This document provides an overview of social values and institutions in Ndebele society, such as marriage, motherhood, and the extended family. It discusses how these values are portrayed as changing in two Ndebele novels due to social change. While social change is inevitable, the document argues that Ndebele society should maintain important social values that ensure stability and survival. These values are interrelated and guide behavior. The impact of social change on perceptions of the marriage institution in the novels is then examined in more detail.

1. 1
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Area of investigation
This study discusses the impact of social change on Ndebele social values and institutions such
as marriage, motherhood and the extended family as portrayed in Makhalisa’s Umhlaba lo
(1977) and Mlilo’s Lifile (1975). The study advances the argument that while social change is
inevitable in every society, the uncritical acceptance of inadequately understood values is
problematic in the sense that it fuels the creation of a society based on conflict and tension
between men and women and the young and the old. In this study, social values are discussed as
qualities and beliefs that are shared within a specific culture or group of people. They help a
society to remain stable and hence, form an important part of the culture of a society. Values, as
noted by Lustig (1988: 25), guide behaviour and almost automatically dictate what is good,
proper or moral. They account for the stability of the social order and they provide general
guidelines for conduct. The social values and institutions discussed in this research relate to
marriage, motherhood, childbearing and the extended family.
1.1 Objectives
This study seeks to;
1. Highlight the significance of Ndebele social values in Ndebele society,
2. Examine the impact of social change on Ndebele social values.
1.2 Justification
The study arises out of the researcher’s realization that the Ndebele society has embraced social
change to the extent that Ndebele important social values and institutions have been pushed

2. 2
aside. Social values form an important part of any given society. They explain the ways in which
a society’s social processes operate. The erosion of these social values should not be overlooked
as it has massive effects such as family disintegration, failed marriages, neglect of children’s
needs, social conflict and individualism. The study seeks to point out that the maintenance of
these values shapes not only the future, but also the identity of the Ndebele society.
It is an inevitable fact that interaction with other cultures results in social change. According to
Hoopes (1979: 3), because of interaction with other societies, culture tends to be dynamic and as
such, there might be some changes in a culture of a particular society. This research seeks to find
out why some aspects of a society should be maintained despite the changes a culture may be
subjected to. Identity therefore is important in this study as it enables the Ndebele society to
appreciate its origins so as to know how to face the future. Nyathi (2001: xi), concurs with this in
his assertion to the effect that:
A people without a clear identity and pride is a lost people, stripped of all confidence and
self esteem. Such people is doomed to continue as hewers and drawers of water for all
time.
The fact that societies interact, results in some of them adopting some of the cultural elements of
other societies. This should not cause a society to look down upon its own values. This entails
that social change should not be embraced at the expense of Ndebele values. This is supported by
Chinweizu (1987: 7) who posits that;
Foreign traditions are part of the human experience. One should certainly know about
them, if only because one must know one’s environment, and especially ones enemy. One
should certainly use items from other traditions provided they are consistent with African
cultural independence and serve African objectives; but one should neither ape nor revere
them, let alone sacrifice African interest to them.

3. 3
It is in this context that the researcher’s main thrust is to examine the significance of Ndebele
social values and the impact that social change has exerted on them as portrayed in Ndebele
literature.
1.3 Theoretical framework
The research attempts to critique the selected Ndebele texts depiction of social change and its
impact on Ndebele social values in the context of Africana Womanism which Hudson-Weems
(1993: 24) defines as:
An ideology created and designed for all women and men of African descent. It is
grounded in African culture, and therefore, it necessarily focuses on the unique
experiences, struggles and needs, and desires of African women.
Africana Womanism is helpful in this study because it asserts the co-existence of men and
women in a concerted struggle for the survival of the entire community (Hudson- Weems,
2004:1). This theory regards women in the struggle as operating side by side with men though in
different roles. Since this study is on the impact of social change on Ndebele social values
Africana Womanism is appropriate and relevant to this study as it emphasizes collective
responsibility by men and women rather than individual rights and personal interests.
1.4 ResearchMethodology
The research uses as its primary sources Barbara Makhalisa’s Umhlaba Lo and S.O. Mlilo’s
Lifile. Other works by female writers in general will be used as secondary sources to help

4. 4
substantiate the researcher’s findings. Critical works, especially those dealing with women and
their role in the society will be used to highlight some of the ideas to be discussed. Historical
texts will also be handy as secondary sources of data to concretize the argument.
1.5 Literature Review
Research on the impact of social change on African values is not without precedence. Gaidzanwa
(2008) has written on the images of women in Zimbabwean literature. Her focus is on the
stereotyping of women in pre-independence and post-independence Shona and Ndebele novels
by male authors. Gaidzanwa evaluates how women in these novels have been portrayed. Some of
the portrayals include the depiction of good and proper women as those who can endure the ills
of their husbands and from the rural areas, while those in urban areas are portrayed as bad,
corrupt and immoral. Consequently women are portrayed as valuing motherhood and marriage
and work hard to get these.
Mguni (2006) in African womanhood in Zimbabwean literature has an article entitled
“Zimbabwean women writers and activism. In that article, Mguni explores the unity between
men and women in solving problems in the society. She also touches on collectivism rather than
individual interests as expected in the African society. She also examines some literary works by
female writers as they highlight their plight in securing a good marriage and children which
enables them to be respected in the society. Issues to do with children and marriage in modern
society are also discussed and despite being exposed to western culture, marriage and
motherhood characterize respect for women. All these compliment the role played by men in the

