Although language acquisition and language use is innate and inherited, and there is legitimate debate over the extent of this innateness, every individual’s language is “acquired by man as a member of society,” along with and at the same time as other aspects of that society’s culture in which people are brought up. Society and language are mutually indispensable. Language can have developed only in a social setting, however this may have been structured, and human society in any form even remotely resembling what is known today or is recorded in history could be maintained only among people utilizing and understanding a language in common use.

1. Culture &
Language
Development
Boutkhil Guemide
University Mohammed Boudiaf, M’sila
Algeria

2. OUTLINE
• INTRODUCTION
• Lge & culture
• The relationship between language
and culture
• Language acquisition in societies
• Cultural influences upon language
development
• Social norms and language use

3. • Human being is a social creature: A man is a receiver
and sender of messages who assembles and distributes
information (Greimas, 1970).
• Sapir (1956): “every cultural pattern and every single
act of social behavior involves communication in either
an explicit or implicit sense” (p. 104).
• The tool for this communication is language: Language
is an instrument for humans' communications,
• It is due to language that human talents grow and
develop since they exchange and transfer their
experiences, and on the whole, for formation of society,
• The relationship between language and culture is as old
as mankind.
• Through centuries, people and their living practices
have evolved, resulting in wide-reaching changes in
societal culture.
• Culture has a direct effect on language.
• Language and culture are closely correlated.

4. Lge & culture
• With first language learners immersed in their own
culture, connections between language and culture
often never come to question.
• While it is impossible to separate language and
culture, one has to question the validity and
implications such separation brings.
• Wardhaugh introduced the concepts of language and
culture and explored the viability of their relationship
based on the three possible criteria:
• The structure of the language determines the way we
use language,
• Cultural values determine language usage
• The neutral claim that a relationship does not exist
• The importance of cultural competency is considered
for its importance to language education and the
implications it holds for language learning.

5. • An understanding of the relationship
between language and culture is
important for language learners,
users, and for all those involved in
language education.
• Such insights open the door for a
consideration of how both language
and culture influence people’s life
perceptions and how people make use
of their pre- acquainted linguistic and
cultural knowledge to assess those
perceptions.

6. • The relationship between language
and culture is a complex one due
largely in part to the great difficulty in
understanding people’s cognitive
processes when they communicate.
• Wardhaugh and Thanasoulas defined
language in a somewhat different
way, with the former explaining it for
what it does, and the latter viewing it
as it relates to culture.

7. • Wardhaugh (2002, p. 2):
a knowledge of rules and principles
and of the ways of saying and doing
things with sounds, words, and
sentences rather than just knowledge
of specific sounds, words, and sentences.
• Wardhaugh does not mention culture; the
speech acts we perform are inevitably
connected with the environment they are
performed in, and therefore he appears to
define language with consideration for
context.

8. • Thanasoulas (2001):
… (l)anguage does not exist apart from
culture, that is, from the socially inherited
assemblage of practices and beliefs that
determines the texture of our lives (Sapir,
1970, p. 207). In a sense, it is ‘a key to the
cultural past of a society’ (Salzmann, 1998,
p. 41), a guide to ‘social reality’ (Sapir, 1929,
p. 209, cited in Salzmann, 1998, p. 41).

9. What is culture?
• Goodenough (1957, p. 167) explained
culture in terms of the participatory
responsibilities of its members.
• He stated that a society’s culture is
made up of whatever it is one has to
know or believe in order to operate in
a manner acceptable to its members,
and to do so in any role that they
accept for any one of themselves.
• Malinowski (Stern, 2009) viewed
culture as an interactive design which
combines the three sets of needs:

11. • The concept is often better understood in
the context of how the members of a
culture operate, both individually and as a
group.
• It is, therefore, clear how important it is
for members of any society to understand
the actual power of their words and
actions when they interact.
• Thanasoulas (as cited in Salzmann):
‘language is a key to the cultural past’,
but it is also a key to the cultural present
in its ability to express what is (and has
been) thought, believed, and understood
by its members.’

