2. Opening Profile: Keeping Your Foot out of
Your Mouth
The opening profile provides several examples of
unintentional gaffes made by business people outside their
home countries. These examples of miscommunication are
both verbal and nonverbal. Fortunately, most
communication mistakes are not deal breakers.
Nonetheless, it is worthwhile for international managers to
do their cultural homework. Culture and communication are
closely intertwined and that managers may spend between
50% and 90% of their time communicating.
3. Small slips can be big errors:
Au Ban: “Hello No. 1 Boss”; Lau-Ban:“Hello, wife of the
boss”
“Thank you for your hostility” instead of Hospitality
“Putting your hands on your waist while talk” impolite and
rude in Bali but fine in USA.
“Patting someone on the head is a grave offense as the
head is sacred” in Thailand
America is not a touching culture but in France a peck on
the cheek shows friendliness as compared to only a
handshake
Japanese Bow to one another at varying angles depending
on their relative social standing
In Latin America people throw their arms around their
colleagues backs or grab them by the arm to show
friendliness.
In middle Eastern Countries and Muslim Countries,
4. Communication
Cultural communications are deeper and more complex
than spoken or written messages. The essence of
effective cross cultural communication has more to do
with releasing the right responses than sending the right
messages.
Think Globally, Interact Locally
5. The Communication Process
Communication is the process of sharing meaning by
transmitting messages through media such as words,
behavior, or material artifacts.
As shown in this figure, there are several stages in this
process in which meaning can be distorted.
Managers communicate to coordinate activities, to
disseminate information, to motivate people and to
negotiate future plans. It is important that receiver
interprets the information in the way sender intended.
Anything that undermines (weakens) the communication
of an intended message is referred to as noise.
7. Noise
The sender and receiver each exist in a unique private
life and space of their own which depends upon culture,
experience, relations, values and so on which determines
the interpretation of meaning in communication.
Noise exists because people filter, or selectively
understand, messages consistent with their own
expectations and perceptions of reality, and their values
and norms of behavior.
As such, the more dissimilar the cultures of those
involved, the more likely it is misinterpretation will occur.
8. Intercultural communication:
Intercultural communication comprises of all forms of communication
both within and between cultures, not just in terms of comparisons
between cultures but also in terms of the process of interaction and
exchange between different cultures. It is not the cultures and the
identities but it is the individuals who are interacting and it is they
who bring their cultures way of thinking, feeling and living into the
interaction.
“A fabric of relations”, a fabric created by the individuals or groups
from different cultures and woven from perceptions they have for
each other. As well as the values, codes, lifestyles and thought
processes belonging to respective cultures. In intercultural
communication, the question of interpretation is crucial.
9. Cultural Noise
It is important to understand what cultural variables cause
noise in the communication process. This knowledge of
cultural noise- the cultural variables that undermine the
communications of intended meaning-will enable us to take
steps to minimize that noise and so to improve
communication.
When a member of one culture sends a message to a member
of another culture, intercultural communication occurs. The
message contains the meaning intended by the encoder, but
the decoder’s culture ends up becoming part of the meaning
as he/she interprets the message. Attribution is the process in
which people look for an explanation of another person’s
behavior. When someone does not understand another,
he/she usually blames the confusion on the other’s “stupidity,
deceit, or craziness.”
This slide illustrates miscommunication and cultural noise by
highlighting a portion of the example in Exhibit 4-7.
10. Cultural Noise
Behavior Attribution
American: “How long will it take to finish this
report?”
American: I asked him to participate.
Greek: He is the boss. Why doesn’t he tell me?
Greek: “I don’t know. How long should it take?” American: He refuses to take responsibility.
Greek: I asked for an order.
American: “You are in the best position to analyze
time requirements”
Greek: “10 days”
American: I press him to take responsibility for his actions.
Greek: what nonsense: id better give him an answer.
American: “Take 15, Is it agreed? You
will do it in 15 days?”
American: He lacks the ability to estimate time: this time estimate is
totally inadequate.
