1. aptitude 2. learning styles 3. language levels 4. individual variations 5. good learner characteristics

1. - M . C H A N D R A K U M A R I
LEARNER DIFFERENCES
IN
SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION

2. INTRODUCTION
• LEARNING A SECOND LANGUAGE IN THE FIRST LANGUAGE
ENVIRONMENT
(The person doesn't get the chance of speaking the second language
in everyday interactions which makes practising this language
limited to specific places such as the classroom. Also, having no
native speakers will make it more difficult for speakers to have a
native-like accent.)
• The second language learners are differentiated based on how
well they contribute/practice/use their learnt language outside
the classroom.
• Based on certain variable we can find how each individual vary in
acquiring/understanding/processing the second language.

3. LEARNER
DIFFERENCES
1. APTIDUDE
5. GOOD LEARNER
CHARACTERISTICS
4. INDIVIDUAL
VARIATIONS
3. LANGUAGE
LEVELS
2. LEARNING
STYLES

4. 1. APTITUDE
• Aptitude in general is a talent. Aptitude can be
considered as a talent in each individual, because it is a
competency to do something.
• The innate nature of aptitude is in contrast to
achievement, which represents knowledge or ability
that is gained by the individual.
• Aptitude means an inherent capacity, talent or ability
to do something. Aptitude refers to potential for
achievement. An aptitude test is designed to make
prediction about an individuals future achievements.

5. • Contrastive, in a foreign or second language
acquisition, aptitude actually refers to the
prediction of how well an individual can
learn the second language in given time and
conditions.
• It means that aptitude was not used to
determine the learners’ success or failure in
learning the target language but to explain
why there are some learner, can learn faster
than the others.

6. The cognitive psychologist Carroll (1962) realized that
language learning aptitude was not a unitary ability, but rather
a conglomerate of at least four relatively independent abilities
(Carroll, 1991):
• Phonemic coding ability – an ability to identify different
sounds, and to form correlations between them and their
respective picture stimuli.
• Grammatical sensitivity – the ability to distinguish the
grammatical function of words in sentence structures.
• Associative memory – the ability to assimilate associations
between sounds and to retain them.
• Inductive language learning ability – which is the capacity
to infer or induce the rules from diverse language materials

7. In general, Aptitude of language learning is usually
composed of four different types of ability
1. The ability to identify and memorize new sounds
2. The ability to understand the function of
particular word in a sentence
3. The ability to figure out the grammatical rules
from the language samples.
4. The ability to memorize new words

8. • Successful language learners are not necessarily to
be strong in all of the components of aptitude.
(e.g., some may have strong memories but average
ability to figure out grammatical rules.)
• Teachers can select appropriate teaching
approaches and activities based on learners’
aptitude profiles to accommodate their differences
in aptitude.

9. 2. LEARNING STYLES
Learning style:
An individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing,
processing, and retaining new information and skills. (Reid 1995)
• Types of learning style related to second language learning:
 Perceptual learning styles:
visual, aural/auditory, and haptic ( kinesthetic & tactile)
 Cognitive learning styles:
1. field independence vs. field-dependence
2. reflective vs. impulsivity
3. right-brain dominance vs. left-brain dominance
4. tolerance of ambiguity

11. PERCEPTUAL LEARNING STYLES:
• Visual learner : learns more effectively through the
eyes(seeing)
• Auditory (aural) : learns more effectively through the ears
(hearing)
• Haptic learners : learns more effectively through touch and
body movements(a combination of the kinesthetic and tactile
styles)
• Kinesthetic learners : learns more effectively through concrete
body experience (body movements)
• Tactile learners : learns more effectively through touch
(hands-on)

12. COGNITIVE LEARNING STYLES
1. Field-independence vs. Field-dependence
• Field independent (FI) learners pick out hidden figures in a
complicated drawing more quickly. They tend to perceive
elements independently of a context or field and focus on
details. They are more analytical.
• Field dependent (FD) learners are more inclined to see the
whole drawing and have difficulty in separating it into parts.
They tend to perceive the whole field or situation and focus
on general meaning. They are more relational.