12. The relationship between language and culture
• Edward Sapir & Benjamin Lee Whorf: There is a close
relationship between language and culture.
• “It was not possible to understand or appreciate one without
knowledge of the other” (taken from Wardhaugh,
2002, p. 220).
• Wardhaugh (2002, pp. 219- 220): There appears to be three
claims to the relationship between language and culture:
The structure of a language determines the way in
which speakers of that language view the world, or
the structure does not determine the world- view but
is still extremely influential in predisposing speakers
of a language toward adopting their world- view.
 The culture of a people finds reflection in the language they
employ because they value certain things and do them in a
certain way, they come to use their language in ways that
reflect what they value and what they do.

13. 1st Claim: Lge determines the thoughts of culture
• Edward Sapir (1884–1939) and Benjamin Whorf (1897–1941):
The power of language reflects culture and influences
thinking.
• The Sapir– Whorf Hypothesis: the way we think and view the
world is determined by our language (Anderson & Lightfoot,
2002; Crystal, 1987; Hayes, Ornstein, & Gage, 1987).
• Instances of cultural language differences are evidenced in
that some languages have specific words for concepts
whereas other languages use several words to represent a
specific concept.
• The Arabic language includes many specific words for
designating a certain type of lion or camel (Crystal, 1987).
• E. g.
• Lion: ‫سد‬‫أ‬‫ل‬‫ا‬-‫لليث‬‫ا‬-‫الضبارم‬-‫الوهر‬-‫الغضنفر‬
• Camel: ‫امجلل‬-‫البعري‬
• In the English language, where specific words do not exist,
adjectives would be used preceding the concept label; such
as, quarter horse or dray horse.

15. • The Sapir- Whorf Hypothesis is based on the following
assumptions:
 We are, in all our thinking and forever, at the understanding of the
particular language which has become the means of expression
for our society, we experience and practice our expression by
means of the characteristics, peculiarities, and sometimes literary
words encoded in our language;
 The characteristics, peculiarities, and literary words encoded in
one language system are distinctive, typical, and unique to that
system and they are dissimilar as well as incomparable with those
of other systems;
 Since the culture of a particular place or nation is different from
others, sometimes the misunderstanding and misconception
occurs when one from another nation uses the language of that
nation;
 In order to understand the specific words, literary terms, and even
sometimes the simple words in one language, we must be familiar
with the culture of that nation.
 In consideration of the various research, it does appear that the
structure of a language determines how speakers of that language
view their world.
 A look at how users of different languages view color, linguistic
etiquette and kinship systems helps to illustrate this point.

16. 2nd Claim: The thoughts of a culture reflect Lge
• Cultures employ languages that are as
different as the cultures that speak them;
• Wardhaugh (2002, p. 225): When needs for
lexical items arise, … cultures possess the
ability and are free to create or to borrow
them as needed.
• Wardhaugh: people who speak languages
with different structures (e.g. Germans and
Hungarians) can share similar cultural
characteristics, and people who have
different cultures can also possess similar
structures in language (e.g. Hungarians and
Finnish).
• The relationship between language and
culture is quite viable.

17. Lge acquisition in societies
• The structure of language acquisition:
L: (So, E) ST
L Learning function
So The initial state of the learner
E Experience in the environment
ST The terminal state

18. • Lge Acquisition:
• A process whereby children become
speakers of their native language.
• A process by which language capabilities of
a person increases.
• Various theories and approaches have been
emerged over the years to study and
analyze the process of language
acquisition.

20. Behaviorist Theory
 Based on Skinner
 The idea that animal and human learning are
similar based on Darwin’s theory.
 All behavior is a response to stimuli.
 No innate pre-programming for language learning
at birth (Hadley 2001, pg. 57)
 Learning can also occur via imitation.
 Corrective feedback corrects bad habits
 Language is learned just as another behavior

21. SKINNER’S VIEW ON
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
• Skinner viewed babies as ‘empty vessels’ which
language had to be ‘put in to’
• operant conditioning: A child goes through trial-and-
error in other words; it tries and fails to use correct
language until it succeeds; with reinforcement and
shaping provided by the parents gestures (smiles,
attention and approval) which are pleasant to the
child.
• Skinner in Verbal Behavior (1957) differentiated
between two types of verbal responses that a child
makes :
- Verbal behaviour that is reinforced by the child
receiving something it wants.
- Verbal behaviour caused by imitating others.

