex labor-
management
committee
9. Data collection a focus group
made up of a few
well-informed people
a focus group and
a few interviews
several focus
groups and several
interviews
11. client’s level of
involvement
approves general
direction and final
draft
reviews and
approves key
materials
reviews and
approves all
materials
12. Amount of
interactivity in
Training Program
minimal moderate extensive
8. The Input Phase: A Guide to Determining Time
Required to Prepare Training – Part 4 of 4
Effort to Create
Low Medium High
Totals –––– x 1 = –––– –––– x 2 = –––– –––– x 3 = ––––
Add the weighted totals from the high, medium, and low columns to get an
estimate of the number of days it will take to develop one day of instructor-led
training
12. Amount of
interactivity in
Training Program
minimal moderate extensive
5-8
9. Proposal for developing a one day workshop on
Effective Communication
9
Action Time Rate Total
Prepare
Interview relevant employees to determine
issues and context to develop training
1 day $1,000 $1,000
Develop objectives and plan for developing
training. Includes identifying appropriate
instructional methods and developing
evaluation objectives
2.5 days $1,000 $2,500
Develop training materials based on
objectives
8 days $1,000 $8,000
Develop visual aids and evaluation material 2.5 days $1,000 $2,500
Miscellaneous (10% Emergency Costs) $1,400
TOTAL 14 days = $15,400
10. Types of Costs in Training Programs (1 of 2)
10
Development Costs (costs related to the development of
the training program; TNA, piloting
of the training, materials used to
design the program, etc..)
Direct Costs (costs directly attributed to the delivery of the
training; trainer fees, facilities (rent), Materials
and Equipment, Food and Beverages served, etc)
Indirect Costs (cost incurred even if training were cancelled:
marketing, administrative, & clerical support etc)
11. Types of Costs in Training Programs (2 of 2)
11
Participant Compensation (sometimes participants in a training
program are paid, for example if it is a high-level professional training
program of top level managers spanning several days or weeks, then they
will have to be paid
Evaluation Costs (costs associated with evaluating the
training program; creation of assessment tools
etc…for example, training is evaluated by giving a proficiency test (written
or verbal etc). The cost of making this test is an evaluation cost)
12. The Process Phase: Developing
Training Objectives
12
Objectives are statements which describe
what the learner is expected to achieve as a
result of training
There are 4 types of training objectives:
• Trainee Reaction Objectives
• Learning Objectives
• Transfer of Training Objectives
• Organizational Outcome Objectives
13. Types of Training Objectives –
Part 1 of 2
1. Trainee Reaction
Objectives:
2. Learning Objectives:
Describes the desired trainee attitudinal and
subjective evaluations of training by the
trainee, i.e. how trainees should feel about the
training program and their learning environment,
ex- Trainees should feel safe, comfortable and
engaged….they should feel like they can express
their opinions
Describes the type of behavior that will
demonstrate the learning, the conditions
under which the behavior must occur, and
the criteria that will signify that a sufficient
level of learning has occurred
Ex- After the training, the employee will
properly know how to use SPSS software,
including correlation, regression and data
mapping functions
5-13
14. Types of Training Objectives –
Part 2 of 2
3. Transfer of Training
Objectives:
4. Organizational
Outcome
Objectives:
Describes job behaviors that will be affected by
training, the conditions under which those
behaviors must occur, and the criteria that
will signify that a sufficient transfer of
learning from training to the job has occurred
Ex- Using SPSS software, employees should be
able to correctly predict the relationship
between marketing expenditure and sales, or
organizational training and productivity
Describes the organizational outcomes that will be
affected by the transfer of learning to the job
and the criteria that will signify that
organizational outcome objectives were
achieved
Ex- As a result of correct forecasting with SPSS
software, profitability for the third quarter
should increase by 4%
15. Developing Training Objectives
A good training objective has three
components:
1. Desired Outcome – What should be expected to
occur?
2. Conditions – Under what conditions is the outcome
expected to occur?
3. Standards – What criteria signify that the outcome
is acceptable?
