Derivatives Markets

CONTENTS

Derivatives – an overview
Futures contract
Hedging in futures
Speculating in futures
Arbitrage in futures
Options
Options strategies
Derivatives products
Open interest
Futures price = spot price + cost of carry

DERIVATIVES
The word “DERIVATIVES” is derived from the word itself derived of a
underlying asset. It is a future image or copy of a underlying asset which
may be shares, stocks, commodities, stock indices, etc.

Derivatives is a financial product (shares, bonds) any act which is
concerned with lending and borrowing (bank) does not have its value
borrow the value from underlying asset/ basic variables.

Derivatives is derived from the following products:

A. Shares
B. Debuntures
C. Mutual funds
D. Gold
E. Steel
F. Interest rate
G. Currencies.

Derivatives is a type of market where two parties are entered into a
contract one is bullish and other is bearish in the market having opposite
views regarding the market. There cannot be a derivatives having same
views about the market. In short it is like a INSURANCE market where
investors cover their risk for a particular position.

Derivatives are financial contracts of pre-determined fixed duration,
whose values are derived from the value of an underlying primary
financial instrument, commodity or index, such as: interest rates,
exchange rates, commodities, and equities.

Derivatives are risk shifting instruments. Initially, they were used to
reduce exposure to changes in foreign exchange rates, interest rates, or
stock indexes or commonly known as risk hedging. Hedging is the most
important aspect of derivatives and also its basic economic purpose.
There has to be counter party to hedgers and they are speculators.
Speculators don’t look at derivatives as means of reducing risk but it’s a
business for them. Rather he accepts risks from the hedgers in pursuit of
profits. Thus for a sound derivatives market, both hedgers and
speculators are essential.

Derivatives trading has been a new introduction to the Indian markets. It
is, in a sense promotion and acceptance of market economy, that has
really contributed towards the growing awareness of risk and hence the
gradual introduction of derivatives to hedge such risks.

Initially derivatives was launched in America called Chicago. Then in 1999,
RBI introduced derivatives in the local currency Interest Rate markets,
which have not really developed, but with the gradual acceptance of the
ALM guidelines by banks, there should be an instrumental product in
hedging their balance sheet liabilities.

The first product which was launched by BSE and NSE in the derivatives
market was index futures

BACKGROUND
Consider a hypothetical situation in which ABC trading company has to
import a raw material for manufacturing goods. But this raw material is
required only after 3 months. However in 3 months the prices of raw
material may go up or go down due to foreign exchange fluctuations and
at this point of time it can not be predicted whether the prices would go
up or come down. Thus he is exposed to risks with fluctuations in forex
rates. If he buys the goods in advance then he will incur heavy interest
and storage charges. However, the availability of derivatives solves the
problem of importer. He can buy currency derivatives. Now any loss due
to rise in raw material prices would be offset by profits on the futures
contract and vice versa. Hence the company can hedge its risk through
the use of derivatives

DEFINATIONS
According to JOHN C. HUL “ A derivatives can be defined as a financial
instrument whose value depends on (or derives from) the values of other,
more basic underlying variables.”

According to ROBERT L. MCDONALD “A derivative is simply a financial
instrument (or even more simply an agreement between two people)
which has a value determined by the price of something else.

With Securities Laws (Second Amendment) Act,1999, Derivatives has been
included in the definition of Securities. The term Derivative has been
defined in Securities Contracts (Regulations) Act, as:-

A Derivative includes: -

a. a security derived from a debt instrument, share, loan, whether
secured or unsecured, risk instrument or contract for differences or
any other form of security;

b. contract which derives its value from the prices, or index of prices,
of underlying securities.

Derivatives were developed primarily to manage, offset or hedge against
risk but some were developed primarily to provide the potential for high
returns.

INTRODUCTION TO FUTURE MARKET
Futures markets were designed to solve the problems that exit in
forward markets. A futures con tract is an agreement between two
parties to buy or sell an asset at a certain time in the future at a certain
price. There is a multilateral contract between the buyer and seller for a
underlying asset which may be financial instrument or physical
commodities. But unlike forward contracts the future contracts are
standardized and exchange traded.

PURPOSE
The primary purpose of futures market is to provide an efficient and
effective mechanism for management of inherent risks, without
counter-party risk.

It is a derivative instrument and a type of forward contract The future
contracts are affected mainly by the prices of the underlying asset. As it
is a future contract the buyer and seller has to pay the margin to trade in
the futures market

It is essential that both the parties compulsorily discharge their
respective obligations on the settlement day only, even though the
payoffs are on a daily marking to market basis to avoid default risk.
Hence, the gains or losses are netted off on a daily basis and each
morning starts with a fresh opening value. Here both the parties face an

equal amount of risk and are also required to pay upfront margins to the
exchange irrespective of whether they are buyers or sellers. Index based
financial futures are settled in cash unlike futures on individual stocks
which are very rare and yet to be launched even in the US. Most of the
financial futures worldwide are index based and hence the buyer never
comes to know who the seller is, both due to the presence of the clearing
corporation of the stock exchange in between and also due to secrecy
reasons

EXAMPLE

The current market price of INFOSYS COMPANY is Rs.1650.

There are two parties in the contract i.e. Hitesh and Kishore. Hitesh is
bullish and kishore is bearish in the market. The initial margin is 10%.
paid by the both parties. Here the Hitesh has purchased the one month
contract of INFOSYS futures with the price of Rs.1650.The lot size of
infosys is 300 shares.

Suppose the stock rises to 2200.

Profit

20
2200
10

0
1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900
-10

-20

Loss

Unlimited profit for the buyer(Hitesh) = Rs.1,65,000 [(2200-1650*3oo)]
and notional profit for the buyer is 500.

Unlimited loss for the buyer because the buyer is bearish in the market

Suppose the stock falls to Rs.1400

Profit

20

10

0
1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900
-10

-20

Loss

Unlimited profit for the seller = Rs.75,000.[(1650-1400*300)] and
notional profit for the seller is 250.

Unlimited loss for the seller because the seller is bullish in the market.

Finally, Futures contracts try to "bet" what the value of an index or
commodity will be at some date in the future. Futures are often used by
mutual funds and large institutions to hedge their positions when the
markets are rocky. Also, Futures contracts offer a high degree of leverage,
or the ability to control a sizable amount of an asset for a cash outlay,
which is distantly small in proportion to the total value of contract

MARGIN

Margin is money deposited by the buyer and the seller to ensure the
integrity of the contract. Normally the margin requirement has been
designed on the concept of VAR at 99% levels. Based on the value at risk
of the stock/index margins are calculated. In general margin ranges
between 10-50% of the contract value.

PURPOSE

The purpose of margin is to provide a financial safeguard to ensure that
traders will perform on their contract obligations.

TYPES OF MARGIN

INITIAL MARGIN:

It is a amount that a trader must deposit before trading any futures. The
initial margin approximately equals the maximum daily price fluctuation
permitted for the contract being traded. Upon proper completion of all
obligations associated with a traders futures position, the initial margin is
returned to the trader.

OBJECTIVE
The basic aim of Initial margin is to cover the largest potential loss in one
day. Both buyer and seller have to deposit margins. The initial margin is
deposited before the opening of the position in the Futures transaction.

MAINTENANCE MARGIN:

It is the minimum margin required to hold a position. Normally the
maintenance is lower than initial margin. This is set to ensure that the
balance in the margin account never becomes negative. If the balance in
the margin account falls below the maintenance margin, the investor
receives a margin call to top up the margin account to the initial level
before trading commencing on the next level.

ILLUSTRATION

On MAY 15th two traders, one buyer and seller take a position on June
NSE S and P CNX nifty futures at 1300 by depositing the initial margin of
Rs.50,000with a maintenance margin of 12%. The lot size of nifty
th
futures =200.suppose on MAY 16
The price of futures settled at Rs.1950. As the buyer is bullish and
the seller is bearish in the market. The profit for the buyer will be 10,000
[(1350-1300)*200]
Loss for the seller will be 10,000[(1300-1350)]

Net Balance of Buyer = 60,000(50,000 is the margin +10,000 profit for
the buyer)
Net Balance of Seller = 40,000(50,000 is the margin -10,000 loss for the
seller)

Suppose on may 17th nifty futures settled at 1400.
Profit of buyer will be 10,000[(1450-1350)*200]
Loss of seller will be 10,000[(1350-1400)*200]

Net balance of Buyer =70,000(50, 000 is the margin +20,000 profit for
the buyer)
Net Balance of Seller = 30,000(50,000 is the margin -20,000 loss for the
seller)

As the sellers balance dropped below the maintenance margin i.e. 12% of
1400*200=33600 While the initial margin was 50,000.Thus the seller
must deposit Rs.20,000 as a margin call.
Now the nifty futures settled at Rs.1390.