22. Imitation
 Language has long been thought of a process of
imitation, and reinforcement
 Imitation theory is based on an empirical or
behavioral approach
 Children start out as clean slates and language
learning is process of getting linguistic habits
printed on these slates
 Language Acquisition is a process of experience
 Language is a ‘conditioned behavior’: the stimulus
response process
 Stimulus Response Feedback Reinforcement

23. Imitation
Repetition
Memorization
controlled drilling
Reinforcement

24. Children learn to speak by imitating the
utterances heard around them;
Children strengthen their responses by
repetitions, corrections, and other reactions
that adults provide, thus lge is practice based ;
General perception is that there is no
difference between the way one learns a
language and the way one learns to do
anything else;
Main focus: inducing the child to behave with
the help of mechanical drills and exercises
Learning is controlled by the conditions under
which it take place and that, as long as
individual are subjected on the same condition,
they will learn in the same condition.

25. The Behaviorist School
The Behaviorist School
Language learning is Positive Imitation
Operant conditioning & &
Negative Association
Reinforcement

26. Operant conditioning
• Operant conditioning: 'voluntary
behavior'
• It is the result of learner's own free-will
and is not forced by any outside person
or thing.
• The learner demonstrates the new
behavior first as a response to a system
of reward or punishment, and finally as
an automatic response.
• In operant conditioned, reinforcement
plays a vital role.
• Positive Vs. Negative reinforcement.

27. Activity Type
The hunger or loneliness Stimulus
The baby cries Response
The mother comforts him Reinforcement
The same process happens again Repetition
The baby cries whenever hungry New behavior

28. Universal Grammar Theory
• A mentalist viewpoint related to nativism and cognitive
theory.
• The idea that of Chomsky that all children are born with
Language Acquisition Device (Hadley 2001 pg 58).
• Language learning depends on biological mechanisms.
• Children are innately programmed to learn language.
• Each language has its own “parameter settings”.
• The principles that children discover represent their “core
grammar” which relates to general principles that
correspond to all languages.
• All human brain contains language universals that direct
language acquisition (Horwitz 2008)
• It can be tested

29. CHOMSKY’S VIEW ON
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
• He argues that language acquisition is an innate structure, or
function, of the human brain.
• Chomsky believes that there are structures of the brain that
control the interpretation and production of speech.
• Children do not need any kind of formal teaching to learn to
speak.
• Factors that Chomsky used to support his theory:
 There is an optimal learning age. Between the ages 3 to 10 a
child is the most likely to learn a language in its entirety and
grasp fluency.
 The child does not need a trigger to begin language
acquisition, it happens on its own. The parent does not need
to coax the child to speak, if it around language production,
the child will work to produce that language on its own
 It does not matter if a child is corrected, they still grasp the
language in the same manner and speak the same way.
During one stage, a child will make things plural that are
already plural.

30. The Language Acquisition Device
 Chomsky: Language is so complex that it is almost incredible
that it can be acquired by a child in so short a time;
 A child is born with some innate mental capacity which helps
him to process all the language heard. i. e. "Language
Acquisition Device" (LAD);
 Language is governed by rules, and is not a haphazard thing,
as Skinner and his followers would claim.
 The unconscious rules in a child's mind: A child constructs
his own mental grammar which is a part of his cognitive
framework.
 These rules enable him to produce grammatical sentences in
his own language.
 Chomsky does not mean that child can describe these rules
explicitly. For instance, a four or five year old child can
produce a sentence like, I have taken meal, he can do that
because he has a 'mental grammar' which enables him to
form correct present perfect structures and also to use such
structures in the right or appropriate situation.

32. The Mentalists School
Language learning Input Mental grammar
Is an (own rules)
Innate ability LAD
Grammatical
Output sentences

33. Krashen’s Monitor Theory
• Adults have two ways of developing competence in the
second language: acquisition (subconscious learning) and
learning (conscious learning).
• The natural order hypothesis: acquisition of grammatical
structures follow a predicable order when is natural (Hadley
2001).
• The monitor Hypothesis: Acquisition is responsible for all
second language utterances and fluency. On the contrary,
learning is the “editor” and “monitor” for the output (Hadley
2001).
• The input hypothesis: speaking fluency emerges over time.
Acquisition on language will happen when we are exposed to
the language that is beyond our level.
• Effective filter hypothesis: low effective filter contributes to
good learning.
• Error correction should be minimized and only use when the
goal is learning.
• Students should not be required to produce speech until they
are ready.