American: I offered a contract
Greek: These are my orders:15 days
In fact, the report needed 30 days of regular work. So the Greek worked day and night but at
the end of the 15th day, he still needed one more day to complete the report.
American: “where is the report?” American: I am making sure he fulfills his contract
Greek: He is asking for the report (Both Attribute that it is not ready)
Greek: “I will be ready tomorrow”
American: “but we agreed it would be ready
today”
American: I must teach him to fulfill a contract
The Greek hand in his resignation
Greek: The stupid, incompetent boss ! Not only did he give me the
wrong orders, but he doesn’t even appreciate that I did a 30 day job
in 16 days. I cant work for such a man. The American is surprised
11. The Culture-Communicator Link
Trust in Communication
The GLOBE Project and Communication
Cultural Variables in Communication Process
12. Trust in Communication
Effective communication depends on the informal understandings
among the parties involved that are based on the trust developed
between them. The meaning of trust and how it is developed and
communicated vary across societies. Business transactions are
based on long-standing in Japan and china vs. arm’s length
relationships are typical in U.S.A.
When trust exists, there is implicit understanding within
communication, cultural differences may be overlooked, and
problems can be dealt with more easily. Similarly, some cultures
have a greater propensity to be trusting than others. High propensity
to trust: Nordic countries, China, Canada, US, Britain. Low
propensity to trust: Brazil, Turkey, Romania, Slovenia, Latvia
13. The GLOBE Project and Communication
The GLOBE research discussed in Chapter 3 also illustrates culturally
appropriate communication styles and expectations for the manager
to use abroad. These examples show how to draw implications for
appropriate communication styles from research on cultural
differences.
High performance orientation (e.g., US) present objective
information directly and explicitly. While (Russia or Greece) ranked
low on performance orientation.
Low assertiveness (e.g., Sweden) two-way discourse and friendly
relationships
High humane orientation (e.g., Ireland) avoid conflict, be
supportive. While (France and Spain) focus on achievement of goals
14. Cultural Variables in Communication
Process
These cultural variables can affect communication via a person’s
perceptions. The effects of these variables are interdependent and
inseparable. (7)
1. Attitudes: Attitudes underlie our behavior, communication, and
interpretation. Ethnocentric attitudes are a particular source of noise.
Stereotyping : Stereotyping occurs when a person assumes that every
member of a society or subculture has the same characteristics. Astute
managers deal with people as individuals and form a unique relationship.
2. Social organization: Our perceptions can be influenced by differences in
values, approach or priorities relative to the kind of social organization we
belong. Examples of social organizations include one’s nation, tribe,
religious sect, or profession.
e.g., United Auto Workers (UAW)
15. 3. Thought patterns: The logical progression of reasoning varies widely
across cultures and affects communication process. Managers cannot
assume others use the same reasoning processes
The meaning of double lines: The text provides an example of a
Canadian who misunderstood the meaning of double lines on the road in
Thailand. He automatically assumed the lines meant “no passing”—just
as they do in Canada.
4. Roles: Cultures differ in terms of their perceptions regarding who should
make decisions and who has responsibility for what. E.g. Exhibit 4-2
5. Language: When two people do not share a common language,
communication problems arise. Even in countries that share the same
language, problems can arise from the subtleties and nuances inherent in
language. Because of increasing diversity, managers often have to deal
with workforces that speak a variety of languages—even within a single
country.
16. According to George Bernard Shaw “Britain and America are two nations
separated by a common language”.
Translation can be problematic as well.
“Come out of the grave with Pepsi”: Pepsi provides one example of
translation problems. “Come alive with Pepsi”, In Germany it meant; “Come
out of the grave with Pepsi”. US Airline “Rendezvous Lounges”, Portuguese
“Prostitution”. 800 languages are spoken in Africa.
When “yes” doesn’t mean “yes” : As another example, when many Asians
say “yes,” it often means only that they have heard you and are too polite to
disagree. Sometimes how something is said is more important than what is
said. While Chinese agree to what you have said to avoid bullying/
harassment
17. 6. Nonverbal communication: Nonverbal communication is behavior
that communicates without words—though it is often accompanied
by words. “A picture is worth a thousand words” Nonverbal
communication has been shown to account for between 65% and
93% of interpreted communication. Even minor variations in body
language, speech rhythms, and punctuality can cause mistrust and
misperception of the situation.