Loss for Buyer will be 2,000 [(1390-1400)*200]
Profit for Seller will be 2,000 [(1390-1400)*200]

Net balance of Buyer =68,000(70,000 is the margin -2000 loss for the
buyer)
Net Balance of Seller = 52,000(50,000 is the margin +2000 profit for the
seller)

Therefore in this way each account each account is credited or debited
according to the settlement price on a daily basis. Deficiencies in margin
requirements are called for the broker, through margin calls. Till now the
concept of maintenance margin is not used in India.

ADDITIONAL MARGIN:

In case of sudden higher than expected volatility, additional margin may
be called for by the exchange. This is generally imposed when the
exchange fears that the markets have become too volatile and may result
in some crisis, like payments crisis, etc. This is a preemptive move by
exchange to prevent breakdown.

CROSS MARGINING:
This is a method of calculating margin after taking into account
combined positions in Futures, options, cash market etc. Hence, the total
margin requirement reduces due to cross-Hedges.

MARK-TO-MARKET MARGIN:

It is a one day market which fluctuates on daily basis and on every scrip
proper evaluation is done. E.g. Investor has purchase the SATYAM
FUTURES. and pays the Initial margin. Suddenly script of SATYAM falls
then the investor is required to pay the mark-to-market margin also
called as variation margin for trading in the future contract

HEDGERS :

Hedgers are the traders who wish to eliminate the risk of price change to
which trhey are already exposed.It is a mechanism by which the
participants in the physical/ cash markets can cover their price risk.
Hedgers are those persons who don’t want to take the risk therefore they
hedge their risk while taking position in the contract. In short it is a way
of reducing risks when the investor has the underlying security.

PURPOSE:

“TO REDUCE THE VOLATILITY OF A PORTFOLIO, BY REDUCING THE RISK”

Figure 1.1

Hedgers

Existing SYSTEM
New

Approach Peril &Prize Approach
Peril &Prize
1) Difficult to 1) No Leverage 1)Fix price today to buy 1)
Additional
offload holding available risk latter by paying premium.
cost is only
during adverse reward dependant 2)For Long, buy ATM Put
premium.
market conditions on market prices Option. If market goes up,
as circuit filters long position benefit else
limit to curtail losses. exercise the option.
3)Sell deep OTM call option
with underlying shares, earn
premium + profit with
increase prcie

Advantages
Availability of Leverage

STRATEGY:
The basic hedging strategy is to take an equal and opposite position in
the futures market to the spot market. If the investor buys the scrip in the
spot market but suddenly the market drops then the investor hedge their
risk by taking the short position in the Index futures

HEDGING AND DIVERSIFICATION:

Hedging is one of the principal ways to manage risk, the other being
diversification. Diversification and hedging do not have have cost in cash
but have opportunity cost. Hedging is implemented by adding a
negatively and perfectly correlated asset to an existing asset. Hedging
eliminates both sides of risk: the potential profit and the potential loss.
Diversification minimizes risk for a given amount of return (or,
alternatively, maximizes return for a given amount of risk). Diversification
is affected by choosing a group of assets instead of a single asset
(technically, by adding positively and imperfectly correlated assets).

ILLUSTRATION

Ram enters into a contract with Shyam that he sells 50 pens to Shyam for
Rs.1000. The cost of manufacturing the pen for Ram is only Rs. 400 and
he will make a profit of Rs 600 if the sale is completed.

COST SELLING PRICE PROFIT
400 1000 600

However, Ram fears that Shyam may not honour his contract. So he
inserts a new clause in the contract that if Shyam fails to honour the
contract he will have to pay a penalty of Rs.400. And if Shyam honours
the contract Ram will offer a discount of Rs 100 as incentive.

Shyam defaults Shyam honors
400 (Initial Investment) 600 (Initial profit)
400 (penalty from Shyam (-100) discount given to Shyam
- (No gain/loss) 500 (Net gain)

Finally if Shyam defaults Ram will get a penalty of Rs 400 but Ram will
recover his initial investment. If Shyam honors the bill the ram will get a
profit of 600 deducting the discount of Rs.100 and net profit for ram is
Rs.500. Thus Ram has hedged his risk against default and protected his
initial investment.

Now let’s see how investor hedge their risk in the market

Example:

Say you have bought 1000 shares of XYZ Company but in the short term
you expect that the market would go down due to some news. Then, to
minimize your downside risk you could hedge your position by buying a
Put Option. This will hedge your downside risk in the market and your
loss of value in XYZ will be set off by the purchase of the Put Option.

Therefore hedging does not remove losses .The best that can be achieved
using hedging is the removal of unwanted exposure, i.e.unnessary risk.
The hedging position will make less profits than the un-hedged position,
half the time. One should not enter into a hedging strategy hoping to
make excess profits for sure; all that can come out of hedging is reduce
risk.

HEDGING WITH OPTIONS:
Options can be used to hedge the position of the underlying asset. Here
the options buyers are not subject to margins as in hedging through
futures. Options buyers are however required to pay premium which are
sometimes so high that makes options unattractive.

ILLUSTRATION:

With a market price of ACC Rs.600 the investor buys the 50 shares of
ACC.Now the investor excepts that price will fall by 100.So he decided to
buy the put Option b y paying the premium of Rs.25. Thus the investor
has hedge their risk by purchasing the put Option. Finally stock falls by
100 the loss of investor is restricted t the premium paid of Rs.2500 as
investor recovered Rs.75 a share by buying ACC put.

HEDGING STRATEGIES:

LONG SECURITY, SELL NIFTY FUTURES:

Under this investor takes a long position on the security and sell
some amount of
Nifty Futures. This offsets the hidden Nifty exposure that is inside every
long- security position. Thus the position LONG SECURITY, SELL NIFTY is
a pure play on the performance of the security, without any extra risk
from fluctuations of the market index. Finally the investor has “HEDGED
AWAY” his index exposure.

EXAMPLE:

LONG SECURITY, SELL FUTURES
Here stock futures can be used as an effective risk
–management tool. In this case the investor buys the shares of the
company but suddenly the rally goes down. Thus to maximize the risk
the Hedger enters into a future contract and takes a short position.
However the losses suffers in the security will be offset by the profits he
makes on his short future position.

Spot Price of ACC = 390
Market action = 350
Loss = 40
Strategy = BUY SECURITY, SELL FUTURES
Two month Futures= 390
Premium = 12
Short position = 390
Future profit = 40(390-350)

As the fall in the price of the security will result in a fall in the price of
Futures. Now the Futures will trade at a price lower then the price at
which the hedger entered into a short position.

Finally the loss of Rs.40 incurred on the security hedger holds, will be
made up the profits made on his short futures position.

HAVE STOCK, BUY PUTS:

This is one of the simplest ways to take on hedge. Here the investor
buys 100 shares of HLL.The spot price of HLL is 232 suddenly the
investor worries about the fall of price. Therefore the solution is buy
put options on HLL.

The investor buys put option with a strike of Rs.240. The premium
charged is Rs.10.Here the investor has two possible scenarios three
months later.

1) IF PRICE RISES

Market action: 215
Loss : 17(232-15)
Strike price : 240
Premium : 08
Profit : 17(240-215-8)

Thus loss he suffers on the stock will be offset by the profit the
investor earns on the put option bought.

2) IF PRICE RISES:

Market share : 250
Loss : 10
Short position : 250(spot market)

Thus the investor has a limited loss(determined by the strike price
investor chooses) and an unlimited profit.

HAVE PORTFOLIO, SHORT NIFTY FUTURES:

Here the investor are holding the portfolio of stocks and selling
nifty futures. In the case of portfolios, most of the portfolio risk is
accounted for by index fluctuations. Hence a position LONG
PORTFOLIO+ SHORT NIFTY can often become one-tenth as risky as
the LONG PORTFOLIO position.

