1. 0
Darleanne Lindemann
March 31, 2015
The Terotegenic Effects of Methamphetamine Use on Children
Lifespan Development
Spring 2015
Prof. Bandek

2. 1
The abuse of methamphetamines has risen steadily since the early 1990’s. Amphetamines
and methamphetamines have a similar physiological effect on the user and is metabolized the
same. Methamphetamine is the illicit production of ephedra. It is not expensive, easy to obtain,
has a longer half-life, and a greater high while amphetamines are manufactured and can be
obtained by prescription. Because of the social stigmas of drug abuse during pregnancy and the
abuse of more than one illicit drug there are not many case studies that give a complete profile of
the effects. The misuse of these stimulants has a biopsychosocial consequence for children, and
there are many barriers that children born to addicted mothers will face. In this paper, I will
discuss the rise of Amphetamine and Meth Amphetamine in our culture and the effect it has on
the children of abusers.
The drug amphetamine has been around since 1932 when researchers synthesized the new
chemical that is similar to ephedrine, (an ingredient found in the herb ma huang used for
centuries by the Chinese). (Hart and Ksir, 2011) Stimulants including methamphetamine,
cocaine, amphetamines, and ephedra stimulate the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous
system and are considered a sympathomimetic drug. The original use of amphetamines was an
over the counter medication for the treatment of asthma and a dilator of the nasal and bronchial
passages for cold relief. Other uses for amphetamines soon helped students and truck drivers
stay awake. Today, it is often still prescribed to children with diagnosed ADHD and to
overweight patients for assistance in weight loss. During the 1060’s, amphetamines had become
available through prescriptions and soon after people had started to abuse the drug. During this
time, it was sold at a very low cost making it readily available while heroin and cocaine had
strict controls and a high price tag. Amphetamines were not considered to be addictive and did
not cause concern until later when the abuse had started to get noticed. Other drugs of abuse

3. 2
marijuana, cocaine, heroin, and LSD became labeled as dangerous due to the hippie movement
in which IV drug use was called an endemic by the media and popular culture. The public
opinion at that time was that hippies and minorities were drug abusing criminals. Because
amphetamines were easy to obtain, had started to be abused, and the media propaganda that
caused fear of any substance that may have potential for abuse, amphetamines were added to the
list of dangerous drugs. As controls tightened over the manufacture of amphetamines, people
quickly turned to illicit methamphetamine made in “stovetop Laboratories”. (Hart and Ksir 2011)
The manufacturing of merchandise outside of the FDA guidelines resulted in a product that was
not regulated by purity or dose amounts. Further, media exaggeration had created an image of
the users of methamphetamine that is far worse than studies have shown at this time.
Most people are familiar with the term methamphetamine and even some of the more fashionable
slang words such as speed, meth, crystal, and crank. According to anecdotal sources, the most
popularly used slang for methamphetamine in Southern California today is “shit”. People often
use amphetamine when referring to methamphetamine, even though one is manufactured by a
drug corporation and subject to FDA guidelines and the other is illicitly manufactured and often
contains harmful toxins. There are few differences between Amphetamines and
Methamphetamines as both stimulate the monoamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine,
norepinephrine, and serotonin and produce a substantial increase in the dopamine levels in the
nucleus accumbens. Although they create the same effect in the user, methamphetamine causes a
much stronger effect and lasts longer. This is in part due to the mode of ingestion.
Methamphetamine users often smoke the drug into their lungs or shoot the drug intravenously;
both methods have an immediate effect without diluting it through the liver. The body processes
methamphetamine into amphetamine and then it is excreted in the urine as amphetamine. The

