1. THE THREE ARGUMENTS
1. ID, as experts do it, is a problem-solving process, not a
procedure, made
up of a thinking process and a set of underlying principles.
2. The thinking process is similar to one designers in other fields
use
3. ID is a well-known and agreed-on set of principles and
heuristics that form the mental model for expert designers.
3. Nelson and Stolterman (2003), who use the terms ‘‘wicked
problems’’ and ‘‘tame problems,’’ point out the danger of
confusing the two:
‘‘By treating a wicked problem as a tame problem,
energy and resources are
misdirected, resulting in solutions that are not only
ineffective, but can actually
create more difficulty; because the approach used
is an intervention that is, by
necessity, inappropriately conceptualized.’’ (p. 17)
4. Lawson (2006), writing about the analogous process of
architectural design, says that ‘‘design problems are often
not apparent but must be found . . . Neither the goal nor the
obstacle to achieving that goal is clearly expressed in fact,
and the initial expression of design problems may often be
quite misleading’’ (p. 56).
Further, he clearly puts design in the ill-structured category,
when he says:
‘‘First, it is not clear that in the case of design problems the improved
state can be
undeniably and accurately identified. There may be an infinite number of
states
that offer some form of improvement over the current state, and it may
not be
possible to entirely agree on their relative benefits.’’ (p. 19)
5. Lawson (2004), citing Kees Dorst,
suggest five levels of expertise in design
problem solving:
1. ‘‘The novice tends to follow strict rules as laid down probably from
instruction.’’
2. ‘‘The beginner has moved on slightly and is more sensitive to the situation context
and more aware of exceptions to the rules.’’
3. ‘‘The competent problem solver . . . works in a substantially different
way, being much more selective as to which problem features to attend
to and having much more clearly articulated plans of working.’’
4. ‘‘The proficient problem solver has . . . acquired enough . . . experience and
reflection to accurately recognize important features and make
appropriate plans on a frequent basis.’’
5. ‘‘The expert recognizes the nature of the situation intuitively and performs actions
without the need for conscious mental effort.’’ (p. 107)
6. 2. The thinking process is similar to one
designers in other fields use.
‘‘Design is a disciplined inquiry engaged in for the
purpose of creating some new thing of practical utility.
It involves exploring an ill-defined problem, finding—as
well as solving—a problem(s), and specifying ways to
effect change. Design is carried out in numerous fields
and will vary depending on the designer and on the type
of thing that is designed. Designing requires a balance
of reason and intuition, an impetus to act, and an ability
to reflect on actions taken.’’ (Rowland, 1993, p. 80)
7. Lawson argues that they ‘‘cannot be comprehensively
formulated and that solutionscannot be logically derived
from them’’ (p. 182). He cites empirical evidencethat
designers ‘‘use solution rather than problem-focused
strategies. That isto say, their emphasis is more on
reaching a solution rather than on understanding the
problem’’ (p.182).
Lawson does an extensive analysis of design problems,
design solutions, and the design process itself. His
summary principles, and explanations of these principles,
are presented in Table 2.2
8.
9.
10.
11. 3. ID is a well-known and agreed-on set of
principles and heuristics that form the mental
model for expert designers.
ID is not a well-structured procedure, but rather a set of principles and heuristics that
expert IDers use to solve ill-structured problems, then the next issue to be addressed is
the nature and content of this set of principles and heuristics. A model of such principles
and heuristics has been developed (Silber, 2006).
1. This set of principles is merely one possible solution to the problem
2. This set of principles optimizes some components at the expense of others
3. This set of principles is never complete.
4. This set of principles provides a starting place for others to change and add.
5. It will have some unintended positive and negative effects.
12. The model is an attempt to represent a mental model of
what an expert Ider knows and how an expert IDer
approaches an ill structured ID problem. Since all
mental models are unique in both content and structure,
based on individual experience and problem context
(Foshay, Silber, & Stelnicki, 2003), it is impossible to
‘‘draw’’ what each IDer’smental model looks like.
The Silber ID Principle Model explain detail of the ideal ID model
13. KESIMPULAN
1. ID is NOT a procedure; rather, it is ill-
structured problem solving.
2.ID has a mental model of principles and a set
of heuristics for identifying and solving ID
problems.