18. There are 4 types of media for non-verbal communication:
1) Kinesic behavior: Kinesic behavior is communication through body
movement—e.g., posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye
contact. The meaning of such behavior varies across countries. For
example, in China sticking out the tongue indicates surprise,
whereas widening one’s eyes indicates anger., scratching ears and
cheeks shows happiness.
E.g. Japanese will never look at you out of humility (learned since
childhood) while Americans will say “look at me when I am talking to
you”.
Occulesics : subtle differences in eye behavior, are a form of kinesics
that includes eye contact and the use of the eyes to convey
messages.
For example, the British will look away from you while speaking in order
to keep your attention. When they have finished speaking, they will
signal it is your turn to talk by looking at you. In Korea, you are
expected to sit upright, with feet squarely on the floor and speak
slowly.
19. 2. Proxemics: Proxemics concern with the influence of proximity and
space on communication (e.g., both personal space and office
layout). For example, space communicates power in the US and
Germany. Executives in the US may have large, private corner
offices. French executives, however, communicate their central
position by working in the middle of subordinates.
Invading your bubble “personal space”.
In high-contact cultures, people stand close and touch a great deal
when communicating.
People in low-contact cultures prefer less sensory involvement when
communicating. They have a distant style of body language.
Often people from cooler climates and individual cultures are low-
contact communicators. People from warmer climates and
collectivistic cultures tend to be high-contact communicators, they
live, work, sleep and play in close proximity. Americans stay so at
arms length so when they stretch, they touch the other persons ear.
While Spaniards shake hands clasping the forearm with the left
hand. Japanese are less haptic / touching.
20. 3. Paralanguage (e.g., the sound of silence)
Paralanguage refers to how something is said, rather than the
content of what is said—e.g., rate of speech, tone and inflection
of voice, other noises, laughing, yawning, and silence. Silence is
a powerful communicator; of wanting more information, of
disagreement, of being offended, or avoiding someone. For
example, the Chinese tend to spend about 30 seconds thinking
before they speak. Americans are only comfortable with 10 to 15
seconds of silence and get impatient. Toyota to open in brazil,
asked Japanese, waited 10 seconds and ended a meeting.
4. Object language: Object language or material culture refers to
how we communicate through material artifacts—e.g.,
architecture, office design and furniture, clothing, cars,
cosmetics.
21. 7. Time: Brazilians are punctual, Arabs are not (controlled by will of
Allah)
In monochromic cultures, time is experienced linearly and as
sometime to be spent, saved, made up, or wasted. Time orders life,
and people tend to concentrate on one thing at a time; classified
and compartmentalized.
In polychromic cultures, people tolerate many things happening
simultaneously and emphasize involvement with people and
relations In these cultures, people may be highly distractible, focus
on several things at once, and change plans often.
Monocentric, compartmentalize meetings topics while polycentric
move around.
23. The role of context in communication:
Context : Context can be defined as the environment in which the
communication process takes place and which helps to define the
communication. Culture is also context. The context in which the
communication takes place affects the meaning and interpretation of
the interaction.
High context: most of the information is context where the message
is being sent, i.e. in the relationships between the people involved
and the situation where people are communicating. The message is
implicit. High context cultures do not express feelings and thoughts
explicitly. Rather, one has to read between the lines and interpret
meaning from one’s general understanding.
Low context: The information of any message is contained in the
message itself i.e. the words are used. The message is explicit. Low
context cultures usually compartmentalize personal and business
relationships. As such, communication must be more explicit.
Feelings and thoughts are expressed in words and information is
more readily available.
24. Context
To illustrate, Germans will expect considerable detailed information
before making a business decision. Arabs will base decisions more
on knowledge of the people involved.