Let us assume that an investor is holding a portfolio of following
scrips as given below on 1st May, 2001.

Company Beta Amount of Holding ( in
Rs)
Infosys 1.55 400,000.00
Global Tele 2.06 200,000.00
Satyam Comp 1.95 175,000.00
HFCL 1.9 125,000.00
Total Value of Portfolio 1,000,000.00

Trading Strategy to be followed

The investor feels that the market will go down in the next two months
and wants to protect him from any adverse movement. To achieve this
the investor has to go short on 2 months NIFTY futures i.e he has to sell
June Nifty. This strategy is called Short Hedge.

Formula to calculate the number of futures for hedging purposes is

Beta adjusted Value of Portfolio / Nifty Index level

Beta of the above portfolio

=(1.55*400,000)+(2.06*200,000)+(1.95*175,000)+(1.9*125,
000)/1,000,000

=1.61075 (round to 1.61)

Applying the formula to calculate the number of futures contracts

Assume NIFTY futures to be 1150 on 1st May 2001

= (1,000,000.00 * 1.61) / 1150

= 1400 Units

Since one Nifty contract is 200 units, the investor has to sell 7 Nifty
contracts.

Short Hedge

Stock Market Futures Market
st
1 May Holds Rs 1,000,000.00 Sell 7 NIFTY futures
in stock portfolio contract at 1150.
25th June Stock portfolio fall by NIFTY futures falls by
6% to Rs 940,000.00 4.5% to 1098.25
Profit / Loss Loss: -Rs 60,000.00 Profit: 72,450.00
Net Profit: + Rs
15,450.00

SPECULATORS:
If hedgers are the people who wish to avoid price risk, speculators are
those who are willing to take such risk. speculators are those who do not
have any position and simply play with the others money. They only have
a particular view on the market, stock, commodity etc. In short,
speculators put their money at risk in the hope of profiting from an
anticipated price change. Here if speculators view is correct he earns
profit. In the event of speculator not being covered, he will loose the
position. They consider various factors such as demand supply, market
positions, open interests, economic fundamentals and other data to take
their positions.

SPECULATION IN THE FUTURES MARKET

Speculation is all about taking position in the futures market
without having the underlying. Speculators operate in the market
with motive to make money. They take:
Naked positions - Position in any future contract.
Spread positions - Opposite positions in two future contracts. This
is a conservative speculative strategy.

Speculators bring liquidity to the system, provide insurance to the
hedgers and facilitate the price discovery in the market.

Figure 1.2
Speculators

Existing SYSTEM
New

Peril &Prize
1) Deliver based 1) Both profit & 1)Buy &Sell stocks
1)Maximum
Trading, margin loss to extent of on delivery basis
loss possible
trading& carry price change. 2) Buy Call &Put to
premium
forward transactions. by paying
paid
2) Buy Index Futures premium

hold till expiry. Advantages
Greater Leverage as to pay only the premium.
Greater variety of strike price options at a given time.

ILLUSTRATION:

Here the Speculator believes that stock market will going to appreciate.

Current market price of PATNI COMPUTERS = 1500

Strategy: Buy February PATNI futures contract at 1500

Lot size = 100 shares

Contract value = 1,50,000 (1500*100)

Margin = 15000 (10% of 150000)

Market action = rise to 1550

Future Gain:Rs. 5000 [(1550-1500)*100]

Market action = fall to 1400

Future loss: Rs.-10000 [(1400-1500)*100]

Thus the Speculator has a view on the market and accept the risk in
anticipating of profiting from the view. He study the market and play the
game with the stock market

TYPES:

POSITION TRADERS:
These traders have a view on the market an hold positions over a period
of as days until their target is met.

DAY TRADERS:

. Day traders square off the position during the curse of the trading day
and book the profits.

SCALPERS:
Scalpers in anticipation of making small profits trade a number of times
throughout the day.

SPECULATING WITH OPTIONS:
A speculator has a definite outlook about future price, therefore he can
buy put or call option depending upon his perception about future price.
If speculator has a bullish outlook, he will buy calls or sell (write) put. In
case of bearish perception, the speculator will put r write calls. If
speculator’s view is correct he earns profit. In the event of speculator not
being covered, he will loose the position. A Speculator will buy call or put
if his price outlook in a particular direction is very strong but if is either
neutral or not so strong. He would prefer writing call or put to earn
premium in the event of price situations.

ILLUSTRATION:

Here if speculator excepts that ZEE TELEFILMS stock price will rise from
present level of Rs.1050 then he buys call by paying premium. If prices
have gone up then he earns profit otherwise he losses call premium
which he pays to buy the call. if speculator sells that ZEE TELEFILMS stock
will come down then he will buy put on the stale price until he can write
either call or put.

Finally Speculators provide depth an liquidity to the futures market an in
their absence; the price protection sought the hedger would be very
costly.

STRATEGIES:

BULLISH SECURITY,SELL FUTURES:
Here the Speculator has a view on the market. The Speculator is bullish in
the market. Speculator buys the shares of the company an makes the

profit. At the same time the Speculator enters into the future contract i.e.
buys futures and makes profit.

Spot Price of RELIANCE = 1000
Value = 1000*100shares = 1,00,000
Market action = 1010
Profit = 1000
Initial margin = 20,000
Market action = 1010
Profit = 400(investment of Rs.20,000)

This shows that with a investment of Rs.1,00,000 for a period of 2
months the speculator makes a profit of 1000 and got a annual return of
6% in the spot market but in the case of futures the Speculator makes a
profit of Rs.400 on the investment of Rs.20,000 and got return of 12%.

Thus because of leverage provided security futures form an attractive
option for speculator.

BULLISH STOCK, BUY CALLS OR BUY PUTS:

Under this strategy the speculator is bullish in the market. He could do
any of the following:

BUY STOCK

ACC spot price : 150
No of shares : 200
Price : 150*200 = 30,000
Market action : 160
Profit : 2,000
Return : 6.6% returns over 2months

BUY CALL OPTION:

Strike price : 150
Premium : 8
Lot size : 200 shares
Market action :160
Profit : (160-150-8)*200 = 400
Return : 25% returns over 2months

This shows that investor can earn more in the call option because it gives
25% returns over a investment of 2months as compared to 6.6% returns
over a investment in stocks

BEARISH SECURITY,SELL FUTURES:
In this case the stock futures is overvalued and is likely to see a fall in
price. Here simple arbitrage ensures that futures on an individual
securities more correspondingly with the underlying security as long as
there is sufficient liquidity in the market for the security. If the security
price rises the future price will also rise and vice-versa.

Two month Futures on SBI = 240
Lot size = 100shares
Margin = 24
Market action = 220
Future profit = 20(240-220)

Finally on the day of expiration the spot and future price converges the
investor makes a profit because the speculator is bearish in the market
and all the future stocks need to sell in the market.

BULLISH INDEX, LONG NIFTY FUTURES:

Here the investor is bullish in the index. Using index futures, an investor
can “BUY OR SELL” the entire index trading on one single security. Once a
person is LONG NIFTY using the futures market, the investor gains if the
index rises and loss if the index falls.

1st July = Index will rise

Buy nifty July contract = 960

Lot =200

14th July nifty risen= 967.35

Nifty July contract= 980

Short position =980

Profit = 4000(200*20)

ARBITRAGEURS:
Ar bi t r age i s t he concept of si m t aneous buyi ng of secur i t i es i n one
ul
m ket w e t he pr i ce i s l ow and sel l i ng i n anot her m ket w e t he
ar her ar her
pr i ce i s hi gher .

Ar bi t r ageur s t hr i ve on m ket i m f ect i ons. Ar bi t r ageur i s i nt el l i gent
ar per
and know edgeabl e per son and r eady t o t ake t he r i sk H i s basi cal l y r i sk
l e
aver se. H ent er s i nt o t hose cont r act s w e he can ear n r i sk l ess
e er
pr of i t s. W hen m ket s ar e i m f ect , buyi ng i n one m ket and
ar per ar
si m t aneousl y sel l i ng i n ot her m ket gi ves r i sk l ess pr of i t .
ul ar
Ar bi t r ageur s ar e al w ays i n t he l ook out f or such i m f ect i ons.
per

In the futures market one can take advantages of arbitrage opportunities
by buying from lower priced market and selling at the higher priced
market.