5. 5
society. Women in this sense are not inferior to their male counterparts but are fundamental to
the welfare of the society. Their absence in terms of wifehood, motherhood and womanhood is
detrimental to the survival of the society.
Hudson-Weems (2004) examines how black women should formulate a concept which defines
their agendas from an African cultural and historical perspective rather than adopting European
concepts whose ideologies are alien to African culture. She also explores the need for African
women and men to work together in the development of the whole society. Hudson-Weems also
tackles African problems from a collective point of view. This study will benefit from her
contributions because it seeks to highlight the significance of Ndebele social values.
In an article titled “Gender development in Shona literature” in Culture and Development:
Perspectives from the South, Chinyowa highlights some literary works which portray images and
behaviours of African women affected by western women liberation movements and shows how
this has affected post-colonial gender relations. Chinyowa’s ideas are relevant to this study as it
seeks to assess how social change has impacted upon Ndebele social values.
Emecheta in Joys of Motherhood (1978) celebrates the pleasures women derive from fulfilling
their responsibilities to their families in matters such as motherhood, childbearing and nurturing.
Her work is exemplary in this study because it emphasizes the importance of cultural grounding
and the pleasure that comes from executing one’s responsibilities in the context of the struggle
for social well- being.

6. 6
CHAPTER TWO
NDEBELE SOCIAL VALUES AND SOCIAL CHANGE
2.1 Introduction
This chapter explores changing perceptions towards Ndebele social values and institutions such
as marriage, motherhood and the extended family in Mlilo’s Lifile (1975) and Makhalisa’s
Umhlaba Lo (1977). The discussion occurs in the context of the importance of these values in the
Ndebele society in which they are seen as critical in family survival. The discussion relies on
Africana Womanist principles propounded by Hudson-Weems (1993) who argues that without
such values, human survival is threatened.
2.2 Social values and the Ndebele society
The Ndebele society in Zimbabwe is an important cluster in the make-up of the Zimbabwean
society. Like many other African societies, Ndebele society places a lot of importance on its
culture and values as significant in the struggle for survival. Given such a background, and the
impact of other cultural values on the Ndebele society, this study discusses the portrayal of the
changes that have visited Ndebele society using two Ndebele texts. In this study, culture is
understood as a set of collective ideas about why things are as they are, what people with
different social characteristics are like and how they will act in different situations, as well as
how they should act. Culture consists of values, attitudes and habits that people learn from the
community to which they belong. These values, attitudes and habits are therefore broad, abstract,
shared standards of what is right, desirable and worthy of respect and they set the general tone of

7. 7
cultural and social life (Gelles, 1999: 88). Mazrui (2002: 3) adds that culture is “a system of
interrelated values that are strong enough to condition perception, judgement and behaviour in a
given society.”
Values, on the other hand, cluster around activities and attitudes which serve needs of the group,
or a large or dominant portion of the group, about ways of life which have become habitual or
customary and therefore require little conscious adjustment from day to day or they are so
intertwined with other elements in the culture that disturbance of one part of the complex
threatens others (Gillin & Gillin, 1960: 157).
The Ndebele society is guided by various social values which ensure survival and regeneration.
These include respect for one another, collectivism, motherhood, marriage, extended family and
complimentary roles in the society. An important factor about these social values is that they do
not operate independently but are intertwined to the extent that a disturbance of one affects all of
them. It is therefore important that they are maintained so as to ensure stability. In the marriage
institution, for instance, the union is not only between the husband and wife. All clan members
are involved. This is where the role of extended family comes in. Furthermore, a marriage results
in procreation and during this process, collectivism overrides individualism as society sets about
nurturing and grooming the new member of the family. Thus, it is clear that the Ndebele society
prioritizes the above social values in so far as they ensure stability and survival.
2.3 The Marriage institution
In the Ndebele society, marriage was and is still a social obligation for every individual. The
Ndebele society expects one to get married when they come of age. Marriage in the Ndebele

8. 8
society ensures the continuity of the society through procreation. This is clear in Ndebele orature
in which the social expectations that the Ndebele society has on its members are laid down. In
proverbs such as “kulele ngakunye nga kubili nga kuyavusana” (two people are able to help each
other unlike when you are alone), Ndebele orature makes clear that avoidance of marriage
amounts to dereliction of duty. In fact, the Ndebele society has a variety of ways of encouraging
its members to marry and participate in procreation. For instance, proverbs that encourage
marriage are found in both Shona and the Ndebele societies, for instance, individuals are always
reminded that they will be buried with rats on their backs if they should get to die without
children. The shame associated with such treatment compels individuals to marry and procreate.
While the Ndebele society places such emphasis on the marriage institution, it is now clear that
“Africa has undergone tremendous transformations since its contact with European and other
foreign cultural elements (Baoke-Boaten, 2010: 104). The impact of this contact is that Africa
emerged from it with a bruised cultural identity. This contact with other cultures, especially
European cultures, had a lasting impact on the attitude of Africans towards their culture. The
Ndebele did not survive the influence of European culture as evidenced in the change of attitude
shown by some women towards marriage. In Makhalisa’s Umhlaba Lo (1977), young women
view marriage as an institution that hinders them from progressing in society. Thus, they desire
to distance themselves from the institution. In the conversation between Sibonile, Lulu and
Nozipho, Nozipho and Lulu protest about getting married. Nozipho (p68), states that,
Emendweni kawukwazi nje ukubana ulanda ijele ntombi. Umuntu abekelwe imithetho
engapheliyo, abesehlala eququbele njengebhantinti. Angiqali sibili. Mina ngifuna
inkululeko yokwenza intando yomoya wami.