People from high context cultures perceive those from low-context
cultures as too talkative too obvious and redundant. Those from low-
context cultures perceive high-context people as non-disclosing,
sneaky and mysterious.
For e.g. Swiss prefer to come quickly to the point and get down to
business. While Japanese prefer not to talk directly about the
business at hand; they like to talk generally about this and that, life in
general to get to know each other.
25. Proxemics and cultures:
The study of how perceive their social and personal space.
It includes the silent messages being communicated through the
distance separating people when they are interacting as well in terms
of the senses (touch, smell, sight and sound).
Personal space is characterized by an invisible zone with distinct
boundaries. When an intruder enters this zone, people may feel
uncomfortable.
This space is a sort of personal territory, a zone of protection or even
of defense.
The main factors influencing personal space are: gender, age,
personality, the degree of sympathy towards the individuals
concerned, the situation in which the individuals are confronted and
also the culture involved.
26. E.g. Arabs prefer smaller personal space than Americans because
the Arabs are more susceptible to the olfactory (sense of smell)
dimension including skin odor. A prospective bride, for e.g. may be
rejected if she gives off an unpleasant odor. When couples are being
matched for marriage, the man’s go-between will sometimes ask to
smell the girl, who may be turned down if she doesn’t “smell nice”.
If someone’s personal space is violated, this can impair
communication because of an increase in anxiety.
Proxemics also relates to the places where people move and the
places where they work. If tables in a restaurant are placed in a way
that does not respect personal space, the occupants may well
apologize to their neighbors for sitting so close, or display non-verbal
behavior (looking away).
27. Management Focus: Oriental Poker Face
Americans often have difficulty reading some Asian facial expressions—
especially those referred to as the “Oriental poker face” and “idiotic Asian
smile”. No state of mind and fixed smile. Westerners interpret it as strategies
to hide information and conceal the person’s real feelings. Every culture has
its unique modus operandi for communication.
Americans emphasize direct communication, directly look at each other,
make bold statements and ask frank questions such as; “that was a really
stupid thing to do !!” Or “are you interested in me?” while Asians “see” each
other without necessarily looking directly and gather information about inner
states of mind without asking a discreet or understated question.
28. Management Focus: Oriental Poker Face
Asians, however, tend to put more emphasis on listening when
communicating. Because the heavier burden is placed on the
listener, the speaker feels less compunction to send clearly
discernable message cues. The cues that are sent can be very
subtle and easy for Americans to miss.
To Americans, silence represents discontinuity of communication and
creates discomfort. To Asians, silence is an integral part of the
communication process and is used to reflect on messages
previously exchanged and for crafting thoughts before speaking
them.
29. Comparative Management in Focus:
Communicating with Arabs
Arabs are quick to “sound off”: They are warm, fuzzy, emotional and quick
to explode. Arab culture is one of emotional extremes, and this
characteristic is illustrated in the language—which contains means for over
expression, many adjectives, and words that allow for exaggeration.
Communication is built on friendship, honor, hospitality. Arabs tend to do
business with other people—not with the organization. As such,
establishing relationships and protecting the honor of others is very
important. For instance, one should not decline offers of hospitality, should
expect conversations to be meandering (e.g., wander from social to
business topics and back), and should be careful not to criticize in front of
others.
30. Comparative Management in Focus:
Communicating with Arabs
Arabs are high-contact communicators. As high-contact
communicators, Arabs tend to stand closer when talking
and to touch more frequently. The distance often
preferred by Americans can make them seem suspicious
and cold to Arabs.
Time is key in communication process. Arabs are
polychronic and believe that something will happen only
is Allah wills it to happen. As such, it is inappropriate to
place deadlines on activities, and many interruptions
during conversations should be anticipated.
31. Communication Channels
In addition to variables related to the sender and receiver,
variables related to the communication channel are also
important for understanding the message.
Information systems: Organizations vary in where and how
information originates. For instance, in the US managers use a
great deal of delegation. As such, much information flows from
the staff to the manager. In South America, however, decision-
making tends to be centralized—meaning that information tends
to flow from the manager downward. In Japanese ringi systems,
decision making is consensual.