4. 3
difference between the two substances is how the drug is produced or manufactured. The
manufacturing process can determine how the material is ingested into the body and the course
of action that it will take in the body (Hart and Ksir 2011). For instance, amphetamines that are
produced by drug manufacturers are taken orally, and methamphetamines can be taken orally, by
sniffing, intravenously or by smoking. When taken orally, the stimulant is processed through the
liver, giving a reduced effect. Once ingested the effects are euphoria, rapid flight of ideas,
increased libido, insomnia, increased alertness and a heightened sense of well-being. They often
also produce the side effect of psychosis, paranoia, hallucinations and poor impulse control. The
physiological effects are increased heart rate, elevated temperature, increased blood pressure,
palpitations, irregular heart rate, dry mouth, decreased appetite, dilated pupils and more efficient
glucose utilization. Stimulants also constrict the flow of blood. The stimulant has also been
known to cause agitation, nervousness, violence and dysphoria during the later phase of the
drugs effect. I will concentrate on methamphetamines used during pregnancy.
Many people believe that addiction is a moral issue and a choice. While it starts out being a
choice, the use of methamphetamines make changes in the way the brain perceives pleasure and
happiness. According to Dr. Linda Chang in her study (Structural and metabolic brain changes
in the striatum associated with methamphetamine abuse 2007), the MRI scans clearly show these
changes. According to Denise Maguire, “research suggests that choices that addicts make are
driven by pathology rather than by failure of a moral compass”. (Maguire 2013) It is unknown if
the damage from using methamphetamine is permanent. However it has a long-term reduction in
the dopamine supply, creating anhedonia which is the inability to experience pleasure. “What is
known is that the inability to receive pleasure may last months or even years in the heaviest
users. Having such feelings and knowing that another dose will make them go away greatly

5. 4
challenges the former user who wishes to remain drug-free.” (Methamphetamine: Its history,
pharmacology and treatment 2011).
The abuse of illicit drugs has contributed to many poor conditions in the newborn. Studies
have shown that mothers who abuse alcohol, tobacco, opiates and benzodiazepines during their
pregnancy have infants that may be addicted and have many serious side effects. The media hype
regarding “meth babies” or “meth orphans” has generated a fundamentally emotional response
however studies showing any long-term effects on the children are few and inconclusive. Some
of the known effects of methamphetamines on pregnancy include an increased rate of premature
delivery and placental abruption. Females are likely to be shorter and lighter than their peers
during their earlier years, and the males tend to be taller and heavier. Their academic
achievement scores were lower however it is tricky to correlate the ties to the drug exposure
because this may also be caused by the psychosocial aspects involved. (Maternal
methamphetamine use during pregnancy and child outcome: what do we know. 2004)
Studies have not been able to define the abstinence syndrome without a doubt following the
stimulant use during pregnancy for many reasons. Media sensationalism has generated fear for
many women who abuse methamphetamine. This fear of public censure, the loss of the babies to
foster homes, and of the poor opinion against them prohibits them from disclosing to medical
practitioners the fact of their use. They will often go without prenatal care to keep their abuse of
drugs a secret. Additionally, many people who abuse stimulants also abuse other substances that
can alter the outcomes of the newborn. These other substances include tobacco and alcohol,
making it almost impossible to get a complete picture of the direct effect the stimulants have on
the neonate in any of the studies that have been completed. Some examinations of cocaine
abuse during pregnancy that were done on rats and later correlated with human subjects show

6. 5
evidence of poor fetal development. These effects included retinal defects, cleft palates, rib
malformation, cardiac anomalies, fetal growth retardation, decreased rate of physical growth and
delayed motor development”. Additionally, the toxic effect of neuron exposure during gestation
shows chemical alterations in the central nervous system that may be linked to learning
impairment, behavioral problems, increased motor activity and enhanced conditioned avoidance
responses. (Growth, Development, and Behavior in Early Childhood Following Prenatal
Cocaine Exposure: a systematic review. 2001).
Identifying perinatal substance abuse is significant to decrease poor neonate outcomes.
Additionally, quick identification increases the opportunity to give assistance resources to the
mother. Therefore, a tool has been created by a panel of multidisciplinary perinatal substance
abuse advisory committee. This committee includes clinical nursing directors, nurses,
counselors, social workers, physicians, community-based nurses, counselors, social workers,
police officers, people in recovery and Department of Human Services administrators. This tool
is called the Maternal-Newborn risk screener and is filled out by the admitting nurse. It is used
by the nursing staff to assess all women presenting for delivery for potential abuse without bias
to race or socioeconomic status. (Implementing a perinatal substance abuse screening tool. 2011)
The utilization of the Maternal-Newborn risk screener has enabled the clinical care staff to make
an assessment of the possibility of fetal exposure to illicit substances. It gives an indication that
the maternal toxicology screens and meconium toxicology screens are needed on the infant to
determine the amount of exposure.
After identifying that the newborn has positively been exposed to illegal substances, it is
important to screen the neonate for neonatal abstinence syndrome. Exposure and subsequent
abstinence from the abuse can create symptoms in the newborn. Neurological CNS symptoms