JM Morgan introduced EQUITY DERIVATIVES FUND called as ARBITRAGE
FUND where the investor buys the shares in the cash market and sell the
shares in the future market.

ARBITRAGEURS IN FUTURES MARKET
Arbitrageurs facilitate the alignment of prices among different markets
through operating in them simultaneously.

Figure 1.3

Arbitrageurs

Existing SYSTEM
New

Peril &Prize
1) Buying Stocks in 1) Make money 1) B Group more 1)
Risk free
one and selling in whichever way the promising as still
game.
another exchange. Market moves. in weekly
settlement
forward transactions. 2) Cash &Carry
2) If Future Contract arbitrage
continues
more or less than Fair price

Fair Price = Cash Price + Cost of Carry.

Example:

Current market price of ONGC in BSE= 500

Current market price of ONGC in NSE= 510

Thus the Arbitrageur earns the profit of Rs.1000(10*100)

STRATEGIES:

BUY SPOT, SELL FUTURES:
In this the investor observing that futures have been
overpriced, how can the investor cash in this opportunity to earn risk less
profits. Say for i nst ance AC = 1000 and One month ACC futures = 1025.
C

This shows that futures have been overpriced and therefore as an
Arbitrageur, investor can make r i sk l ess pr of i t s ent er i ng i nt o t he
f ol l ow ng set f t r ansact i ons.
i

On day one, borrow funds, buy security on the spot market at 1000
Simultansely, sell the futures on the security at1025
Take delivery of the security purchased and hold the security for a
month
on the futures expiration date, the spot and futures converge . Now
unwind the position
Sa y the security closes at Rs.1015. Sell the security
Futures position expires with the profit f Rs.10
The result is a risk less profit of Rs.15 on the spot position and
Rs.10 on the futures position
Return the Borrow funds.

Finally if the cost of borrowing funds to buy the security is less than the
arbitrage profit possible, it makes sense for the investor to enter into the
arbitrage. This is termed as cash – and- carry arbitrage.

BUY FUTURES, SELL SPOT:
In this the investor observing that futures have been under
priced, how can the investor cash in this opportunity to earn risk less
profits. Say for i nst ance AC = 1000 and One month ACC futures = 965.
C

This shows that futures have been under priced and therefore as an
Arbitrageur, investor can make r i sk l ess pr of i t s ent er i ng i nt o t he
f ol l ow ng set f t r ansact i ons.
i

On day one, sell the security on the spot market at 1000
Mae delivery of the security
Simultansely, buy the futures on the security at 965

On the futures expiration date, the spot and futures converge .
Now unwind the position
Sa y the security closes at Rs.975. Sell the security
Futures position expires with the profit f Rs.10
The result is a risk less profit of Rs.25 the spot position and Rs.10
on the futures position

Finally if the returns get investing in risk less instruments is less than
the return from the arbitrage it makes sense for the investor to enter
into the arbitrage. This is termed as reverse cash – and- carry arbitrage.

ARBITRAGE WITH NIFTY FUTURES:
Arbitrage is the opportunity of taking advantage of the price difference
between two markets. An arbitrageur will buy at the cheaper market and
sell at the costlier market. It is possible to arbitraged between NIFTY in
the futures market and the cash market. If the futures price is any of the
prices given below other than the equilibrium price then the strategy to
be followed is

CASE-1

Spot Price of INFOSEYS = 1650

Future Price Of INFOSEYS = 1675

In this case the arbitrageur will buy INFOSEYS in the cash market at
Rs.1650 and sell in the futures at Rs.1675 and finally earn risk free profit
Of Rs.25.

CASE-2

Future Price Of ACC = 675

Spot Price of ACC = 700

In this case the arbitrageur will buy ACC in the Future market at Rs.675
and sell in the Spot at Rs.700 and finally earn risk free profit Of Rs.25.

INTRODUCTION TO OPTIONS

It is a interesting tool for small retail investors. An option is a contract,
which gives the buyer (holder) the right, but not the obligation, to buy or
sell specified quantity of the underlying assets, at a specific (strike) price
on or before a specified time (expiration date). The underlying may be
physical commodities like wheat/ rice/ cotton/ gold/ oil or financial
instruments like equity stocks/ stock index/ bonds etc.

MONTHLY OPTIONS :
The exchange trade option with one month maturity and the contract
usually expires on last Thursday of every month.

PROBLEMS WITH MONTHLY OPTIONS

Investors often face a problem when hedging using the three-monthly
cycle options as the
premium paid for hedging is very high. Also the trader has to pay more
money to take a long or short position which results into iiliquidity in the
market.Thus to overcome the problem the BSE introduced WEEKLY
OPTIONS

WEEKLY OPTIONS:
The exchange trade option with one or weak maturity and the contract
expires on last Friday of every weak

ADVANTAGES

Weekly Options are advantageous to many to investors, hedgers
and traders.

The premium paid for buying options is also much lower as they
have shorter time to maturity.
The trader will also have to pay lesser money to take a long or
short position.
the trader can take a larger position in the market with limited loss.
On account of low cost, the liquidity will improve, as more
participants would come in.
Weekly Options would lead to better price discovery and
improvement in market depth, resulting in better price discovery
and improvement in market efficiency

TYPES OF OPTION:

CALL OPTION
A call option gives the holder (buyer/ one who is long call), the right to
buy specified quantity of the underlying asset at the strike price on or
before expiration date. The seller (one who is short call) however, has the
obligation to sell the underlying asset if the buyer of the call option
decides to exercise his option to buy. To acquire this right the buyer
pays a premium to the writer (seller) of the contract.
ILLUSTRATION

Suppose in this option there are two parties one is Mahesh (call buyer)
who is bullish in the market and other is Rakesh (call seller) who is
bearish in the market.
The current market price of RELIANCE COMPANY is Rs.600 and premium
is Rs.25

1. CALL BUYER

Here the Mahesh has purchase the call option with a strike price of
Rs.600.The option will be excerised once the price went above 600. The
premium paid by the buyer is Rs.25.The buyer will earn profit once the
share price crossed to Rs.625(strike price + premium). Suppose the stock
has crossed Rs.660 the option will be exercised the buyer will purchase
the RELIANCE scrip from the seller at Rs.600 and sell in the market at
Rs.660.

Profit

30

20

10

0
590 600 610 620 630 640
-10

-20

-30

Loss

Unlimited profit for the buyer = Rs.35{(spot price – strike price) –
premium}
Limited loss for the buyer up to the premium paid.

2. CALL SELLER:

In another scenario, if at the tie of expiry stock price falls below Rs. 600
say suppose the stock price fall to Rs.550 the buyer will choose not to
exercise the option.

Profit

30

20

10

0
590 600 610 620 630 640
-10

-20

-30

Loss

Profit for the Seller limited to the premium received = Rs.25
Loss unlimited for the seller if price touches above 600 say 630 then the
loss of Rs.30

Finally the stock price goes to Rs.610 the buyer will not exercise the
option because he has the lost the premium of Rs.25.So he will buy the
share from the seller at Rs.610.

Thus from the above example it shows that option contracts are formed
so to avoid the unlimited losses and have limited losses to the certain
extent

Thus call option indicates two positions as follows:
LONG POSITION
If the investor expects price to rise i.e. bullish in the market he takes a
long position by buying call option.
SHORT POSITION
If the investor expects price to fall i.e. bearish in the market he takes a
short position by selling call option.

PUT OPTION
A Put option gives the holder (buyer/ one who is long Put), the right to
sell specified quantity of the underlying asset at the strike price on or
before a expiry date. The seller of the put option (one who is short Put)
however, has the obligation to buy the underlying asset at the strike price
if the buyer decides to exercise his option to sell.

ILLUSTRATION

Suppose in this option there are two parties one is Dinesh (put buyer)
who is bearish in the market and other is Amit(put seller) who is bullish
in the market.