13. • FI is related to classroom language learning that involves
analysis, attention o details, and mastering of exercise,
drills, and other focused activities (CALP).
• FD is related to the communicative aspects of language
learning that require social outreach, empathy, perception
of other people, and communicative skills (BICS).
• FI/FD may also prove to be a valuable tool for
differentiating child and adult language acquisition due
to the fact that FI increases as a child matures to
adulthood.
*NOTE
• BICS – Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skill
• CALP –Cognitive/Academic Language proficiency

14. 2. Reflectivity vs. Impulsivity
• Reflective learners tend to make a slower, more
calculated decision. they are usually more
systematic and more cautious in learning L2.
• Impulsive learners tend to make a quick or
gambling guess at an answer to a problem. They
are usually more intuitive and more willing to take
risks in learning L2.

15. 3. Right-brain vs. Left brain dominance
• The right-brain perceives and remembers visual,
tactile, and auditory images. It is more efficient in
processing holistic, integrative, and emotional
information.
• The left-brain is associated with logical, analytical
thought, with mathematical and linear processing of
information
*NOTE
Though we all tend to have one hemisphere that is more dominant, it is important to
remember that the left and right hemispheres operate together as a “team”. Most best solutions
to problems are those in which each hemisphere has participated optimally.

16. 4. Tolerance of Ambiguity
• The person who is tolerance of ambiguity is willing to accept
innovative and creative possibilities and not to be cognitively
or affectively disturbed by ambiguity and uncertainty.
• In second language learning a great amount of apparently
contradictory or ambiguous information is encountered (e.g.,
words, grammatical rules, and culture systems in that L2
differ from L1). Successful language learning requires
tolerance of such ambiguities, at least for interim periods.
• However, too much of tolerance of ambiguity can have a
detrimental effect. People can become “wishy-washy” and
may make many mistakes without awareness when using
second language .

17. • Learning Styles Language learning styles refer to cognitive
variations in learning a second language. It is about an
individuals‟ preferred way of processing, that is, of
perceiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling
information related to language learning.
• According to Cornett (1983) the language learning styles are
the overall patterns that give general direction to learning
behaviour.
• Brown (2000) states that unlike factors of age, aptitude, and
motivation, its role in explaining why some L2 learners are
more successful than others has not been well established, it
involves a complex (and as yet poorly understood)
interaction with specific L2 social and learning contexts.

18. • The following cognitive styles have been identified by Knowles (1972 as cited in
Lochart & Richards, 1994):
1. Concrete learning style Learners with a concrete learning style use active and direct
means of taking in and processing information. They are interested in information that has
immediate value. They are curious, spontaneous, and willing to take risks. They like
variety and a constant change of pace. They dislike routine learning and written work, and
prefer verbal or visual experiences. They like to be entertained, and like to be physically
involved in learning.
2. Analytical learning style Learners with an analytical style are independent, like to solve
problems, and enjoy tracking down ideas and developing principles on their own. Such
learners prefer a logical, systematic presentation of new learning material with
opportunities for learners to follow up on their own. Analytical learners are serious, push
themselves hard, and are vulnerable to failure.
3. Communicative learning style Learners with a communicative learning style prefer a
social approach to learning. They need personal feedback and interaction, and learn well
from discussion and group activities. They thrive in a democratically run class.
4. Authority-oriented learning style Learners with an authority-oriented style are said to
be responsible and dependable. They like and need structure and sequential progression.
They relate well to a traditional classroom. They prefer the teacher as an authority figure.
They like to have clear instructions and to know exactly what they are doing; they are not
comfortable with consensus-building discussion

19. RESEARCH FINDINGS
• Every person, student or teacher, has a learning style; therefor,
there is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit
the needs of all learners.
• Learning styles exists on wide continuums, although they are
often described as opposites.
• Learning styles are value-neutral; that is, no one style is better
than others.
• Very little research has examined the interaction between
different learning styles and success in L2 learning; however,
students should be encouraged to “stretch” their learning styles
so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning
situations.

