1. How to Encode Color for Visual
Similarity and Product Tagging
Mladen Fernežir, Lead Data Scientist & Co-Founder

2. Velebit AI
● AI custom R&D
● AI consultancy
● Data engineering
● Deployment and monitoring
● Fast research and prototyping
● Images, text, tabular data
● Team with 8 years of experience
● AI solutions for online marketplaces

3. Companies that trust us

4. Keywords and Topics
Fashion Items and Online Marketplaces
Color Tagging
Visual Similarity
Deep Learning Modeling
Technical Challenges and Solutions
Data Collection and Labeling

5. Motivation and use-cases
● Visual aspects matter for online marketplaces
● People are selling and buying various items
● Color, material, style, and brand recognition
● Tagging for faster selling
● Automatic category prediction
● Finding visually similar items
● Visual recommendations

6. Color Tagging

7. How difficult can it be to predict color?

8. We don't care about the background

9. Ronneberger, Olaf et al. “U-Net: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image
Segmentation.” MICCAI (2015).

10. Real-word items are messy
● Multiple colors on the
image
● Difference in lightning and
contrast
● The real item color can
appear differently on a
photo
● Often not easy for people to
agree

11. In-house labeling

12. Approaches for color tagging
● We modify some open source solutions, e.g.
https://github.com/algolia/color-extractor
○ background removal
○ automatic color pixel clustering
○ match pixel clusters to color names
● human labeling and cleaning
● teacher-student approach
○ get labels with a slow approach (human or automatic)
○ train a fast neural network to reproduce those labels

13. Why Deep Learning and neural networks?
● We want multiple objectives all at once
○ General category prediction
○ Other visual attributes
● We want a solution that is fast enough in production
● Deep Learning doesn't require feature crafting to learn complex
concepts
● Teacher (any slow process): provides correct labels
● Student (a neural network) :
○ reproduces the labels
○ does other tasks in parallel

14. Neural network color tagging (illustration)
iATC_Deep-mISF: A Multi-Label Classifier for Predicting the Classes of Anatomical Therapeutic
Chemicals by Deep Learning

15. Technical challenges

16. Focal loss helps with class disbalance
Focal Loss for Dense Object Detection

17. Fashion CLIP can create zero-shot predictions
Contrastive language and vision learning of general fashion concepts

18. Color Encoding for Visual Similarity

19. Finding visually similar items

20. We encode images as vectors
● We train the neural
network on multiple tasks
● We extract the network
features to encode images
as vectors
● Similar images get similar
high dimensional vectors
t-SNE visualization of CNN codes

21. We encode the color aspect as a specific vector

22. Pixel level approaches to encode color

23. Metric learning to encode pixels
● Color pixels can be
compared in the CIELAB
color space how close they
are perceptually
● Colors that are close in the
CIELAB space get
encoded into close vectors
(embeddings) Feature Fusion for Image Retrieval With Adaptive Bitrate
Allocation and Hard Negative Mining

24. CIELAB space
● Pixels close in the RGB
space are not perceptually
similar
● Pixels close in the CIELAB
space are perceptually
similar
● We encode the CIELAB
relations into color
embeddings

25. How to encode entire images into color vectors?
● There are many pixels on an image
● It's a long vector if we encode all of them separately
● We don't want to encode background pixels
● It works well to learn a proxy task first:
○ image color tagging
○ we take network features related to color tagging to create
image vectors
● We can also do image level metric learning for color

26. Metric learning to encode images
● We cluster pixels on an
image to form image color
signatures
● We use the Earth Mover
Distance to compare two
color signatures
● Metric learning can
encode this relationship
into image level color
vectors
Approximation Techniques for Indexing the Earth
Movers Distance in Multimedia Databases
The Earth Mover’s Distance as a Metric for
Image Retrieval

27. Metric learning to encode images

28.  Color Tagging
 teacher process to label the data
 ignore background
 neural network student
 multiple other parallel tasks
 Color Encoding for Visual Similarity
 vectors to represent color
 pixel level color vectors
 image level color vectors
 color tagging as a proxy task
 metric learning

29. Thank you!
Mladen Fernežir
Lead Data Scientist | Co-founder
mladen.fernezir@velebit.ai | velebit.ai
Velebit AI LLC