34. Cognitive Theory
• Based on internal and mental processes.
• Focuses on transferring, simplification, generalization, and
restructuring that involve second language acquisition.
• Language learning is the result from internal mental activity.
Emphasizes that knowledge and new learning is organized in
a mental structure.
• Learner acts, constructs, and plans its own learning
• Analyzes own learning
• Positive and negative feedback is important for
restructuring.
• Proficiency develops trough practice and then it becomes
automatic.
• Once new information is acquired, existed knowledge is
reorganized.
• Ausubel emphasizes that learning language needs to be
meaningful in order to be effective and permanent (Hadley
2001, pg 69).

35. Conversation Theories
• The idea of learning a second language by
participating in conversations
• Importance use of scaffolding
• Gives feedback and suggest ways of improvement
• Does not require production of full sentences but
encourages speaking
• Errors should be corrected

36. Schumann’s Acculturation Theory
• Based on a Social Theory
• Learning a language to function in the target
language culture.
• Examines how social forces affect language
learning.
• Attitudes and stereotypes towards the target
language affect learning.
• Errors can be corrected for better acculturation

37. Cultural influences upon language development
• Language: a symbolic system in which a series of sounds
make up words to represent an idea, object, or a person and
eventually becomes a medium through which we speak.
• INDIVIDUALISTIC VS. COLLECTIVIST CULTURES:
• Individualistic Cultures: a culture in which emphasis is
placed on the individual alone and learning at a pace specific
to their abilities.
• Success and failure, especially concerning learning, revolves
around the actions of that individual and are not tied to a
group.
• America has an Individualistic culture: "The American
Dream"
• Collectivist Cultures: these kinds of cultures emphasize
family and group goals above individual needs as well as
success and failure.
• These are cultures such as China and Japan.

38. • In all cultures, children are born with the capability
for language acquisition;
• Learning from and imitating the adults around
them:
• Environmental factors including culture, socio-
economic status and parenting styles play a major
role in child language development.

39. Baby Talk
• When parents use baby talk with their children, it
helps to reinforce child language acquisition by
providing positive feedback for the child.
• However, in some cultures, parents may choose to
use baby talk long after it is useful, when children
should be learning how to use the correct grammar
and syntax instead of the incorrect version that
results from child experimentation during
acquisition.
• Parents should stop using baby talk with their
children after age 6 at the latest.
• Baby talk and similar styles of language acquisition
are similarities shared by all cultures

40. Home Environment and Parent Interaction
• A child's home is the first place they are exposed to language: It is the place they
are introduced to interactions, activities, involvement and communication.
• Children whose mothers reported that they frequently read to them, went to the
library and puppet theater or cinema, were involved in the process of joint
reading, and stimulated their reading and learning of the letters, and guided them
to the zone of proximal development achieved higher scores on the Language
Development Scale and told more coherent stories with a text less picture book
(Fekonja, Podlesek, & Umek, 2005).
• These children are getting all of the essentials to prepare them for preschool and
most likely be more successful than the children that did not receive this stimulus
the beginning years of life, or will not require assistants to catch them up with the
peers.
• Not only should parents expose their children early and in a variety of ways, but
they should also begin their children's phonological awareness correctly in a
standard form.
• Liow (2005): the families speak a non- standard form of language at home, yet the
children learn to read and write the standard form at school. When given a
spelling test at school from a tape recorder of words verbally stated, the children
incorrectly spelled words as a result of hearing the non-standard words at home.
Thus, the results confirmed that home language does influence the nature of
literacy development.
• McHale and Cowan (1996) proved that conversations with all three components-
father, mother, and child are most beneficial. Conversations are the most
effortless involvement; they can be done while driving in the car, shopping, or
even while cooking dinner.

41. Socio- economics and Race
• A 2009 study done by Elizabeth Pungello, et.al at the University of
North Carolina found that children rose with more sensitive and
positive parenting styles, rather than negative- intrusive parenting
styles, had a higher rate of growth in language acquisition.
• This study was complicated by socioeconomic status and race, with
European American children performing higher with language
acquisition than African American children.
• Researchers concluded that the correlation between low
socioeconomic status and race in the U.S. often leads to higher
rates of depression in African American mothers, which led to more
negative parenting styles than those of affluent European
Americans.
• Socioeconomic status also correlates with fewer literacy resources
in the home and a lower rate of literacy among adults, so that
children born into a family of low socio- economic status tend to
learn fewer vocabulary words before preschool than affluent
children.
• Often, the difference in language acquisition between children is not
about culture, but about socio- economic status and the many
factors associated with disempowerment

42. Vygotsky's Theory
• Vygotsky: Although children are born with
the skills for language development,
development is affected and shaped by
cultural and social experiences.
• The culture in which a person develops will
have its own values, beliefs and tools of
intellectual adaptation.
• These all have an effect on cognitive
functions, including language development.
• Vygotsky: Language is a result of social
interactions and that language is
responsible for the development of thought.