20. 3.LANGUAGE LEVELS
• These levels of language proficiency are not particular to one
foreign language but can be applied to any language being
learned, thus considered to be a global scale, or one that can
be used across the board. Having a means to measure
language fluency levels is helpful. To further investigate
what is meant by the different Reference Levels and where
you might fall in these levels of language fluency, the
following table drawn from CEFR describes what a learner is
supposed to be able to do in reading, listening, speaking and
writing at each level.
* CEFR-Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

21. Level A1: Beginner or Breakthrough
• Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and
very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a
concrete type.
• Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and
answer questions about personal details such as where
he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has.
• Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks
slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.

22. Level A2: Elementary or Waystage
• Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions
related to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic
personal and family information, shopping, local geography,
employment).
• Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a
simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and
routine matters.
• Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background,
immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate
need.

23. Level B1: Intermediate or Threshold
• Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar
matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc.
• Can deal with most situations likely to arise while travelling in an area
where the language is spoken.
• Can produce simple connected text on topics that are familiar or of
personal interest.
• Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and
briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
Level B2: Upper Intermediate or Vantage
• Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and
abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of
specialization.
• Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular
interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either
party.
• Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a
viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of
various options.

24. Level C1: Advanced or Effective Operational
Proficiency
• Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts,
and recognize implicit meaning.
• Can express ideas fluently and spontaneously without much
obvious searching for expressions.
• Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic
and professional purposes.
• Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex
subjects, showing controlled use of organizational patterns,
connectors and cohesive devices.

25. Level C2: Proficiency or Mastery
• Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read.
• Can summarize information from different spoken and
written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a
coherent presentation.
• Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and
precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in the
most complex situations.

26. 4. INDIVIDUAL LEARNERS
• Why do some people almost achieve the native speaker’s levels
of competence in a foreign language while others never seem to
progress much beyond a beginner’s level?
• Some second language learners make rapid and apparently
effortless progress while others progress only very slowly and
with great difficulty.
• The reason probably is that people are not homogenous! They
have different personalities and styles. Thus, each individual is
different from the other.
• According to Dornyei, (2005) are, “enduring personal
characteristics that are assumed to apply to everybody and on
which people differ by degree.”

27. 1. AGE
• The age of the learner influences the second language acquisition.
• Children having strong literacy skills in their own language, seem
to be in a better position to acquire a new language in a more
effective way.
• Very motivated, old learners can do it, but usually they should try
hard to become a native like speaker.
• Patkowski (1982) found that age of acquisition is very important
factor in setting on the development of native-like mastery of L2,
and this limit does not only apply to accent, but also applies to
syntax and morpology.
• He found that learners who started earliest achieved the highest
score on the grammatical tasks, and those who began later didn’t
have native-like language abilities.

28. • Studies demonstrate that adults and adolescents learnt faster
than children in the first year of L2 development.
(Asher & Price, 1967; Snow & Hoefnagle-Hoechle, 1978
cited in McLaughlin, 1992)
• Thus adults learn faster than children, and this is more
applicable to grammar than pronunciation, although in the
case of formal learning situations adults seem to do better
even in the pronunciation area.

29. 2.PERSONALITY
• Introverted or anxious learners usually perform slower
progress, especially in the development of oral skills.
• They are less likely to take the opportunities to speak.
• More outgoing students will not worry about the inevitability
of making mistakes. They do not care about taking risks; thus
they get more chances to do much more practice in targeted
language.

30. 3. EXPERIENCES
• Learners who have already developed general knowledge and
experience are in a stronger position to develop a new
language than those who haven’t.
• For instance, a learner who has been to two/three foreign
countries and exposed to different cultures build a stronger
ground for learning an extra language than those learners
who have not had such an experience.

31. 4. MOTIVATION
• Intrinsic motivation shows itself when you want to do
something, an internal desire to perform a particular task.
People do certain activities because they give them pleasure,
develop a certain skill or they are morally the right thing to
do
• Extrinsic motivation is when somebody else or something
tries to make you do something
• Intrinsically motivated students are bound to do much better
in classroom activities since they are willing and eager to
learn. Yet, extrinsically motivated ones may have to be
“bribed” to perform the same tasks.