Ex- (for a Waitress) Serve 50 customers/Hour in a fast
paced, hectic environment so that customers are
satisfied, pleased and give a tip before leaving
15
16. Developing Learning Objectives
• Learning objectives are the most important
because:
• Learning is the foundation of training, without proper
learning the other objectives are not relevant
• Learning objectives are the most difficult to create
Fundamental Rules:
• Must be measurable and observable
• Articulates the goal(s) of training
• Communicates the intent to trainee
• Provides a means for evaluation
• Assists in the selection of materials 16
17. Components of a Good Training
Objective
1. Desired Outcome
• Usually consists of an action verb that you want the
participants to be able to do as a result of the training
• Anyone reading the objective should be able to understand
what the learner will be required to demonstrate to
indicate that he or she learned the KSA
• Ex- Employee will fully understand how to cut electrical
wires (bad, unclear about what “fully” means)
• Employee will be able to cut electrical wires of any size, and
sort them into piles (Good, clear action sequence)
17
19. Components of a Good Training
Objective
2. Conditions
• Explaining the conditions under which the behaviour must occur
further clarifies exactly what is required
• For example, in the previous example, “Using a wire clipper and
pliars, Employee will be able to cut electrical wires of any size, and
sort them into piles”
• So a description of the conditions usually states the tools and
equipment, place and situation required to do the job
• Conversely, if the job is to be done without the help of any tools or
equipment, that would also be a description of the conditions
involved.
• Ex- “Without the use of any reference material”
19
20. II. Condition
• Describes the environment under which the
work to be performed
How you get to your outcome
20
21. Condition Examples
• After completing this activity…
• Using a computer…
• After completing this seminar…
• After completing this training session…
• Using the information in the workbook…
• In the classroom…
• On the firing range…
• Given a hypothetical situation…
21
22. Components of a Good Training
Objective
• 3. Standards
• Standards are the criteria of acceptability for performance.
• I.e. what determines the performance is acceptable?
• There are three aspects of Standards:
– Accuracy
– Quality
– Speed
• Examples:-
• Being able to take a reading off a thermometer with an error of no more than 1
degree celsius (accuracy standard)
• Making products within manufacturing specifications 99% of the time (quality
standard)
• Being able to do a task in 15 minutes or less (speed standard) 22
23. More Standard Examples
• Achieving a score of 75%
• According to policy
• Accurately
• With no errors
• Within one hour
23
24. Example 1: Learning Objective
• Condition – “Using a drop wire, bushing
and connectors, but without
the use of a manual”
• Behavior – “the trainee will splice a
drop wire”
• Standard – “according to the standard
set in the manual”
24
25. Example 2: Learning Objective
• Condition – “Using a standard climbing
harness and spikes”
• Behavior – “the trainee will climb a
standard telephone pole”
• Standard – “within 5 minutes, following
all safety procedures”
25
26. Program Objectives
• Mager: “Description of a performance you
want learners to be able to exhibit before you
consider them competent”
• Specify what learners should be able to do,
conditions under which they must do it, and
criteria in judging success
26
27. Performance Objectives
• Objective Indicator
• Understand how to Discriminate between
read X-rays normal and abnormal
X-rays
• Knowledge of loans Recall procedure for
making a loan
• Ability to read Identify transistors
diagrams on a schematic diagram
27
28. False Objectives
• Show an appreciation for loan procedures
• Be able to think critically and analytically
• Have a deep awareness and thorough
humanizing grasp of interpersonal relations
28
29. Conditions for Performance
• Relevant and important conditions under
which performance is expected to occur
• “Repair a motor with two minor defects using
a standard set of tools and diagrams”
29
30. Criterion for Performance
• How well trainees should be able to perform
in order to be acceptable.