Speed of information flow and use: In high-context cultures,
information tends to spread very rapidly. In low-context cultures,
information is focused and controlled. It does not flow as freely.
32. Ringi System
A management technique in Japanese companies in
which low-level managers discuss a new idea
among themselves and come to a consensus before
presenting it to higher managers. The higher ranking
managers then discuss the new idea themselves
and arrive at their own consensus. This process
continues until the idea comes to the highest
management level and the idea is (or is not)
implemented
33. Communication Channels
Informal sources of information: Because Americans tend to have a wide
“public self,” they often provide more open access to informal sources of
information. The Japanese, however, tend to maintain a strong barrier
between their public and private selves. The Japanese may have a drink
together on the way home from work as a means of sharing informal
information. However, this type of activity usually only occurs among people
with long-term relationships. As another example, Americans often prefer
quick forms of communication—e.g., faxes, email, letters with all facts
and plans stated up front. Alternatively, the French prefer slower
communication media. They prefer written communication, and several
exchanges of letters may be required to build up to the main point or
proposal.
Ningensei (human beingness) vs. adversarial: The Japanese ningensei
style of communication emphasizes saving and giving face, reciprocity, and
an underlying distrust of words and analytic logic. The Japanese believe
words mask true intentions. Public disagreement is avoided at all costs.
Americans, on the other hand, tend to be more explicit, direct, verbose, task
34. Information Technology
Global reach does not necessarily mean global business
Technology makes it very easy reach markets around the
world. Nonetheless, global business will not necessarily
be achieved unless companies can adapt their e-
commerce to local idiosyncrasies.
The web is impersonal, but may require greater cultural
sensitivity. The impersonal nature of the web must be
adapted to local cultures to establish relationships and
win customer loyalty.
There is a predicted annual growth rate of 70% for non-
English-language cites and usage
35. Culture and choice of communication
mode:
A US businessman would consider it normal to make a “cold call” to
phone a stranger with whom he thinks he could do business. A
Japanese businessman would consider this to be intrusive or
aggressive, preferring instead to find a third party who can vouch for
your credibility and make a formal introduction.
Computer mediated communication:
The recipient may find the senders style too formal or informal in an
email. They may take offence if they are not addressed at the start or
end of the email, or if the style is too direct or indirect, or contains
careless language. People, who like conversational emails, may
dislike the distancing effect of a formal written style and the lack of
explicit information or opinion, if direct answers are not given to direct
questions. E.g. messages, posted by women contain more
interactional features they are also more informative, in contrast with
male, messages which most often express (critical) views. Women
value politeness, men operate in accordance with competitive values
and their messages are long.
36. Language during business encounters:
When native languages are different of both parties, they have two options:
Both sides could insist on using their native language when communicating with
the use of an intermediary to translate (depending on the availability of interpreters
and the cost involved). It raises the question of reliability: is the translation
accurate? Moreover it hampers the establishment of a relationship. Interpreter
controls the whole exchange without bearing the responsibility of the outcome.
Using the mother tongue of the other is another option. An expat can easily do
that, as he has lived for a long time. However managers who are operating across
many cultures cannot acquire all the languages.
A third possibility is to use English, a neutral foreign language or “lingua franca
(common language)”. Still, there persists the basic problem of “the very expression
of a culture” be it Canadian English, Hong Kong English or Caribbean or African
English. Stripping culture off any language can impoverish the semantics/meaning
of the language and can reduce its whole power of expression. The language can
be deprived of its deeper meaning and communicating thoughts will be difficult.
E.g. a person non native of speaker of English uses bullets of information in email
may be difficult to understand or if writing an idiomatic English for a client in
Bangladesh will create misunderstandings.
37. Management Focus: Meeting room
jargons: just fuel for buzzword bingo?
Low hanging fruit, e-tailing, talk off line, blue-sky idea, win-win
situation, think outside the box, holistic approach, level playing field,
sanity check, put to bed, whole nine yards, helicopter view, gap
analysis, touch base, rain check, sing from the same hymn sheet,
finger in the air, big picture, bench mark, ticks in all the right boxes,
strategic fit, bread and butter.