The current market price of TISCO COMPANY is Rs.800 and premium is
Rs.2 0

1) PUT BUYER(Dinesh):

Here the Dinesh has purchase the put option with a strike price of
Rs.800.The option will be excerised once the price went below 800. The

premium paid by the buyer is Rs.20.The buyer’s breakeven point is
Rs.780(Strike price – Premium paid). The buyer will earn profit once the
share price crossed below to Rs.780. Suppose the stock has crossed
Rs.700 the option will be exercised the buyer will purchase the RELIANCE
scrip from the market at Rs.700and sell to the seller at Rs.800

Profit

20

10

0
600 700 800 900 1000 1100
-10

-20

Loss

Unlimited profit for the buyer = Rs.80 {(Strike price – spot price) –
premium}
Loss limited for the buyer up to the premium paid = 20

2). PUT SELLER(Amit):

In another scenario, if at the time of expiry, market price of TISCO is Rs.
900. the buyer of the Put option will choose not to exercise his option to
sell as he can sell in the market at a higher rate.

profit

20

10

0
600 700 800 900 1000 1100
-10

-20

Loss

Unlimited loses for the seller if stock price below 780 say 750 then
unlimited losses for the seller because the
seller is bullish in the market = 780 - 750 = 30

Limited profit for the seller up to the premium received = 20

Thus Put option also indicates two positions as follows:

LONG POSITION
If the investor expects price to fall i.e. bearish in the market he takes a
long position by buying Put option.
SHORT POSITION
If the investor expects price to rise i.e. bullish in the market he takes a
short position by selling Put option

CALL OPTIONS PUT OPTIONS
Option buyer or Buys the right to buy Buys the right to sell
option holder the underlying asset at the underlying asset at
the specified price the specified price

Option seller or Has the obligation to Has the obligation to
option writer sell the underlying buy the underlying
asset (to the option asset (from the option
holder) at the specified holder) at the specified

price price.

FACTORS AFFECTING OPTION PREMIUM

THE PRICE OF THE UNDERLYING ASSET: (S)
Changes in the underlying asset price can increase or decrease the
premium of an option. These price changes have opposite effects on calls
and puts.

For instance, as the price of the underlying asset rises, the premium of a
call will increase and the premium of a put will decrease. A decrease in
the price of the underlying asset’s value will generally have the opposite
effect

Premium of the
Premium of the
Price of the CALL Price of CALL
Underlying Underlying
asset asset

Premium of the
Premium of the
PUT
PUT

THE SRIKE PRICE: (K)
The strike price determines whether or not an option has any intrinsic
value. An option’s premium generally increases as the option gets further
in the money, and decreases as the option becomes more deeply out of
the money.

Time until expiration: (t)
An expiration approaches, the level of an option’s time value, for puts
and calls, decreases.

Volatility:
Volatility is simply a measure of risk (uncertainty), or variability of an
option’s underlying. Higher volatility estimates reflect greater expected
fluctuations (in either direction) in underlying price levels. This
expectation generally results in higher option premiums for puts and
calls alike, and is most noticeable with at- the- money options.

Interest rate: (R1)
This effect reflects the “COST OF CARRY” – the interest that might be paid
for margin, in case of an option seller or received from alternative
investments in the case of an option buyer for the premium paid.
Higher the interest rate, higher is the premium of the option as the cost
of carry increases.

PLAYERS IN THE OPTION MARKET:
a) Developmental institutions
b) Mutual Funds
c) Domestic & Foreign Institutional Investors
d) Brokers
e) Retail Participants

FUTURES V/S OPTIONS

RIGHT OR OBLIGATION :
Futures are agreements/contracts to buy or sell specified quantity of the
underlying assets at a price agreed upon by the buyer & seller, on or
before a specified time. Both the buyer and seller are obligated to
buy/sell the underlying asset.

In case of options the buyer enjoys the right & not the obligation, to buy
or sell the underlying asset.

RISK
Futures Contracts have symmetric risk profile for both the buyer as well
as the seller.

While options have asymmetric risk profile. In case of Options, for a buyer
(or holder of the option), the downside is limited to the premium (option
price) he has paid while the profits may be unlimited. For a seller or
writer of an option, however, the downside is unlimited while profits are
limited to the premium he has received from the buyer.

PRICES:

The Futures contracts prices are affected mainly by the prices of the
underlying asset.

While the prices of options are however, affected by prices of the
underlying asset, time remaining for expiry of the contract & volatility of
the underlying asset.

COST:

It costs nothing to enter into a futures contract whereas there is a cost of
entering into an options contract, termed as Premium.

STRIKE PRICE:

In the Futures contract the strike price moves while in the option
contract the strike price remains constant .

Liquidity:

As Futures contract are more popular as compared to options. Also the
premium charged is high in the options. So there is a limited Liquidity in
the options as compared to Futures. There is no dedicated trading and
investors in the options contract.

Price behaviour:

The trading in future contract is one-dimensional as the price of future
depends upon the price of the underlying only. While trading in option is
two-dimensional as the price of the option depends upon the price and
volatility of the underlying.

PAY OFF:

As options contract are less active as compared to futures which results
into non linear pay off. While futures are more active has linear pay off .

OPTION STRATAGIES:

1. BULL CALL SPREAD:
This strategy is used when investor is bullish in the market but to a
limited upside .The Bull Call Spread consists of the purchase of a lower
strike price call an sale of a higher strike price call, of the same month.
However, the total investment is usually far less than that required to
purchase the stock.

Current price of PATNI COMPUTERS is Rs. 1500

Here the investor buys one month call of 1490 at 25 ticks per contract
and sell one month call of 1510 and receive 15 ticks per contract.

Premium = 10 ticks per contract(25 paid- 15 received)


BREAK- EVEN- POINT= 1490+10=1500

Possible outcomes at expiration:

i. BREAK- EVEN- POINT:

On expiration if the stock of PATNI COMPUTERS is 1500 then the option
will close at Breakeven. The call of 1490 will have an intrinsic value of 0
while the 1510 call option sold will expire worthless and also reduce the
premium received.

ii. BETWEEN STRIKE PRICE AND BREAK- EVEN- POINT :

If the index is between1490 an 1500 then the 1490 call option will have
an intrinsic value of 5 which is less than premium paid result in loss of
5.While 1510 call option sold will not expire which will reduce the loss
through receiving the net premium.

If the index is between 1500 and 1510 then the 1490 call option will
have an intrinsic value of 10 i.e. deep in the money While 1510 call
option sold will have no intrinsic value the premium receive generate
profit .

iii. AT STRIKE:

If the index is at 1490, the 1490 call option will have no intrinsic value
and expire worthless. While 1510 call sold result in Rs.10 loss i.e. deep
out the money.

If the index is at 1510, the 1490 call option will have an intrinsic value of
10 i.e. deep in the money. While 1510 call sold will have no intrinsic value
and expire worthless and profit is the premium received of Rs. 10

iv. ABOVE HIGHER PRICE:

IF the PATNI COMPUTERS is above 1510, the 1490 call option will be in
the money of Rs.10 while the 1510 option i.e. strike prices-premium
paid.

v. BELOW PRICE:

IF the underlying stock is below 1490, both the 1490 call option and
1510 option sold result in loss to the premium paid.

The pay-off table:

PATNI COMPUTERS 1485 1490 1495 1500 1510
AT EXPIRATION
(belo (At (Between (At BEP)
w the lower
lower lower strike
price) price) &BEP

Intrinsic value of 0 0 5 10 20
1490 long call at
expiration (a)

Premium paid (b) 25 25 25 25 25
1510 short call at
expiration (c)
Premium received (d) 15 15 15 15 15
profit/loss(a-c)-(b- -10 -10 -5 0 10
d)
PATNI COMPUTERS 1495 1510 1505 1500 1520
AT EXPIRATION
(belo (At (Between (At BEP) (Above
w the higher BEP
highe highe strike
r r &BEP
price) price)

1510 short call at
expiration (a)
Premium paid (b) 15 15 15 15 15
1490 long call at
expiration (c)
Premium received (d) 25 25 25 25 25
profit/loss(c-a)-( d -5 10 5 0 10
- b)

Profit

20

10

0
1490 1500 1510 1520 1530 1540
-10

-20

Loss

2.BEAR PUT SPREAD:
It is implemented in the bearish market with a limited downside. The Bear
put Spread consists of the purchase a higher strike price put and sale of
a lower strike price put, of the same month. It provides high leverage
over a limited range of stock prices. However, the total investment is
usually far less than that required to buy the stock shares.