• Includes speed, accuracy and quality
• Examples: finish in 20 minutes, no more that 2
errors, within a tolerance of .1 inch
30
31. Types of Training Objectives –
Part 1 of 2 (Kirkpatrick)
31
1. Trainee Reaction
Objectives:
2. Learning Objectives:
Describes the desired trainee attitudinal
and subjective evaluations of training
Describes the type of behavior that will
demonstrate the learning, the
conditions under which the behavior
must occur, and the criteria that will
signify that a sufficient level of
learning has occurred
32. Trainee Characteristics
• Trainability = f(Motivation, Ability, Perceptions
of work environment)
– Perceptions of training
– Self-efficacy
– Factors that increase motivation
• Personality and attitudes
– Extraversion, openness, conscientiousness,
agreeableness, stability
32
33. The Output Phase: Determining Factors
that Facilitate Learning
• 1. The Trainee
• Individual Differences in KSA’s
– When trainees have different levels of background KSA’s, training
them together can be a problem
– Two options:
• 1. Same training to everyone (content-wise), but different training styles
used for people with different KSA’s. Example, some need more personal
assistance, guidance, advice etc while for others, a simple demonstration is
enough
– Advantages: Everyone covers same training material
– Disadvantage: Class slows down
• 2. Separate training classes for people with different KSA’s.
– Advantage: Everyone can proceed at their own pace. Training speed does not
slow down
– Disadvantage: High cost for developing different classes for different trainees
33
34. Learning Performance & Trainees Level of KSA
34
Training Design A
Training Design B
Low High
Individual Trait
Low
High
35. Learning Performance & Trainees Level of KSA
35
Training Design A
Training Design B
Low High
Individual Trait
Low
High
36. The Output Phase: Determining Factors
that Facilitate Learning
• 1. The Trainee
• Classical Conditioning Implications
– Certain environmental factors are associated with certain
conditioned responses
– For example, a person who was bullied in school might hate
classrooms because it brings back bad memories. Thus, this
person would feel nervous and uncomfortable being in a
classroom situation (a training classroom)
– So, learning would not be effective
– Thus, the physical environment needs to be changed
– So, before training, we have to learn what makes trainees
comfortable and what environmental or other factors are
associated with positive memories or feelings 36
37. The Output Phase: Determining Factors
that Facilitate Learning
• 2. The Training Design
• The Physical Environment
– The room should be at a comfortable temperature, not too hot or too cold. (71-73
degrees F is an ideal temperature for most people)
– The Walls should be a neutral but pleasant color, free from distracting objects such as
posters or notices unrelated to training. Also, the room should be soundproof
– Ideally, there should be no outside view (close all windows and curtains)
– The training facility should, ideally, be away from work where employees cannot be
disturbed by work matters (phone calls, boss calling etc.) If not possible, then it has to
be isolated (no interruption rule, phones off etc)
– Breaks should be given if the training is long, as people tend to get distracted if sitting
and listening for too long.
– Food and refreshments should also be given if the training is long and employees are
likely to get hungry. Remember, refreshments should be light and not sleep-inducing
(polao roast etc.)
38. The Output Phase: Determining Factors
that Facilitate Transfer
• Transfer of training refers to how much of what is learned
in training is transferred back to the job
• Types of Transfer Outcomes:
1. Positive Transfer
Training results in a higher level of job performance
2. Zero Transfer
Training results in no change in job performance
3. Negative Transfer
Training results in a lower level of job performance
39. The Output Phase: Determining Factors
that Facilitate Transfer
• Practice
• Practice is the reproduction of learning off-the-job to improve the
KSA’s learned in training
• Types of Practice:
1. Massed Practice
Long, continuous practice over one single session
Ex- One 4 hour driving class
2. Spaced Practice
Short, broken-down regular practice over a couple of days
Ex- 8 half-hour classes over eight days
Research indicates that spaced practice is usually better for skill retention. However, for very
complex skills, massed practice might be better at first, followed by spaced practice
(because short time periods don’t provide enough room to master extremely complex skills)
However, spaced practice requires more time to implement and thus, more planning
40. The Output Phase: Determining Factors
that Facilitate Transfer
• Whole Learning vs. Part Learning
• Task Organization relates to the degree to which the tasks are
interrelated (highly dependent on one another)