9. 9
Do you not know that marriage is like being in jail? Many rules will be passed for you
and you will end up living as a slave. I will never do such because I want the freedom to
do what my heart desires.
In support of Nozipho’s argument, Lulu adds that;
Kodwa uqinisile Nozi. Khona ukuthi utshone utatazela omunye umuntu sibili elebumba
lomdaka njengawe, umphekela, ugezisa impahla zakhe, uzelule uthanyele indlu, udobhe
amasokisi lezicathulo okuphongujikwa lapha lalaphaya a-ah, ngingezake ngibalise
ngikuqede.
You are telling the truth my friend. To spend the whole day doing house chores, while
somebody who is just like you does nothing, cooking, washing their clothes,iron the
clothes, pick their clothes for them, the list is endless.
From the above conversation, one notes that marriage is perceived as a hindrance to women’s
freedom since it entails doing all the household chores on the part of the women. Thus Nozipho
and her friends choose to live outside the marriage institution in order to actualize their freedom.
The friends associate the responsibilities that accompany marriage with slavery. Their
understanding of the institution is narrow and misguided in the sense that it does not shed light
on the bigger picture surrounding the marriage institution. The same attitude can be traced in
Mlilo’s characters Biziwe and Lifile. Lifile is a morally upright young lady who falls in love
with Thando with a view of getting married. Their plans are interrupted by Biziwe who
misguides Lifile into running away to a place where their perceived freedom as women is
recognized. Thus Lifile abandons Thando and ends up in prostitution. The attitudes of young
women towards marriage in the selected texts smacks of radical feminists sensibilities in which
the basic root of women’s oppression is marriage. Radical feminists criticize marriage as a site
for women’s oppression as married women have few independent rights (Beauvoir, 1997). They

10. 10
view marriage as supportive of patriarchy, an ideology whereby males are the primary political,
social, economic and moral authorities. Thus it is the radical feminist’s point of departure that
patriarchy is the worst form of oppression which society must eradicate.
In Ndebele society, as is the case in all other African societies, marriage is necessary for the
continued existence of the society as it results in procreation, another important social value in
the Ndebele society. According to Weinrich (1982: 35), every person in the society has a moral
obligation to marry and to contribute to the social reproduction of his group. This most basic
value, to beget or bear children, is instilled in all members of the society from early childhood
onwards. No one is allowed to shun this duty and social pressures are mounted to ensure
compliance. Weinrich (1982: 35) further argues that social pressure on those who delay marriage
takes the form of ridicule and the withdrawal of services. Consequently in the Ndebele society
marriage is valued for its role in procreation, creation and cementing of bonds between the
families involved. This is supported by Radcliffe- Brown & Forde (1950:10) who posit that “in
Africa, a marriage is not simply a union of a man and a woman; it is an alliance between two
families or bodies of kin.”
The foregoing entails that marriage was and is not a union of the two people only but both clans
participate in the marriage. Therefore marriage creates a relationship between two families which
will ensure the continued existence of the clans through children born in the marriage. However,
radical feminists view marriage from a narrow standpoint where roles done by women are seen
as oppressive. This is misleading in the sense that in the Ndebele society, men and women play
complimentary roles in marriage so as to ensure group survival.

11. 11
In both Umhlaba Lo (1977) and Lifile (1975), the female characters complain about the roles
they perform in marriage. They do not take into consideration those of their male counterparts.
To that extent their plight becomes individualistic, selfish and oblivious of the realities of the
priorities of group survival. To buttress this point Hudson –Weems (1993: 7) states that;
The mainstream feminist’s assertion is for equal and individual rights for white women in
a patriarch where white women have monopolized power. Her fight against her white
male counterpart has to do with her submission and rights of property and her subsequent
inferior status in society attributable to years of domination by the males in her life. The
Africana woman, on the other hand has a different attitude and approach to the man in
her world. His presence assures her of the necessary for the Africana female to see her
men as herprimary enemy as does the white feminist. Complimentarity between men and
women is encouraged.
Hudson-Weems (1993) puts emphasis on the need for both men and women of African descent
to separate themselves from alien concepts of gender relationships. She argues that Africans
should understand the history of their struggle for life as it is totally different from that of non-
Africans. By understanding where the struggle of the African emanated from Africans will be
able to appreciate the nature of their gender relations, hence they will understand the significance
of their social values.
While marriage is an important institution for both males and females in Ndebele society,
feminists influence of western culture is such that characters in Makhalisa’s and Mlilo’s texts
view it as an institution that oppresses women because of the roles assigned to them which are
regarded as inferior to those of their male counterparts. But, as Ndlovu et al (2013: 17) note,
women in Ndebele society are valued for their roles which include, among others, childbearing.
Unfortunately, these roles were distorted during colonialism when women were classified as
minors. The classification of African women as minors can be attributed to the Victorian