32. 5.COGNITION
• Generally speaking, apparently students with greater
cognitive abilities makes a faster progress.
• Some Chamskyan linguists suppose that there is a specific,
innate language learning ability which is believed to be
stronger in some students than in others.

33. 6.SELF ESTEEM
• Self-esteem refers to personal evaluation and judgement of
worthiness that is expressed in the individual’s attitude
towards him or herself or his or her capabilities.
• Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can
lead to a raise in the affective filter and form a ‘mental block’
that hinders comprehensible input from being employed for
acquisition. (Krashen cited by Schutz, 2007)

34. 7. INHIBITION
• Inhibition in a person emerges when he/she attempts to
defend or protect his/her self-image.
• If the learner considers the mistakes he/she makes in the
second language as a threat to his/her emotional well-being
and self perception, than acquisition will not take place or
will occur much more slowly.

35. 8. RISK TAKING
• One of the characteristics that has been found to exist in
”good” language learners is the willingness to guess. If the
learner is less inhibited, he/she is more willing to take a
chance on producing a “correct” utterance in the second
language.

36. 9. ANXIETY
• Anxiety is associated with the feelings of uneasiness, self
doubt, worry or fear that a person feels under certain
circumstances. A threatening environment does not promote
language acquisition.
• Factors such as an emphasis on competition between two
students or forcing students to produce in the second
language before they are ready to cause anxiety.

37. 10.EMPATHY
• Empathy refers to an individual’s ability to put him/herself in
the other’s shoes.
• When a learner is acquiring a second language, he or she is
also acquiring , in a sense, a new personality, and a new
culture.
• It is essential in the language acquisition process to open
yourself to new cultural yourself to new cultural experiences
and adopt these experiences as your own.

38. CONCLUSION
• Being successful in a second language acquisition depends on
many factors.
• From this studies, it has been found that if a learner has a
competency in his or her own language, he or she is more
advantageous than those who lacks competence in his first
language.
• Also the role of psychological aspects play in gaining an extra
language which cannot be denied.

39. GOOD LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
1. Good language learners find a style of learning that
suits them.
They are self aware ie they know themselves.. When they are
in a learning situation which they do not like, they are able to
adapt it to their personal needs. They believe they can always
learn something, whatever the situation. They also know how
they prefer to learn and choose learning situations that are
suited to their way of learning.

40. 2. Good language learners are actively involved in the language
learning process. They take responsibility for their own
learning. Besides regular language classes, they create
opportunities to use the language. They know practice is
very important. They are willing to take risks, to appear
foolish if necessary
3. Good language learners try to figure out how the language
works. They try to come to grips with the language as a
system. They pay attention to form and look for patterns.
They develop good techniques for improving their
pronunciation, learning grammar and vocabulary. They
welcome mistakes as a way of learning more about the
language.

41. 4. Good language learners know that language is used to
communicate. They pay attention to meaning. They have
good techniques to practise listening, speaking, reading,
and writing.
In the early stages of their language learning they do not
worry about making mistakes. They speak and try to become
fluent. They look for opportunities to speak with native
speakers
5. Good language learners are like good detectives. They are
always looking for clues that will help them understand how
the language works. They make guesses and ask people to
correct them if they are wrong. They compare what they say
with what others say. They keep a record of what they have
learned and think about it. They monitor themselves.

42. 6. Good language learners learn to think in the language.
7. Good language learners realize that language learning is not
easy. They try to overcome their feelings of frustration and
their lack of confidence. They are able to come to terms with
the affective demands of language learning, i.e, they can
manage their emotions. They are realistic in their setting of
study goals.
8. Good language learners are also good culture learners
aware of the very close relationship between language and
culture.
9. Good language learners have a long term commitment to
language learning. They are realistic in realising that it
takes time and practice.

43. CONCLUSION
• “Second language learning” is a complex and multifaceted
phenomenon and it does mean different things to different
people.
• It does, however, make it very difficult to compare the
results of one study with those of another.
• Conflicting results can be obtained depending on whether
the data used consist of learner’s production, introspection
and institution.