• For example, learning of driving skills has high task organization
(pressing down on the clutch, changing the gear, turning the steering
wheel….all have to be done together while driving. It does not make
sense to teach them individually)
• So, for skills which have high task organization……whole learning is
better (even if the tasks can be separated)
• Changing a tire, however, has low task organization. (raising the car
with a lever, checking the tire pressure, and finally changing the
rubber tube……can all be done separately, and therefore, can be
taught separately). So for skills which have low task
organization…..part learning can be used
41. The Output Phase: Determining Factors
that Facilitate Transfer
• Whole Learning vs. Part Learning
• Task Organization relates to the degree to which the tasks are
interrelated (highly dependent on one another)
• For example, learning of driving skills has high task organization
(pressing down on the clutch, changing the gear, turning the steering
wheel….all have to be done together while driving. It does not make
sense to teach them individually)
• So, for skills which have high task organization……whole learning is
better (even if the tasks can be separated)
• Changing a tire, however, has low task organization. (raising the car
with a lever, checking the tire pressure, and finally changing the
rubber tube……can all be done separately, and therefore, can be
taught separately). So for skills which have low task
organization…..part learning can be used
42. Increasing Transfer
• Maximize similarity
• Practice
• Provide a variety of situations and examples
• Understand general principles
• Support
• Opportunity to perform on the job
• Feedback and reinforcement
• Develop and follow learning objectives
42
43. Elaboration Theory: Topical vs Spiral
Sequencing
Topical Sequencing Spiral Sequencing
Module 1
Module 2
Module 3
Topic B
Module 1
Module 2
Module 3
Topic A Topic B Topic C
Module 1 Module 1 Module 1
Topic A Topic B Topic C
Module 2 Module 2 Module 2
Topic A
5-43
46. The Output Phase: Formation of Evaluation
Objectives
• The 2nd output of the design phase is the formation
of evaluation objectives
• Evaluation objectives are basically an expansion of
the standards mentioned in the training objectives
• They provide a way to critically measure the
effectiveness of the training objectives.
• Ex- Using a drop wire, bushing, and connector, but without
the use of a manual, the trainee will splice a drop wire
according to the standards set out in the manual
• Thus, the standards set out in the manual provide us with the
evaluation framework, we would look at it in more detail 46
47. The Output Phase: Identification of Alternative
Methods of Instruction
• The 3rd output of the design phase is the
identification of alternative methods of instruction,
i.e. what method would be the best choice to
deliver the training (Lectures, case studies,
demonstrations etc.)
• These will be discussed fully in chapters 6 and 7
• But the identification of these methods is also the
last output of the design phase 47
48. Conditions of Practice
• Active practice – can be mental practice
• Massed vs. spaced practice
– Rest intervals early in training
– Less meaningful, greater difficulty and amount the better
spaced practice
– Less capable, less experienced learner does better with
spaced practice
– Retention better with spaced practice
• Whole vs. part
48
49. Conditions of Practice
• Overlearning
• Knowledge of results/feedback
– Important aspects
– Provisions of feedback
– Specify corrective actions
– Reward/punishment consequences
49
50. Retention
• Meaningfulness of material
• Degree of original learning
• Retroactive interference – new learning
interferes with old learning
• Proactive – old learning interferes with the
retention of new learning
50
51. Seven Step Relapse-Prevention Training
51
1. Choose a skill to retain
Step
2. Set goals
3. Commit to retain the skill
4. Learn coping (relapse prevention)
strategies
5. Identify likely circumstances for first
relapse
6. Practice coping (relapse prevention)
strategies
7. Learn to monitor target skill
52. Coping Strategies for Relapse Prevention – Part
1 of 2
52
Understand the relapse process
Step
Recognize difference between training and work setting
Create an effective support network on the job
Identify high risk situations
53. Coping Strategies for Relapse Prevention – Part
2 of 2
53
Step
Reduce emotional reactions that interfere with learning
Diagnose specific support skills necessary to retain
new skill
Identify organizational support for skill retention
54. Transfer of Training
Stimulus Response Transfer
same same positive
same different negative
different different zero/none
54
55. A Plan to Apply Skills Back on the Job
55
1. What skill/technique: (be specific)
2. What will using skill/technique look like: (be specific)
3. What are the positive and negative consequences of using and not
using the skill.