Current price of INFOSYS TECHNOLOGIES is Rs. 4500

Here the investor buys one month put of 5510(higher price) at 55 ticks
per contract and sell one month put of 4490 (lower price) and receive 45
ticks per contract.

Premium = 10 ticks per contract(55 paid- 45 received)


BREAK- EVEN- POINT= 5510-10 = 5500.



will close at Breakeven. The put purchase of 5510 is 10 result in
no-profit no loss situation to the premium paid while the 4490 put
option sold will expire worthless and also reduce the premium received.


If the index is between 5510 an 5500 then the 5510 put option will have
an intrinsic value of 5 which is less than premium paid result in loss of
5.While 4490 call option sold will not expire which will reduce the loss of
Rs.10 through receiving the net premium.

If the index is between 5500 and 4490 then the 5510 put option will
have an intrinsic value of 15 i.e. deep in the money While 4490 put
option sold will have no intrinsic value the premium receive will generate
profit .

iii. AT STRIKE:

If the index is at 5510, the 5510 put option will have an intrinsic value
of 0 and expire worthless. While 4490 will also have no intrinsic value an
put sold result in reducing the loss as the premium received

If the index is at 4490 the 5510 put option will have maximum profit
deep in the money. While 4490 put sold will have no intrinsic value and
expire worthless and profit is the premium received between the strike
price an premium paid.

iv. ABOVE STRIKE PRICE:

IF the INFOSYS TECHNOLOGIES is above 5510, the 5510 put option will
have no intrinsic value. while the 4490 put option sold result in
maximum loss to the premium received.

If the underlying stock is above 4490 but below 5510, the 4490 put
option will have no intrinsic value. while the 5510 put option sold result
in the maximum profit strike price - premium

v. BELOW STRIKE PRICE:

IF the underlying stock is below 5510, the 5510 option purchase while
be in the money and 4490 option sold will be assigned (strike price –
premium paid) = profit .

The pay-off table:

INFOSYS AT 5520 5510 5505 5500 4480
EXPIRATION
(Abov (At (Between (At BEP)
e the lower
strike strike strike
) ) &BEP

5510 long put at
expiration (a)
Premium paid (b) 55 55 55 55 55
4490 short put at
expiration (c)
Premium received 45 45 45 45 45
(d)
profit/loss(a-c)-(b- -10 -10 -5 0 10
d)

INFOSYS AT 5505 4490 4495 5500 4480
EXPIRATION
(Abov (At (Between (At BEP) (below
e the strike strike
strike strike &BEP price)
) )

4490 short put at
expiration (a)
Premium received 45 45 45 45 45
(b)
5510 long put at
expiration (c)
Premium paid (d) 55 55 55 55 55
profit/loss[(c-a)-( d -5 20 15 0 10
- b)]

Profit

20

10

0
3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
6000 6500 7000
-10

-20

Loss

3. BULL PUT SPREAD.
This strategy is opposite of Bear put spread. Here the investor is
moderately bullish in the market to provide high leverage over a limited
range of stock prices. The investor buys a lower strike put and selling a
higher strike put with the same expiration dates. The strategy has both
limited profit potential and limited downside risk.

The current price of RELIANCE CAPITAL is Rs.1290

Here the investor buys one month put of 1300 (lower price) at 25 ticks
per contract and sell one month put of 1310 (higher price) and receive
15 ticks per contract.

Premium = 10 ticks per contract (25 paid- 15 received)


BREAK- EVEN- POINT= 1300-10 = 1290



On expiration if the stock of RELIANCE CAPITAL is 1290, the 1300 put
option will have an intrinsic value of 10 while the 1310 put option sold
will have an intrinsic value of 30.

ii. BETWEEN STRIKE PRICE AND BREAK- EVEN- POINT:

If the underlying index is between 1290 an 1300, the 1300 put option
the buyer will have an intrinsic value of 5 while the 1310 option sold will
have an intrinsic value of 15

If the underlying index is between 1300 and 1310, the 1300 put option
the buyer will have no intrinsic value and expire worthless, while the
1310 option sold will have an intrinsic value of 5.

iii. AT STRIKE:

If the index is at1300, the 1300 put option will have an intrinsic value of
0 and expire worthless. While 1310 will have an intrinsic value of 10

If the index is at 1310 the 1300 put option will have an intrinsic value of
0 (deep out the money and expire worthless. While 1310 will also have
no intrinsic value and profit of seller is limited t the premium received

iv. ABOVE STRIKE PRICE:

If the index is above1300 say 1310, the 1300 put option buyer has lost
the premium while the 1310 put option seller receive premium to the
limited profit

If the index is above 1310, say 1320 the 1290 put option buyer will
have maximum loss results in deep out the money while the 1310 put
option will have the limited profit.

v. BELOW STRIKE PRICE:

If the index is below 1300 say (1290) , the 1300 put option buyer
will have an intrinsic value of 10 while the 1310 put option sold receive
only premium as the profit is limited for the seller.

OPTION PAYOFF

Profit

Loss

4.BEAR CALL SPREAD:
This strategy is best implemented in a moderately bearish or stable
market to provide high leverage over a limited range of stock prices. Here
the investor buys a higher strike call and sells a lower strike call with the
same expiration dates. However, the total investment is usually far less
than that required to buy the stock or futures contract. The strategy has
both limited profit potential and limited downside risk.

Current price of ACC is Rs. 1500

Here the investor buys one month call of 1510 at 25 ticks per contract
and sell one month call of 1490 and receive 15 ticks per contract.

Premium = 10 ticks per contract (25 paid - 15 received)


BREAK- EVEN- POINT= 1510+10=1520



will close at Breakeven. The call of 1510 will have an intrinsic value of 10
while the 1490 call option sold will expire worthless and also reduce the
premium with the premium outflow.


If the index is between 1490 and 1500 then the 1510 call option will have
no intrinsic value and expire worthless, While 1490 call option sold will
not expire which will reduce the loss through receiving the net premium.

If the index is between 1500 and 1510 then the 1510 call option will
have an intrinsic value of 0, while 1490 call option sold will have no
intrinsic value the premium receive generate profit .

iii. AT STRIKE:

If the index is at 1510 the 1510 call option will have no intrinsic value
and expire worthless. While 1490 call sold receive only premium

If the index is at 1490, the 1510 call option will have no intrinsic value
result in deep out the money, While 1490 call sold will have no intrinsic
value and expire worthless

iv. ABOVE HIGHER PRICE :

IF the underlying stock is above 1510 say 1520, the 1510 call option will
be in the money of Rs.10 while the 1490 option will incur loss to the
premium receive

IF the underlying stock is above 1490 say Below1510, the 1510 call
option will not be exercised while the 1490 option will incur loss to the
premium receive because seller is bearish in the market.

v. BELOW STRIKE PRICE :

IF the underlying stock is below 1510, the 1510 call option will result in
deep out the money and 1490 option sold result in loss to the premium
paid.

OPTION PAYOFF

Profit

Loss

5). STRADDLE:
In this strategy the investor purchase and sell the call as well as the put
option of the same strike price, the same expiration date, and the same
underlying. In this strategy the investor is neutral in the market.

This strategy is often used by the SPECULATORS who believe that asset
prices will move in one direction or other significantly or will remain fairly
constant.

TYPES:
LONG STRADDLE:
Here the investor takes a long position(buy) on the call and put with the
same strike price and same expiration date. In this the investor is
beneficial if the price of the underlying stock move substantially in either
direction. If prices fall the put option will be profitable an if the prices

rises the call option will give gains. Profit potential in this strategy is
unlimited ,While the loss is limited up to the premium paid. This will
occur if the spot price at expiration is same as the strike price of the
options.

SHORT STRADDLE:
This strategy is reverse of long straddle. Here the investor write(sell) the
call as well as the put in equal number for the same strike price an same
expiration. This strategy is normally used when the prices of the
underlying stock is stable but the investor start suffering losses if the
market substantially moves in either direction .