43. Social norms and language use
• Every society has expectations about how its members should/ should not
behave.
• The significance of learning in behavior varies from species to species and
is closely linked to processes of communication.
• Only human beings are capable of elaborate symbolic communication and
of structuring their behavior in terms of abstract preferences that we have
called values.
• Social life, including language use, is governed by norms— socially shared
concepts of appropriate and expected behavior.
• The most basic of these concepts are acquired in early childhood through
socialization.
• Norms: the means through which values are expressed in behavior.
• Norms: the guidelines/ or expectations for behavior.
• Norms: the rules and regulations that groups live by.
• Each society makes up its own rules for behavior and decides when those
rules have been violated and what to do about it.

44. • Social norms are rules developed by a group of people that specify how people must, should,
may, should not, and must not behave in various situations.
• Some norms are defined by individuals and societies as crucial to the society.
• All members of the group are required to bury their deads.
• Such "musts" are often labeled "mores", a term coined by the American sociologist William
Graham Sumner.
• Karlsson (1995): ‘… they are more numerous, acquired earlier in life and mastered by all
native speakers. They also historically precede the norms of the standard language and in
communities without a written language they are the only norms available ’ (p. 170).
• Social norms or mores are the rules of behavior that are considered acceptable in a group or
society.
• People who do not follow these norms may be shunned or suffer some kind of consequence.
• Norms change according to the environment or situation and may change or be modified over
time.
• William Labov (1972): The norms of a speech community
The speech community is not defined by any marked agreement in the use of
language elements, so much as by participation in a set of shared norms; these
norms may be observed in overt types of evaluative behavior, and by the
uniformity of abstract patterns of variation … in respect to particular levels of
usage (pp. 120– 1)
• Speech community: A group of people who share who set a group of rules and norms for
communication and interpretation of speech.

46. Different settings Example
Wherever we go, expectations are placed on our
behavior. Even within the same society, these norms
change from setting to setting.
The way we are expected to behave in the mosque
differs from the way we are expected to behave at
wedding parties, which also differs from the way we
should behave in a classroom.
Different countries Example
Norms are place-specific, and what is considered
appropriate in one country may be considered highly
inappropriate in another.
In some African countries, it’s acceptable for people
in movie theaters to yell frequently and make loud
comments about the film. In the United States,
people are expected to sit quietly during a movie,
and shouting would be unacceptable.
Different time periods Example
Appropriate and inappropriate behavior often
changes dramatically from one generation to the
next. Norms can and do shift over time.
In the United States in the 1950s, a woman almost
never asked a man out on a date, nor did she pay
for the date. While some traditional norms for dating
prevail, most women today feel comfortable asking
men out on dates and paying for some or even all of
the expenses.

47. Lge & Society
• Lge has a social function: It helps to establish and maintain
social relations.
• As Lge is principally used for communicative purposes, it is
also used to establish and maintain social relations.
• Use of the same lge speak differently from each other: The
kind of lge each of them chooses to use is in part detrmined
by his social background.
• Lge & society: exploration of bidirectional relationship
between lge and its users.

48. Theories/ Models of
Communicative Competence
DELL HYMES

49. Ethnography of Communication
• The descriptive study of the use of
language, deeply embedded in its cultural
context (Dell Hymes)

50. Hymes
Pioneering the study of
the relationship between
language and social
context
Focused on poetics
(poetic organization
of Native American
oral narratives)

51. • Sometimes referred to as pragmatic or
sociolinguistic competence
• Knowledge necessary to use language in SOCIAL
context, as an object of linguistic inquiry
• Coined by DELL HYMES (1966) in reaction to
Noam Chomsky’s notion of “linguistic competence”
(1965)
Communicative Competence

52. Question:
What do you (as a language learner) think is the goal of
LANGUAGE COURSE?
Probable Answer:
It is to teach the GRAMMAR and VOCABULARY of that
language.
Question:
What is YOUR own PERSONAL GOAL as an L2 learner?
Probable Answer:
It is to be able to COMMUNICATE in the L2 of your choice.
Linguistic vs. Communicative (Competence)

53. –In linguistics terminology, a language
course should not only have
“linguistic competence” as its goal,
but “communicative competence” in
GENERAL.
What does this mean?