7. 6
can include; seizures, tremors, sleep disturbance, hyperirritability, excoriation to skin surfaces
(rubbing), high-pitched inconsolable crying, and increased muscle tone called Hypertonia, (an
increased tightness of muscle tone and reduced capacity of the muscle to stretch). The
Autonomic system dysregulation can include symptoms such as tachypnea (rapid breathing),
high temperature, sweating, nasal stuffiness, mottled color, and nasal flaring. Gastrointestinal
signs include emesis (vomiting), poor feeding, excessive sucking, and loose or watery stools.
(The Right Tool at the Right Time: Examining the Evidence Surrounding Measurement of
Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome. 2014).
According to Ms. Wendy Castanon RN, Director of NICU at San Antonio Regional Hospital,
infants who score high on the IAS sheet will need to be on methadone for approximately 1 to 2
weeks.
A tool for neonatal abstinence syndrome has been developed by the same committee
discussed above. Like the tool for maternal assessment, it is used and documented by the infants
nurse after delivery. Newborns that have been exposed to stimulants prior to delivery exhibit
varying symptoms. Symptomology will depend upon the amount of substance used, how often it
was used during the pregnancy, the method of its use and at what point in the pregnancy it was
used. The limited studies completed indicate that low or moderate usage will have little effect on
the newborn outside of low birth weight, smaller head circumference, and lower APGAR scores.
High usage of methamphetamines has the same symptoms however infants may have additional
and more severe symptoms of withdrawal. Those with a higher score will need treatment in the
NICU often for two or more weeks.
According to the few studies on methamphetamines use, during pregnancy, it is not clear
what the long-term effects will be. There is probably no greater social stigma against parenting

8. 7
like that of being a drug user. “Maternal alcohol and drug use during pregnancy is a significant
public health issue that has far-reaching consequences for the child, the family, and the
community.” Children who are born to mothers that abuse methamphetamines are more likely to
enter foster care and often have more negative child protection. Substance abuse causes or
exacerbates ill-treatment of children, and neglect. Kids whose parents use drugs and alcohol are
three times more likely to be in neglected or abusive situations. (Implementing a perinatal
substance abuse screening tool. Advances in Neonatal Care 2011)
Living in a home where substance abuse exists openly creates an atmosphere where the child
is psychologically affected. The risk factors include poverty, chaotic and dangerous lifestyles,
sexual and physical abuse. Women who receive treatment for drug dependence have a higher
possibility for psychopathologies including affective and personality disorders and depression.
They often have lower education levels, less desire to conform to social norms and have more
chances of having been arrested. Violence may be a factor from the males that abuse the
substances. (Maternal methamphetamine use during pregnancy and child outcome: what do we
know. 2004). What this indicates is a family setting that does not give support, safety or
consistency. Children growing up in this atmosphere may be subjected to bullying and poor self-
image. Additionally, the association between methamphetamine abuse and domestic violence is
strong. “Methamphetamine abusing parents are reported to have a parenting style described as
“polar parenting” in which the treatment of their children swings between extremes of anger and
apathy.” (Methamphetamine: Its history, pharmacology and treatment. 2013). In addition to the
home life situations, there is the danger of home manufacturing that can expose the child to toxic
chemicals and the possibility of fire in the home. The toxic chemicals used in the production of
methamphetamine can and often do spill onto the carpet, making a dangerous home atmosphere.