4. What will a “slip” look like?
5. How will you feel if you slip back to old techniques?
6. Under what circumstances is a slip likely to occur?
7. What support is needed?
Positive (+) Negative (-)
Using
Skill
Not
Using
Skill
56. Gagne-Briggs Nine Events of Instruction – Part 1
of 2
56
Instructional Event Relation to Social Learning Theory
Gain attention Attention
Informing the trainee of Goal
(objectives)
Attention
Stimulate recall of prior
knowledge (learning)
Retention: Activation of memory
Present the material Retention: Activation of memory,
Semantic coding, Cognitive
organization
57. Gagne-Briggs Nine Events of Instruction – Part 2
of 2
57
Instructional Event Relation to Social Learning Theory
Provide informative feedback Reinforcement
Assess performance
Enhance retention and transfer Reinforcement
Provide guidance for learning Retention: Semantic coding/ cognitive
organization through guided discovery
Retention: Symbolic Rehearsal
Elicit performance (practice) Behavioral Reproduction
58. Learning and Transfer Factors as related to Social
Learning theory and Gagne Briggs theory of
design – 1 of 5
58
Social learning
Theory
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Factors to Consider
Pre-
training
Attention/Expectancy
Influence expectations
& attitudes of trainees.
Identify those with low expectations/
send to pre-training workshop
Provide information to influence
expectancies/ identify positive outcomes.
Demonstrate the need
for training and set
goals
Do needs analysis so only relevant
trainees attend.
Have supervisors discuss
performance of trainee and set
mutual goals.
Have learning objectives distributed
ahead of time.
59. Learning and Transfer Factors as related to Social
Learning theory and Gagne Briggs theory of
design – 2 of 5
59
Training
Beginning
Attention/
Expectancy
Create/reinforce
positive attitude
toward training
Gain Attention Allow time for instructor and trainee
introductions and develop a
relaxed atmosphere
Inform trainee
of goals
Allow for time to go through needs
analysis, show learning
objectives, and discuss
usefulness on the job; draw
example from trainees
Eliminate
distractions
Choose site where anxiety level will
be low (see classical
conditioning). Choose proper
facilities.
Social learning
Theory
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Factors to Consider
60. Learning and Transfer Factors as related to Social
Learning theory and Gagne Briggs theory of
design – 3 of 5
60
During Retention
Make relevant Continue to focus on training
objectives
Stimulate
recall of prior
knowledge
Develop links between previous
learning and the new learning
(activation of memory).
Present
material
Use multiple media and make
interesting
Ask questions and get involvement
Social learning
Theory
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Factors to Consider
61. Learning and Transfer Factors as related to Social
Learning theory and Gagne Briggs theory of
design – 4 of 5
61
Make interesting Provide
guidance for
learning
Get trainees involved (symbolic
rehearsal)
Use relevant examples and offer
many of them
Behavioral
Reproduction/
Reinforcement
Encourage learning
Elicit
performance
Provide
feedback
Provide relevant practice process
(including maximum similarity
and/or different situations).
Let trainees know how they are
doing.
Social learning
Theory
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Factors to Consider
62. Learning and Transfer Factors as related to Social
Learning theory and Gagne Briggs theory of
design – 4 of 5
62
Ending Reinforcement
Be sure trainees see
results of training
Assess
performance
Provide time for examining objectives
to see what was accomplished.
Provide time to evaluate performance
level accomplished and provide
feedback
Sensitize trainees to
difficulty in transfer
of training
Enhance
retention
and transfer
Incorporate relapse-prevention
strategy. Provide commitment of
trainer to meet with trainees to
facilitate transfer.
Develop trainees goals for transfer of
training
Social learning
Theory
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Factors to Consider
63. Learning and Transfer Factors as related to Social
Learning theory and Gagne Briggs theory of
design – 5 of 5
63
Post-
Training
Reinforcement
Facilitate transfer
Obtain support from supervisor/
peers/ trainer to help trainee in
transferring the training to the
workplace.
Ensure that reward systems are in
line with newly trained behaviors.
Social learning
Theory
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Factors to Consider
64. Learning Curves
• Negatively accelerated – material easy,
experienced learner, high ability
• Positively accelerated – material complex,
learner inexperienced
• S shaped – positively accelerated in early
stages negatively in later (common)
64
65. Plateaus in Learning
• Hierarchy of habits
• Motivation declines
• Incorrect learning being eliminated
• Learning material that is complex whole
composed of several simple parts
65