54. • “…a normal child acquires knowledge of
sentences not only as grammatical, but also
as appropriate. He /or she acquires
competence as to when to speak, when not,
and as to what to talk about with whom, when,
where, in what manner. In short, a child
becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of
speech acts, to take part in speech events,
and to evaluate their accomplishment by
others.” (Hymes 1972, 277)

55. – A language learner/user needs
to use the language not only
CORRECTLY but also
APPROPRIATELY.

56. FOUR COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE

57. • Linguistic competence: is the knowledge of the
language code, i.e. its grammar and vocabulary, and also
of the conventions of its written representation (script and
orthography).
• Grammar component includes:
– Phonetics
– Phonology
– Morphology
– Syntax
– Semantics

58. • Sociolinguistic competence: the knowledge of socio-
cultural rules of use, i.e. knowing how to use and respond
to language appropriately.
• appropriateness depends on:
– setting of the communication
– Topic
– relationships among the people communicating
– knowing what the taboos are
– what politeness indices are used
– what the politically correct term would be for something
– how a specific attitude (authority, friendliness, courtesy, irony
etc.) is expressed

59. • Discourse competence: the knowledge of how to
produce and comprehend oral or written texts in the
modes of speaking/writing and listening/ reading
respectively. It is knowing how to combine language
structures into a cohesive and coherent oral or written text
of different types.
• discourse competence deals with:
– organizing words, phrases and sentences in order to create
conversations, speeches, poetry, email messages, newspaper
articles etc.

60. • Strategic competence: the ability to recognize and repair
communication breakdowns before, during, or after they
occur.
• For instance:
– the speaker may not know a certain word, thus will plan to
either paraphrase, or ask what that word is in the target
language.
– During the conversation, background noise or other factors
may hinder communication; thus the speaker must know how
to keep the communication channel open.
– After, clarifications can be made if the presentation of the topic
was not clear enough.

61. • Hymes developed a valuable model to assist the
identification and labeling of components of
linguistic interaction that was driven by his view
that, in order to speak a language correctly, one
needs not only to learn its vocabulary and
grammar, but also the context in which words are
used.
• Hymes constructed the acronym SPEAKING, under
which he grouped the sixteen components within
eight divisions:
The "S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G" Model

62. THE "S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G" MODEL
THE MODEL: SIXTEEN COMPONENTS THAT CAN BE APPLIED TO MANY SORTS
OF DISCOURSE:
1- MESSAGE FORM;
2- MESSAGE CONTENT;
3- SETTING;
4- SCENE;
5- SPEAKER/SENDER;
6- ADDRESSOR;
7- HEARER/RECEIVER/AUDIENCE;
8- ADDRESSEE;
9- PURPOSES (OUTCOMES);
10- PURPOSES (GOALS);
11- KEY;
12- CHANNELS;
13- FORMS OF SPEECH;
14- NORMS OF INTERACTION;
15- NORMS OF INTERPRETATION; AND
16- GENRES.

63. • S – setting and scene
• P – participants
• E – ends: the desired or expected outcome
• A – Act: how form and content are delivered
• K – key: mood or spirit (serious, ironic, etc.)
• I – instrumentalities: the dialect or language variety
• N – norms: speaking conventions
• G – genres: different types of performance (speech, joke,
sermon, etc.)

64. •Setting–physical circumstances
•Scene–psychological setting or cultural
definition
Setting and Scene

65. • Speaker and
audience
- Audience can be
distinguished as
ADDRESSEES and
OTHER HEARERS
Participants

66. Ends
–Purposes, goals,
and outcomes
• Act Sequence
–Form and order of the
event

67. • Key
–Clues that establish the
"tone, manner, or spirit"
of the speech act
• Instrumentalities
–Forms and styles of
speech.

68. • Norms
–Social rules governing the
event and the participants'
actions and reaction.
• Genre
–The kind of speech act or
event; for the example
used here, the kind of
story.

69. Any questions?