12. 12
ideologies which were prominent in Europe. These ideologies emphasized that the place of
women is in the kitchen. Thus, it appears that marriage as an institution in Ndebele society does
not oppress women in terms of the roles they play; rather it emancipates them as the backbone of
the family. Makhalisa’s Umhlaba Lo (1977) notes that because Lulu and Nozipho opt for a life
of freedom by denouncing marriage, they end up having multiple partners all in the name of
freedom. This is against Ndebele social and moral values as can be derived in the Ndebele
proverb “ibele lendlela kalivuthwa” (you cannot change a promiscuous person)
The same can be noted with regards to Mlilo’s Lifile (1975) where the likes of Biziwe and Lifile
who opt to liberate themselves from the so called shackles of marriage end up leading
directionless lives. Furthermore, their yearning for freedom from marriage and the way they
behave cause the society to lose respect for them. This is supported by Weinrich (1882:35) who
points out that a woman could not remain single or unmarried in the society without losing
respect. This concretizes the argument that marriage as a social value in the Ndebele society was
and is still significant to the extent of according one status in society. This is the backdrop
against which Hudson-Weems (1993:68), states that:
The Africana womanist , above all, demands respect for and recognition of herself in
order to acquire true self-esteem and self-worth, which in turn enables her, among other
things, to have complete and positive relationships with all people … be that as it may ,
whether it is a problem of race, class, or sex the Africana woman must insist upon both
respect of her person and recognition of her humanness so that she may more effectively
fulfill her role as a positive and responsible co-partner in the overall Africana struggle.
From the above statement, it is clear that in the African set up, personal gains play second fiddle
to communal balance. Thus, African women aspire to be respected and recognized in their
community. This in turn enables them to have good relationships with the society and their male

13. 13
counterparts. In Makhalisa’s Umhlaba Lo (1977), Nozipho and Lulu conduct themselves in a
manner that ends up distorting the relationship they have with the society because they believe in
narrow personal freedom. Consequently their views on marriage are negatively affected in the
process. What is clear, therefore, is that marriage is not a one-sided institution It incorporates
both men and women who work together in overcoming challenges and building a sane family
and a balanced society.
Also noteworthy is the fact that in Makhalisa’s Umhlaba Lo (1977), Lulu argues that married
women spend most of their time cleaning for their husbands. However, one notes that tension
erupts as a result of women adopting a system that does not fit in the Ndebele marriage
institution. The effects of the tension are immense as they not only affect the husband and wife
but also the children and society at large. This is supported in the poem We Eva , usulingana lo
Adam? by Khumalo in the anthology Giya Mthwakazi (1990: 68). The poem raises questions
that refect the appalling state of the Ndebele marriage institution;
Kutheni bo?
Kwaxokozela uluntu
Kwenzenjani uMagumede
Engasamguqel’ owakwakhe
Esemane etshitshiliza imiganu
UnXumalo ewaqede amabili
Engasifakanga emlonyeni
UmDawini esebhixana lezitshubo
Izingane zakoMkhwebu
Seziphonguphaphatheka nje.

14. 14
What is happening?
There is tension
What has happened to Ma Gumede
She no longer kneels for her husband
She throws the plates at him
Nxumalo spends two whole days
Without eating anything
Why is Mdawini washing baby nappies?
Why do the Mkhwebu children
Seem traumatized?
From the above poem, one notes the changing attitudes towards the marriage institution in the
Ndebele society. As this change grips society, women strive to break from the so-called bondage
of marriage. In the process, they destroy the society in that tension is created as Ndebele men and
women compete for the dominant roles in the family set up.
2.4 Motherhood in the Ndebele society
As is clear from the foregoing, marriage as an important institution in the Ndebele society
enables the society to continue its existence. The continued existence is enabled by procreation.
Thus, in the Ndebele society, as is the case in all other African societies, children are precious as
they cement the marriage. Matshakayile-Ndlovu & Ncube (1995: 47) argue that in Ndebele
culture, a home is a home because of children. Thus, without children, it is generally difficult to
sustain a marriage. Children constitute a shared value between husband and wife. They represent
both the past and the future in the sense that they represent their ancestors while also carrying

15. 15
within them the seeds from which future generations will sprout. Ndebele parents, like all other
African parents, see their children as their security in old age. They invest in them because they
know without children the future is bleak. Thus, Matshakayile-Ndlovu & Ncube (1995: 47)
further argue that;
Esintwini umuntu wayethathela ukuthi akhe umuzi. Esintwini umuzi ngumuzi
ngabantwana. Ngakho ke ukutholakala kwaba ntwana kwakuyiyona nsika yomuzi.
In the Ndebele culture an individual got married to build a home. A home becomes a
home because of children. The presence of children was what defined and strengthened a
home.
This entails that the Ndebele society values and encourages childbearing and nurturing among
women. The Ndebele consider child bearing as a duty that is expected of every women. They
also encourage that children should not be seen as obstacles or hindrances in the society. If
anything, they emphasize that children bring great value to the family and also extend the lineage
of that particular family. Thus, women in the Ndebele society are valued greatly for their
childbearing role (Ndlovu et al, 2013: 7). This is clear in Ndebele proverbs such as (intandane
enhle ngumakhothwa ngunina) which illustrates that women play an important role in children’s
lives to the extent that it is better for a child to lose a father than to lose a mother. In these
proverbs, the Ndebele make it clear that without women as child bearers, humanity would be
extinct. The proverbs urge society to respect women and the role they play as mothers. Thus,
contrary to the view held by radical feminists, for example, that biology is responsible for the
oppression of women in the society as they argue that roles assigned to women as mothers
restrict women’s success (Singh, 1977:30), motherhood is a cherished value in the Ndebele
society. The view held by anti-marriage and anti-mothering characters in Makhalisa’s Umhlaba