Detailed example of a long straddle

Current market price of BAJAJ AUTO is Rs.600
Here the investor buys one month call of strike price 600 at 20 ticks per
contract and two month put of strike price 600 for 15 ticks per contract.

Premium Paid = 35 ticks


Lower Break- Even- Point = 600 – 35 = 565

Higher Break- Even- Point = 600 + 35 = 635

i. AT BREAK- EVEN- POINT:

If the stock is at 565 or at 635, this option strategy will be at Break-
Even- Point. At 565 the 600 call will have no intrinsic value an expire
worthless but the 600 put will have an intrinsic value of 35.

At 635 the 600 call will have an intrinsic value of 35, while the put 600
will expire worthless.

ii. BELOW STRIKE PRICE AND BELOW LOWER BEP:

If the stock price goes to 550 then the 600 call will have no intrinsic
value and expire worthless while 600 put will have an intrinsic value of 50.

iii. ABOVE STRIKE PRICE AND ABOVE LOWER BEP:

If the stock price touches 650 the 600 call will have an intrinsic value of
50, while 600 put will have no intrinsic value an will expire worthless.

iv. BETWEEN LOWER BEP AND HIGHER BEP:

If the stock prices goes to 6oo then the both call and put option will
expire worthless which results in the loss of 35(premium).

The pay-off table:
BAJAJ AUTO AT 550 600 618 635 650
EXPIRATION
(BELOW (At (BETWEEN (At BEP) (ABOVE
STRIKE the STRIKE & STRIKE
AN D strike HIGHERBEP AN D
BELOW ) ABOVE
BEP ) HIGHER
BEP

600 long call at
expiration (a)
Premium paid (b) 20 20 20 20 20
600 long put at
expiration (c)
Premium paid (d) 15 15 15 15 15
15 -15 -17 0 5
profit/loss(a+c)-(b
+ d)

BAJAJ AUTO AT 550 600 583 565 650
EXPIRATION
(BELOW (At (BETWEEN (At (ABOVE
STRIKE the STRIKE & LOWER STRIKE
AN D strike LOWER BEP) AN D
BELOW ) BEP ABOVE
BEP ) HIGHER
BEP

600 long call at
expiration (a)
Premium paid (b) 20 20 20 20 20
600 long put at
expiration (c)
Premium paid (d) 15 15 15 15 15
15 -15 -18 0 5
profit/loss(a+c)-(b
+ d)

Profit

40

30

20
BEP
10

550 560 570 580 590 600 610
620 630 640 650

-10

-20

-30

-40

Loss

6. STRANGLE:
In this strategy the investor is neutral in the market which involves the
purchase of a higher call and a lower put that are slightly out of the
money with different strike price and with the different expiration date.
The premiums are lower as compared to straddle also the risk is more
involved as compare to straddle which not leads to the profit.

TYPES

1) LONG STRANGLE:

Here the investor purchases a higher call and a lower put with
different strike price and with the different expiration date. A long
strangle strategy is used to profit from a volatile price an loss from stable
prices.

2)SHORT STRANGLE:

In this the investor sells a higher call and a lower put with different strike
price and with the different expiration date. A short strangle strategy is
used to profit from a stable prices an loss starts when price is volatile.

Detailed example of a short strangle

Current market price of BSE INDEX is Rs.4000

Here the investor sells a two month call of strike price 4050 for 20 ticks
per contract and two month put of strike price 3950 for 15 ticks per
contract.

Premium Received = 35 ticks


Lower Break- Even- Point = 3950 – 35 = 3915

Higher Break- Even- Point = 4050 + 35 = 4085

On Expiration:

i. AT BREAK EVEN POINT:

If the stock is at 3915 or at 4085, this option strategy will be at Break-
Even- Point. At 3915 the 4050 call will have no intrinsic value and expire
worthless but the 3950 put will have an intrinsic value of 35

At 4085 the 4050 call will have an intrinsic value of 35, while the put 400
will have no intrinsic value and expire worthless.

ii. BELOW STRIKE PRICE AND BELOW LOWER BEP:

If the stock price goes to 3900 then the 4050 call will have no intrinsic
value and expire worthless while 3950 put will have an intrinsic value of
50.

iii. ABOVE STRIKE PRICE AND ABOVE LOWER BEP:

If the stock price touches 4100 the 4050 call will have an intrinsic value
of 50, while 3950 put will have no intrinsic value and will expire
worthless.

iv. BETWEEN LOWER BEP AND HIGHER BEP:

If the stock prices goes to 4000 then the both call and put option will
expire worthless and limited profit up to the premium received.

v. AT STRIKE PRICE:

If the price is settled at 4050 then 4050 call and 3950 put will have
limited profit upto the premium received

The pay-off table:

BSE INDEX AT 3900 4050 4070 4085 4100
EXPIRATION
(BELOW (At (BETWEEN (At (ABOVE
STRIKE the STRIKE & HIGHER STRIKE
AN D strike HIGHER BEP) AN D
BELOW ) BEP) ABOVE
BEP ) HIGHER
BEP

4050 Short call at
expiration (a)
Premium Receive(b) 20 20 20 20 20
3950 short put at
expiration (c)
Premium Receive 15 15 15 15 15
(d)
15 -35 -15 0 15
profit/loss(a+c)-(b

+ d)

BSE INDEX AT 3900 3950 3930 3915 (ABOVE
EXPIRATION LOWER
(BELOW (At (BETWEEN (At STRIKE
STRIKE the STRIKE & LOWER AN D
AN D strike LOWER BEP) ABOVE
BELOW ) BEP LOWER
BEP ) BEP

600 Short call at
expiration (a)
Premium Receive(b) 20 20 20 20 20
400 short put at
expiration (c)
Premium Receive 15 15 15 15 15
(d)
15 -35 -15 0 -35
profit/loss(a+c)-(b
+ d)

Profit

20

10

0
3900 3925 3950 3975 4000 4025
4050 4075 4100
-10

-20

Break – Even - Point
Loss

7) COVERED CALL:

Under this strategy investors buys the shares which shows that they
are bullish in the market but suddenly they are scared about the market
falls thus they sells the call option. Here the seller is usually negative or
neutral on the direction of the underlying security. This strategy is best
implemented in a bullish to neutral market where a slow rise in the
market price of the underlying stock is anticipated.

Thus if price rises he will not participate in the rally. However he has
now reduced loss by the amount of premium received, if prices
falls.Finally if prices remains unchanged obtains the maximum profit
potential.

EXAMPLE:

Portfolio: 100 shares purchased at Rs.300
Components: Sell a two month Reliance call of 300 strike at 25
Net premium: 25 ticks
Premium received: Rs.2500 (25*100, the multiplier)
Break-even-point: Rs.275:Rs.300-25 (Premium received)


If the stock closes at 300, the 300 call option will not exercised and seller
will receive the premium.
If the stock ends at 275, the 300 call option expires worthless equilant to
the premium received results into no profit no loss.
If the stock ends above 300, the 300 call option is exercised and call
writer receives the premium results into the maximum profit potential.

The payoff diagram of a covered call with long stock + short call = short
put

Profit
:

Break- Even-
50

25

0
250 275 300 325 350
-25

-50

Loss

8) COVERED PUT:

Here the writer sell stock as well as put because he overall moderate
bearish on the market and profit potential is limited to the premium
received plus the difference between the original share price of the short
position and strike price of the put. The potential loss on this position,
however is substantial if price increases above the original share price of
the short position. In this case the short stock will suffer losses which will
be offset by the premium received.

Profit
:

breakeven-
Premium Received

Lower

Loss

9) UNCOVERED CALL:

This strategy is reverse of the covered call. There is no opposite position
in the naked call. A call option writer (seller) is uncovered if the shares of
the underlying security represented by the option is not owned by the
option writer.

The object of an uncovered call writer is to realize income by writing
(selling) option without committing capital to the ownership of the
underlying shares.

This shows that the seller has one sided position in the contract for this
the seller must deposit and maintain sufficient margin with the broker to
assure that the stock can be purchased for delivery if option is exercised.

RISKS INVOLVED IN WRITING UNCOVERED CALL OPTION ARE AS
FOLLOWS:-

If the market price of the stock rises sharply the calls could be
exercised, while as far as the obligation is concerned the seller
must buy the stock more than the option strike price, which results
in a substantial loss.