Rain check: when special offers are in short supply in supermarkets.
Low hanging fruit: a target easy to reach
Helicopter view: overview
Gap analysis: assessment of untapped opportunities
38. Face to face management relations:
The first encounter:
The very start of an encounter can indicate clear
differences, even if takes place in a shared language.
The very exchange of names (hi! I am Ron smith- hello,
tod, dr peter tod) can be the start of a precarious
scenario.
You is informal in America, while you means “sie” the
formal version of you in German. Germans do not like
friendliness; they are intent towards building a potential
business deal as compared to Americans.
Foreign visitor in a Japanese setting addressing a
Japanese manager by his first name is inappropriate;
office relationships retain formality while in western
countries, first names are used.
39. Conversational styles:
One party may want to take turns to speak, the other may assume
that its right to interrupt as and when necessary.
One may make conclusive and assertive statements; the other may
prefer negotiable contributions and be less conclusive.
One may consider pauses in the conversation to be appropriate for
reflection (thinking) while the other may shy away from silence and
fill up the gap as soon as it appears.
Always listen for what is not said.
This means processing the message in terms of the differences
between your and the speakers personal and cultural priorities.
40. Facial expressions during interaction:
It is in terms of emotions expressed.
A book named “brief history of smiles” by trumbler
2004, smiling intersects not just with happiness, but
also with piety, gender and corruption.
E.g. a Russian smile sends a totally different
message to that sent by a smile in the west.
A smile in Russia when shown to a stranger has a
negative connotation, “he is pulling my leg” or “he is
criticizing me”.
They use the phrase “enough smiling “ or “cut it out”
as compared to with the west, “keep smiling”.
41. Managing Cross-cultural Communication
There are several things a manager can do to encourage effective
cross-cultural communication.
1. Develop cultural sensitivity
Anticipate the meaning the receiver will get
One can attempt to anticipate the likely meaning a receiver will
attach to a message by internalizing honest cultural empathy with
that person. The latter includes thinking about the context of the
communication—e.g., societal, economic, and organizational.
2. Careful encoding
Use words, pictures, and gestures
Avoid slang, idioms, regional sayings
Keep in mind that communication is both verbal and nonverbal.
Encoding a message in multiple ways can help ensure the receiver
gets the right meaning—especially when language differences are an
issue. For instance, it may be helpful to provide a written summary
as a supplement to a verbal presentation.
42. Managing Cross-cultural Communication
3. Selective transmission
Build relationships face-to-face if possible
The medium chosen for the message depends on a variety of factors. The
key is to find out how communication is transmitted in the local
organization—e.g., how much is downward or upward, how much is vertical,
how the grapevine works. Of course, cultural variables need to be considered
as well. Face-to-face communications often are best for relationship-building.
Personal interaction also allows for immediate verbal and visual feedback.
When face-to-face communication is not possible, teleconferencing and
telephone calls may be more desirable than email.
4. Careful decoding of feedback
Get feedback from multiple parties
Improve listening and observation skills
Just as multiple media and sources are important for encoding, they can help
ensure a message is accurately decoded. It can be useful to ask
colleagues to help interpret what is going on.
43. Managing Cross-cultural Communication
5. Follow-up actions
To keep lines of communication open, managers must follow through
with what has been discussed and agreed upon.
Contract follow through can be particularly difficult given that cultures
have different ideas about what constitutes a contract.
44. Facilitating Intercultural Communication
There is a connection between a person’s personality
traits and the ability to adapt to the host-country’s
environment—including the ability to communicate within
that environment.
Two key personality traits are openness and resilience.
Openness includes traits such as tolerance for ambiguity,
extrovertedness, and open-mindedness. Resilience
includes having an internal locus of control, persistence,
tolerance for ambiguity, and resourcefulness.
These factors, combined with the person’s cultural and
racial identity and level of preparedness for change,
comprise that person’s potential for adaptation.