16. 16
Lo (1977) and Mlilo’s Lifile (1975) is articulated by radical feminist scholars such as Heywood
(2003: 248) who has it that:
Patriarchal societies propagate the ideology of motherhood which restrict women’s
mobility and burdens them with the responsibility to nurture and rear children. The
biological factor to bear children is linked to the social position of women’s
responsibility of motherhood, nurturing, educating and raising children by devoting
themselves to family.
Heywood (2003) highlights that patriarchy is the main cause of the burden thrust upon women
through childbearing. This burden is viewed as hindrance to women’s success in the society. The
argument advanced is that the root of women’s oppression is biological. Thus, as a result of
childbearing, women become weak and dependent on men for physical survival. Due to such
dependency, women are oppressed (Singh, 1997: 30). Bhasin (1991:8) echoes the same view by
arguing that the ideology of motherhood subjugates women and perpetuates patriarchy, which
not only forces women to be mothers but also determines the condition of their motherhood
However one notes that these ideologies are misleading in the sense that they assume that all
socio-eco-political differences between men and women are rooted in biology.
For women to be liberated from this so-called burden, a biological revolution whereby women
make decisions with regards to their bodies is advocated. This entails that women advocate for
“our bodies ourselves”. With regards to Umhlaba Lo (1977) and Lifile (1975), they portray
women who have no desire to have any children as they view children as obstacles. This is
revealed in the conversation between Sibonile, Lulu and Nozipho (p68-69);
. Nozipho: Umntwana yinto ehluphayo yini Sibonile? Lesitaladini ungamdobha nje.
Lulu: Mina angibafuni abantwana baletha udubo
Nozipho: Its not hard to get a child, even on the streets you can get one.

17. 17
Lulu: As for me, I don’t want any children they bring problems.
In the above conversation between Nozipho and Lulu, it is clear that children have already been
classified as synonymous with problems. This can be attributed to the fact that women have
already ruled out marriage as it is considered as a life time jail sentence. Therefore, since
children in the Ndebele society are a product of the union between men and women, it becomes a
perpetuation of that perceived jail sentence to have any. However, the Ndebele society is a
communal society. Decisions taken by an individual affect the whole society. Thus, ideologies
that advocate for personal interests contradict Ndebele social values. The concept of “our bodies
ourselves” is revealed in Lifile (p47) when Biziwe retaliates by saying;
Ngifuna ukumtshela sibili, angangishawuti mina, ngisebenzisa owami futhi angiceli
owomunye. Limtshele kangizalwa nguye mina, ubaba kangigadeli ngiyazalusa mina.
Tell him that I use my own body, not anybody else’s. He should not shout at me. He is
not my father to guard me. I can look after myself
In Mlilo’s novel, Biziwe’s quest for independence from marriage and motherhood brings her to
Bulawayo where, like other women in the city, she enjoys her sexual freedom. Through Biziwe,
Mlilo captures the changing perceptions towards motherhood in which the emphasis is that “a
woman’s body is her inherent property, not to be owned, used, and dumped by men” (Molara,
1994: 219). One notes that the decision taken by Biziwe and Lifile to do as they please with their
bodies in Lifile (1975), does not only affect them as individuals but their families. This is
supported by the facts that even though these two young ladies had decided to go into
prostitution, Sekahleziphi and Josathi do not just sit back. Instead it becomes their duty as elders

18. 18
to try and reason with them on the path they have chosen. Consequently, the decision taken by
Biziwe and Lifile affects the cherished values of motherhood.
In contrast to the ideologies of freedom from motherhood, the Ndebele society places high value
on the cooperation and complementation of roles between men and women. Ndebele culture is
clear that while men occupy themselves with physical and back-breaking labour, women
complement them as mothers, nurturers of families. Thus, women are expected to fulfill the
mothering role in which a child is the crown of the marriage, the fulfillment of the promise of
love and survival (Maillu, 1988: 3). He further argues that the first natural acceptance to the
African, in so far as woman to man sexual relation in marriage is concerned, is their coming
together primarily to procreate. More so, children are regarded as the greatest wealth for they
guarantee the continuity of the group over time and help living members to produce the
necessary daily food. Children therefore give a pass for men and women to be accorded adult
status (Weinrich, 1982:105) .The statement “umuzi ngumuzi ngabantwana” (a home is what it is
because of children) is very common in the Ndebele society which ensures the value of
motherhood in the Ndebele society. Consequently, children in Ndebele society are conceived in a
marriage environment which implies that marriage is the foundation for motherhood which
further means that it is important for one to get married so as to bear children. The concept of
prostitution hinders this as women aspire for personal interests.
The argument raised by the female characters in Makhalisa’s Umhlaba Lo (1975) and Mlilo’s
Lifile (1975) is also clear in the poem Ukuzala Kulicala by Nkala in Zimbabwe women writers
(1990:12):

19. 19
Waqala ukukhafula amathe
Waze wambeka umntwana
Umama uthwele nzima batayi
O! ya uthwele nzima ozeleyo
Abadala bathi ukuzala kulicala
Kungumlandu kithi esizalayo
You started by spitting saliva
Until you gave birth
Mothers carry heavy burdens
The one who gives birth is surely burdened
The elders say giving birth is a crime
It’s the duty of those who give birth.
The above poem exhibits anger towards motherhood and nurturing. Women are viewed as
suffering and burdened because of childbearing. In addition, the language used to express the
opinion the poet has on motherhood is sarcastic. One notes that the poet is using Eurocentric
views on gender issues and motherhood. The poem is a misrepresentation of the Ndebele society.
This is because the woman does not recognize the role played by her male counterpart. She
portrays men as irresponsible and distant in issues to do with childbearing. Overally, she does
not recognize the place of men in the society as she has already been oppressed by them through
pregnancy.
A point of relevance on the issue of motherhood is the importance of children in the Ndebele
society. While children help cement the marriage, there are far greater reasons why they are
prioritized in society. Thus, the groom’s family pays for ukangaziwe (to be known) and inkomo