9. 8
Additionally, some users of methamphetamines choose to use the drug intravenously. Users may
get careless and leave their contaminated needles where children can be injured by them.
One of the more well-known results of methamphetamine use is the changes and
enhancement of sexual thoughts and behaviors. For many users, methamphetamine affects the
quality and quantity of the sexual experience and the judgment of the user may also be impaired.
These conditions could lead to inappropriate materials being left within easy access of the child,
sexual acts in front of the child, or even in some cases sexual abuse of the child. Another known
result of the use of methamphetamines is the self-absorption that can cause neglect of the child.
These children often grow up in homes that are not clean, do not have access to regular meals or
hygiene.
The effects of the chaotic lifestyle and abuse can be emotionally disturbing and may cause
mental health and emotional problems. Due to the home atmosphere that the children are raised
in, there is a significant chance that the children will not be considered as “normal” by
themselves or their peers resulting in being a social outcast. Being in the environment of homes
where parents are substance abusers gives the impression of acceptance. There is a greater
chance that the children growing up in homes where methamphetamine is abused will also abuse
methamphetamines.
Often, children of methamphetamine abusers are taken from their family and placed in foster
homes which can be just as traumatic for the child as being in the abusive home. Being placed
with others can cause distrust in authorities, depression and anxiety in the child. Additionally,
the child will need to adapt to a very different way of living.

10. 9
Unfortunately, there are very little studies done on the subject of growing up with meth
making our knowledge of the subject incomplete and filled with myth, not facts. More studies
would be helpful in order to empirically treat the problem of methamphetamine abuse. Having
one person in the home abusing methamphetamine can have an effect on everyone in that
household that requires an understanding of the far-reaching results.
In conclusion, although the abuse of methamphetamines has not shown significant
teratogenic effects during pregnancy, it has many other profound problems for infants and
children. The newborns are often premature, and in extreme cases need medical interventions to
help mitigate the abstinence syndrome caused by the addiction. The children are often neglected
and abused by parents who are addicts, or they are placed in foster care.

11. 10
Chang, L., Alicata, D., Ernst, T., & Volkow, N. (2007). Structural and metabolic brain changes
in the striatum associated with methamphetamine abuse. Addiction, 102(s1), 16-32.
Chang, Ernst, and Volkow 2007
Weisheit, R. (2013). Methamphetamine: Its history, pharmacology and treatment. Hazelden
Publishing.
Weisheit 2013
Hart, Carl L., Ksir, Charles (2011) Drugs, Society and Human Behavior. 15th Edition McGraw-
Hill Publishing
Hart and Ksir 2011
Maguire, D. (2014). Drug addiction in pregnancy: disease not moral failure. Neonatal Network:
The Journal of Neonatal Nursing, 33(1), 11-18.
Maguire 2014
Hudak, M. L., Tan, R. C., Frattarelli, D. A., Galinkin, J. L., Green, T. P., Neville, K. A., ... &
Watterberg, K. L. (2012). Neonatal drug withdrawal. Pediatrics, 129(2), e540-e560.
Hudak, Tan, Frattarelli, Galinkin, Green, Neville and Watterberg 2012
Hudak, et al. 2012
Newnam, K. M. (2014). The Right Tool at the Right Time: Examining the Evidence Surrounding
Measurement of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome. Advances in Neonatal Care, 14(3), 181-186.
Newman, 2014
Wallman, C. M., Smith, P. B., & Moore, K. (2011). Implementing a perinatal substance abuse
screening tool. Advances in Neonatal Care, 11(4), 255-267.
Wallman, Smith and Moore 2011
Chomchai, C., Manorom, N., Watanarungsan, P., Yossuck, P., & Chomchai, S. (2004).
Methamphetamine abuse during pregnancy and its health impact on neonates born at Siriraj
Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical medicine and public health,
35, 228-231.

12. 11
Chomchai, Manorom, Watanarungsan, Yossuck and Chomchai 2004
Chomchai et al. 2004
Wouldes, T., LaGasse, L., Sheridan, J., & Lester, B. (2004). Maternal methamphetamine use
during pregnancy and child outcome: what do we know. NZ Med J, 117(1206), 1-10.
Wouldes, LaGasse, Sheridan and Lester 2004
Wouldes, et al. 2004
Frank, D. A., Augustyn, M., Knight, W. G., Pell, T., & Zuckerman, B. (2001). Growth,
development, and behavior in early childhood following prenatal cocaine exposure: a systematic
review. Jama, 285(12), 1613-1625.
Frank, Augustyn, Knight, Pell and Zuckerman 2001
Frank, et al. 2001