20. 20
kamama (the cow for the mother) during lobola negotiations. However lobola is paid only after
the first child has been born. According to Ndlovu (2013:993):
In Ndebele traditional society, children were valued members of the society as then
society knew that they were supposed to do everything to protect them. In Ndebele
culture, lobola (bridewealth) was “paid” by the groom’s family to the woman’s family as
a token of appreciationfor bearing children.
This practice ensures that the value of children is still recognized in the Ndebele society. The
most essential thing is that for the Ndebele society to place such value on children, it had to first
recognize and appreciate those responsible for conceiving the child. Thus, women in the Ndebele
society are not oppressed for their childbearing role. Instead, they are appreciated as critical
members without whom Ndebele society would be doomed.
In Ndebele society, children were considered as economic assets in the family. In Africa, a man’s
wealth included his children (Baoke-Boaten, 2010: 105). Thus, it can be deduced that rearing a
child in the traditional society was, and in today’s world, is an investment and as such, it is done
with pride and joy. In her Africana Womanist theory, Hudson-Weems (1993:72) concurs with
the above realization, noting that:
The Africana Womanist is committed to the art of mothering and nurturing, her own
children in particular and humankind in general. The Africana womanist is committed to
loving and caring for her own, which extends to the entire Africana family. Enjoying her
role, she both encourages her own and sacrifices herself in executing her duty to
humankind. She is consistent in doing what must be done for the survival of the family, a
commitment grounded in and realized through a positive sense of history, family hood,
and security, all of which true mothering and nurturing provides, and which the true
Africana Womanist embodies.

21. 21
The above statement clarifies the role of motherhood which is not viewed as burdensome but is
embraced as a fulfilling responsibility for every African woman. To buttress this view, Emecheta
(1979) echoes the same sentiments when Nu egho the main character who, despite the challenges
she encounters strives to enjoy her role as a mother. Harris (1981: 204) highlights how black
women value their role of mother and consider it an important aspect of their sex role identity.
Mothers are therefore expected to play their role of grooming children themselves rather than
allowing other people to do their roles. In Umhlaba Lo (p20) Masuku’s actions as a mother
display her desire to be released from the duty of rearing her children herself. One notes that in
contemporary societies where women have to go to work the role of rearing children is left in the
hands of domestic workers. This has profound effect on the behaviour of the children as they
lack guidance and discipline from the mother. Given that Masuku is always away, her absence
spoils her children. She blames everything on Sibonile even if her children are responsible. This
is disturbing because it leads to a generation that cannot rise to the challenge of responsible
adulthood. This, in a significant way, arises because of the desire on the part of women to be
released from the responsibility of mothering and nurturing the children into well-groomed and
focused citizens.
The Ndebele proverb “ukuzala yikuzelula amathambo” (to bear a child is to extend one’s life) is
used in the Ndebele society to explain the significance of children in the society. This is because
a child would do a lot of things in the future and should not be seen as a burden in society.
Indeed in the Ndebele society, children are like a fruit tree that one has to cultivate and nurture
knowing that one day one will enjoy the fruits of that tree (Ndlovu, 2013:996). This view is
further supported by Maillu (1988:6) who notes that;

22. 22
There is the economic factor tied to the birth of children in a given family. In a situation
where the economic structure is based on the labour force of the family the continuation
of birth of children in that family has substantial economic implications. The majority of
Africans in such situations grow poorer as they grow older for the obvious reason that
they cannot produce as much as energetically and effectively as they could when they
were young. New births to the family every now and then is the replacement of the
economic cells that have been or are wearing out.
What is clear from the foregoing is that in the Ndebele society, children were important as family
breadwinners when their parents cannot look after themselves. Thus, they were cherished. Even
though children in the traditional society were significant because the economic structure was
based on the labour force of the family, in today’s world the same value on children is still
maintained in the Ndebele society. In today’s capitalist society which has seen a lot of people
migrating to urban centres, the number of children may decrease because of various expenses but
children still remain an investment even in the context of different economic modes of
production. The identity of an individual in the society is inseparable from the presence or
absence of children. Aschwanden (1976: 33) postulates that children are the very symbol of a
person’s identity, an essential part of a man’s own being, to the degree that a man makes no
distinction between himself and his sons. A home becomes a home when there are children in
that home. This entails that in the Ndebele society there is no place for individual interest as
propounded by Mlilo’s and Makhalisa’s rebellious characters in the texts examined in this study.
2.5 The extended family in the Ndebele society
One of the most important social values in the Ndebele society is the extended family. The
importance of an extended family in the Ndebele society is recognized from cradle to death.
Right from childhood, marriage, parenthood, death and beyond death, the extended family plays

23. 23
a significant role in the Ndebele society. The reason behind this is that in the Ndebele society,
collectivism is highly favoured as compared to individualism. Thus, the Ndebele society thrives
on shared values which enable it to work collectively so as to ensure restoration, regeneration
and perpetuation.
A point of relevance is the fact that the adoption of non-African values has had a profound
impact on the position of the extended family in the Ndebele society. This has led to the
destruction of family relations by opening the platform for individualism. The importance of the
extended family in the Ndebele society is seen on various platforms such as marriage
negotiations, child bearing and nurturing, conflict resolution and many others. This is because
different members of the society have different roles to play, hence their vitality in the Ndebele
society. According to Ndlovu & Ndlovu (2013: 182), the Ndebele traditional society was
organized around an extended family. The extended family in the Ndebele society had
mechanisms especially for conflict resolution. Marriage which is a highly respected institution
among the Ndebele was not a contract between two individuals but a contract involving many
relatives who had a role to play in it. Thus, the advocating of personal interests for women
affected the role played by the extended family. As much as the extended family was important
in the Ndebele traditional society, the same could not be said about modern society even with the
emergence of urbanization and technology. Various members of the family are needed to play
different roles at different stages in the lives of the other family members. The importance of an
extended family was to look out for each other during good and bad times. The advent of
Western values destroyed all of this, leaving African communities to settle for western
institutions in which the importance of African values is always understated.

24. 24
One important area where the extended family was and is still valid in the Ndebele society is
during conflict resolution. In almost all families, there are strains and tensions which sometimes
affect its stability. As a family is the basic unit of a society, anything that threatens the well-
being of a family also threatens the stability of that society. In the Ndebele society, there are
individuals within the family whose responsibility was to mediate between members of the
family to resolve conflicts. This is because in traditional societies there are values which are
applied to different members of a family and such values go with duties and obligations which
individuals are expected to fulfill in various social circumstances. In contemporary society, some
of these duties have been taken over by various institutions like the school, the church, health
institutions and welfare organizations. These institutions have to a greater extent taken over the
responsibility and role of the extended family in conflict resolution. However the effectiveness of
such institutions in solving conflicts is questionable because if the process of conflict resolution
does not take into account the culture of a people, it is not likely to be successful. Members of
the Ndebele society are therefore aware that it is inevitable that some people would violate the
rules of society that the infringement of social norms results in conflict. It is therefore the duty of
the mediators to resolve such conflict. Mediators protect the family and society as a whole from
disintegration. This responsibility, for instance, usually falls on the shoulders of ugogo
(grandmother), ubabakazi (paternal aunt), umalume (uncle) and ubabamkhulu (grandfather) who
are given the role of mediators during conflict resolution (Ndlovu& Ndlovu, 2013: 182-184).
This entails that in Ndebele culture, individual freedom is not supposed to clash with the interests
and welfare of the society. Mbiti (1975: 179) concurs:
Human conduct has two dimensions, personal and social. Most African countries put
emphasis on the social conduct. For an individual to avoid being in conflict with the
society, he or she must follow that society’s rules and customs.

25. 25
From the play Umhlaba Lo (1977), one notes the tendency of individualism being displayed by
women characters resulting in family disintegration. Those family members no longer play that
role as mediators because of personal decisions. Given that because women want to be liberated
from patriarchy, they tend to overlook some of the roles they play in the society. As has been
mentioned that the role played by mediators has been handed over to such institutions as schools
and health institutions, conflicts in the family remain unresolved. In Umhlaba Lo (1977: 21),
Masuku narrates the effects un resolved conflicts in the family;
Ngiyekela mina Mankosi. Ngifuna ukumlaya aze abuyele kibo ayebabikele ngesihliku
sami. Umenziwa kakhohlwa phela, kukhohlwa umenzi. Ngathi ngisenda unina
wambuluza esithi umnawakhe uphongudobha isalukazana esesatshukwa satshiywa
ngabanye koBulawayo. Wangithuka wathi ngiyinto ezizulelayo , ezatshiya umnawakhe
umnyaka ungakapheli futhi ngimtshiye engalalangane, sengimkhuthuze izikhwama zaze
zalenga phandle ngamathumbu azo!
Leave me alone Mankosi. I want to teach her a lesson until she goes back home and tells
them about my wickedness. The wrongdoer forgets but the victim does not forget. When
I married her uncle, the mother illtreated me by saying her brother just picked an old
woman who had been used by others in Bulawayo. She insulted me, saying that I would
leave her brother before the end of year with no children and leave him poor.
The conflict between Masuku and Sibonile’s mother in Umhlaba Lo (1977) is created when
Sibonile’s uncle marries Masuku. Because of the absence of mediators to resolve it, the conflict
accumulated to the extent that Masuku ended up mistreating Sibonile so as to revenge the way
she was treated by Sibonile’s mother. One notes that this tends to draw the family apart. In the
Ndebele society, the extended family is important in ensuring that all family members are
catered for. If a member of the family sends his child to the other family member, he/she is
guaranteed that the child will be well looked after and that wherever that child is, he/she would

26. 26
be taught the moral and correct ways of conducting themselves as well as being able to tell the
elders about particular problems they may encounter during their stay. However, this lacks in
Umhlaba Lo as Masuku and Zenzo do not play that role when Sibonile comes to their home.
Instead, she is abused to the extent that her stay at their house becomes unbearable. She runs
away and even when she does that, the two do not bother themselves looking for her. In that
regard, they fail to provide the care and security that extended family members are expected to
provide to each other. As women, the two fall short of Hudson–Weems’ (1993:58) emphasis on
the role and characteristics of Africana women in the society when she notes that the Africana
Womanist’s is family-centred, and is more concerned with the entire family rather than with just
herself and her sisters. A point of relevance is that the introduction of western concepts into
African culture caused the abandoning of Afrocentric ways of solving conflicts.
2.6 Conclusion
It is significant to note that the role of social values in the Ndebele society should not be
overlooked. The social values discussed above do not operate independently in the society. They
are linked to the extent that they should operate at a balanced rate as a disruption to one affects
all. One notes that social change on Ndebele social values has led to a change in some women’s
perception of mothering, nurturing, marriage and extended family. This in turn has led to tension
between men and women and the young and the old as they compete for the dominant roles in
the family and society. However, it is also important to note that these social values do not
operate in a vacuum; instead they contribute towards the creation of a stable society.

27. 27
CHAPTER THREE
CONCLUSION
This research sought to show the changing perceptions on Ndebele social values as portrayed in
Ndebele literature. It established that social change on Ndebele social values that are portrayed in
the two texts emanates from the interaction between Ndebele culture and western culture. This
interaction has caused a change in perception towards Ndebele social values. It is important to
reiterate that social values in the Ndebele society play a significant role and they are so
intertwined to the extent that a disturbance to one affects all. Thus, it is crucial that they are
observed carefully so as not to disturb the stability of the society. The attitudes exhibited by
female characters in the selected texts towards Ndebele social values are linked to radical
feminist ideologies. Radical feminists advocate for the emancipation of women from oppression,
which is seen in the form of marriage and motherhood. This result in women being tied to
supposedly oppressive and derogatory roles hence, women want to distance themselves from
such roles. However such tendencies do not apply to Ndebele culture which recognizes the role
played by women in the society in marriage, motherhood and nurturing. One way to show the
importance of the discussed social values to the Ndebele society is through the high value placed
on children. Children ensure security of a marriage and regeneration and survival of the society.
In order for the society to place so much value on children, it first has to appreciate those
responsible for conceiving those children. Women therefore are not oppressed through this as has
been highlighted in the chapter two. In fact, women in the Ndebele society strive to fulfill their
roles as wives, mothers, sisters and aunts. The Ndebele society as a communal society
encourages communication between family members. This is because in Ndebele society
different members of the family play different roles at different stages; hence each member of
the family is important for the stability of the family as well as the society. Noteworthy is the

28. 28
fact that although it is inevitable for a culture to interact with other cultures, it is also crucial that
in the process of interaction extreme care should be taken in the development of that interaction.
because values which may fit well and adequately in another society may not be able to fit that
well in another culture. If however a society decides to apply the same values without taking into
consideration issues to do with culture it then leads to tension and threatens the stability of the
society.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
Makhalisa, B. 1977. Umhlaba Lo. Gweru: Mambo Press.
Mlilo, S.O.1975. Lifile. Gwelo: Mambo press.
SECONDARY SOURCES
Aschwanden, H. 1976. Symbole des Lebens. Zurich: Antlantis.
Beauvoir de, S. 1997. The Second Sex. London: Vintage.
Baoke- Boaten, A. 2010. In Changes in The Concept of Childhood Implications On Children
Ghana.The Journal Of International Social Research.
Bhasin, K.1991.What is Patriarchy? New Delhi: Kali for Women.
Chinyowa, K.C.1998,’Gender Development in Shona Literature’, in E.M.Chiwome and Z.
Gambahaya, (eds.), Culture and Development Perspectives From the South. Harare: Mond
Books.
Emecheta, B. 1979. The Joys of Motherhood. Edinburgh: Heinemann.
Gelles, R.J.1999. Sociology: An Introduction. Boston: McGraw- Hill College.
Gillin,J.L. and Gillin, J.P.1960. Cultural Sociology. New York: The Macmillan Company.
Giya Mthwakazi: Iqoqo Lezinkondlo. Harare: Zimbabwe.
Harris, A. 1981. “Attitudes Towards Procreation Among Black Adults.”
Heywood, A.2003. Political Ideologies: An Introduction. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

29. 29
Hoopes, D.S. 1979. Intercultural communication: concepts and the psychology of intercultural
experiences. In Pusch(ed) Multicultural education: A cross cultural training approach.LaGrange
park IL: intercultural press.
Hudson-Weems, C.2004.Africana womanist literary theory.Trenton: Africa world press.
Hudson-Weems, C. 1993. Africana Womanism: Reclaiming ourselves. Michigan: Bedford
Publishers.
Lustig, M.W. 1988.Value differences in intercultural communication . In L. Samovar and Porter,
R(eds), intercultural communication: a reader. Belmont: wadsworth
Matshakayile- Ndlovu, T., Ndlovu, D.N., and Ncube, B.S.1995.Imikhuba lamasiko amandebele.
Gweru: Mambo Press.
Mbiti, J. S. 1975. Introduction to African Religion. London: Heinmann Educational: Pasold
Research Fund.
Maillu, D.G. 1988. Our Kind of Polygamy. Nairobi: Heinmann.
Mazrui, A. 2002.
Mguni et al.2006. African womanhood in Zimbabwean literature: New critical perpectives on
women literature in African languages. Harare: college press.
Molara, O.1994. Re-creating Ourselves: African Women and Critical Transformations.
Trenton:A.W.P.
Ndlovu,S. and Ndlovu, L. Mediation as a conflict resolution in traditional Ndebele
society.http://africanajournal.org/mediation as a conflict resolution in traditional Ndebele
society. Africana.vol6.no 1.//
Ndlovu, L. 2013.Neglected Objects or Valued Human Beings: the Ndebele people’s perception
of the Disadvantaged as Expressed in the proverb. European Journal of Humanities and Social
Sciences.vol20. no1.
Nyathi, P.2001. Traditional ceremonies of AmaNdebele. Gweru: Mambo press.
Radcliffe-Brown,A.R. and Forde, D.1950. African Systems of Kinship and Marriage. London:
Oxford University Press.
Singh, S.1997. Feminism: Theory, Criticism, Analysis. Delhi: Pen Craft International.
Weinrich, A.K.H. 1982. African Marriage in Zimbabwe and the Impact of Christianity. Gweru:
Mambo Press.
Zimbabwe Women Writers. 1990. Inkondlo. Harare: Publishing House.