The rise of buying uncovered calls is similar to that of selling stock
although, as an option writer, the risk is cushioned somewhat by
the amount of premium received.

ILLUSTRATION:

Portfolio: Write reliance call of 65 strike

Net premium: 6

Lot size: 100 shares

Market action: price settled at 55

Therefore the option will not be assigned because the seller has no
stock position and price decline has no effect on the profit of the
premium received.

Suppose the price settled at Rs.75 the option assigned and the seller
has to cover the position at a net loss of Rs.400 [1000 (loss on
covering call)- 600(premium income)]

Finally the loss is unlimited to the increase in the stock price and
profit is limited to the declining stable stock price.

10) PROTECTIVE PUT:

Under this strategy the investor purchases the stock along with the
put option because the investor is bearish in the market. This strategy

enables the holder of the stock to gain protection from a surprise
decline in the price as well as protect unrealized profits. Till the
option expires, no matter what the price of underlying is, the option
buyer will be able to sell the stock at strike price of put option.

SCENARIO

Price of HLL: 200

Components: Buy a one-month put of strike 200

Net premium: 10 ticks per contract

Premium paid: 1000 (10*100 multiplier)

Break-even-point: 210 (Rs.200+10, Premium paid)

Here the investor pays an additional margin of Rs.10 along with the
price of Rs.210 combining a share with a put option is referred as a
Protective Put.

Possible outcomes at expiration

AT BREAK-EVEN-POINT:
Previously if the price rises to 200 the investor will gain but now the
investor pays an margin of Rs.10. If price rises to Rs.210 then only the
investor will gain.

BELOW STRIKE PRICE:
In case of fall in the stock price the loss is limited to Rs.18. This means
that he maximum loss that the investor would have to bear is limited to
the extent of premium paid.
If the price falls at 190 the investor will sell at 200.

ABOVE STRIKE PRICE :
In case of rise in prices then the put option will expire worthless and the
investor will benefit from rise in the stock price.

Finally uncertainty is the biggest curse of the market and a protective put
helps override the uncertainty in the markets. Protective put removes the
uncertainty by limiting the investor loss at Rs.10. In this case no matter
what happens to the investor is protected by the loss of Rs.10. The put
option makes the investor life by telling the investor in advance how
much it stands to loss. This is also referred to as PORTFOLIO INSURANCE

because it helps the investor by insuring the value of investment just like
any other asset for which the investor would purchase insurance.

profit
:

20
Break- Even-
10

0
180 190 200 210 220
-10

-20

Loss

PRICING OF AN OPTION

DELTA

A measure of change in the premium of an option corresponding to a
change in the price of the underlying asset.

Change in option premium
Delta = --------------------------------
Change in underlying price

FACTORS AFFECTING DELTA OPTION:

Strike price
Risk free interest rate
Volatility
Underlying price
Time to maturity

ILUSTRATION

The investor has buys the call option in the future contract for the strike
price of Rs.19. The premium charged for the strike price of 19 at 0.80
The delta for this option is 0.5.Here if the price of the option rises to
20.A rise of 1. then the premium will increase by 0.5 x 1.00 = 0.50. The new
option premium will be 0.80 + 0.50 = Rs 1.30.

Here in the money call option will increase the delta by 1.which will make
the value more and expensive while at the money option have the delta
to 0.5 and finally out the money call option will have the delta very close
to 0 as the change in underlying price is not likely to make them valuable
or cheap and reverse for the put option

Delta is positive for a bullish position (long call and short put) as the
value of the position increases with rise in the price of the underlying.
Delta is negative for a bearish position (short call and long put) as the
value of the position decreases with rise in the price of the underlying.

Delta varies from 0 to 1 for call options and from –1 to 0 for put options.
Some people refer to delta as 0 to 100 numbers.

ADVANTAGE

The delta is advantageous for the option buyer because it can tell him
much of an option and accordingly buyer can expect his short term
movements by the underlying stock. This can help the option of an buyer
which call/put option should be bought.

GAMMA

A measure of change in the delta that may occur corresponding to the
rise or fall in the price of the underlying asset.

Gamma = change in option delta

__________________

change in underlying price

The gamma of an option tells you how much the delta of an option would
increase or decrease for a unit change in the price of the underlying. For
example, assume the gamma of an option is 0.04 and its delta is 0.5. For
a unit change in the price of the underlying, the delta of the option would
change to 0.5 + 0.04 = 0.54. The new delta of the option at changed
underlying price is 0.54; so the rate of change in the premium has
increased. suppose the delta changed to 0.5-0.04 = 0.46 thus the rate of
premium will decreased .

In simple terms if delta is velocity, then gamma is acceleration. Delta tells
you how much the premium would change; gamma changes delta and
tells you how much the next premium change would be for a unit price
change in the price of the underlying.

Gamma is positive for long positions (long call and long put) and negative
for short positions (short call and short put). Gamma does not matter
much for options with long maturity. However for options with short
maturity, gamma is high and the value of the options changes very fast
with swings in the underlying prices

THETA:

A measure of change in the value of an option corresponding to its time
to maturity. It is a measure of time decay (or time shrunk). Theta is
generally used to gain an idea of how time decay is affecting your
portfolio.

Change in an option premium
Theta = --------------------------------------
Change in time to expiry

Theta is usually negative for an option as with a decrease in time, the
option value decreases. This is due to the fact that the uncertainty
element in the price decreases.

ILLUSTRATION

Suppose the theta of Infosys 30-day call option with a strike price of
Rs3,900 is 4.5 when Infosys is quoting at Rs3,900, volatility is 50% and
the risk-free interest rate is 8%. This means that if the price of Infosys
and the other parameters like volatility remain the same and one day
passes, the value of this option would reduce by Rs.4.5.

ADVANTAGE

Theta is always positive for the seller of an option, as the value of the
position of the seller increases as the value of the option goes down with
time.

DISADVANTAGE

Theta is always negative for the buyer of an option, as the value of the
option goes
down each day if his view is not realized.

In simple words theta tells how much value the option would lose after
one day, with all the other parameters remaining the same.

VEGA

The extent of extent of change that may occur in the option premium,
given a change in the volatility of the underlying instrument.

Change in an option premium
Vega = -----------------------------------------
Change in volatility

ILLUSTRATION

Suppose the Vega of an option is 0.6 and its premium is Rs15 when volatility
of the
underlying is 35%. As the volatility increases to 36%, the premium of the
option
would change upward to Rs15.6.
Vega is positive for a long position (long call and long put) and negative for
a short position (short call and short put).

ADVANTAGE

Simply put, for the buyer it is advantageous if the volatility increases after he
has
bought the option.

DISADVANTAGE

For the seller any increase in volatility is dangerous as the probability of his
option getting in the money increases with any rise in volatility.

In simple words Vega indicates how much the option premium would change
for a unit change in annual volatility of the underlying.

DERIVATIVES PRODUCTS OFFERED BY BSE

SENSEX FUTURES

A financial derivative product enabling the investor to buy or sell
underlying sensex on a future date at a future price decided by the
market forces

First financial derivative product in India.

Useful primarily for Hedging the index based portfolios and also for
expressing the views on the market

SENSEX OPTIONS:

call or put options (to be exercised on a future date) on the underlying
sensex at a premium decided by the market forces

Useful primarily for Hedging the Sensex based portfolios and also for
expressing the views on the market.

STOCK FUTURES:

underlying stock on a future date at a price decided by the market
forces

Available on ____ individual stocks approved by SEBI

Useful primarily for Hedging, Arbitrage and for expressing the views
on the market.

STOCK OPTIONS:

call options(to be exercised at a future date) on the underlying stock
at a premium decided by the market forces

Available on ____ individual stocks approved by SEBI

Useful primarily for Hedging, Arbitrage and for expressing the views on
the market.

CONTRACT SPECIFICATIONS

PARTICULARS SENSEX FUTURES AND STOCK FUTURES AND
OPTIONS OPTIONS
Underlying Asset Sensex Corresponding stock
in the cash market
Contract Multiplier 50 times the sensex Stock specific E.g.
(futures) market lot of RIL is
600, Infosys is 100 &
100 times the sensex so on
(options)
Contract Months 3 nearest serial 1, 2 and 3 months
months (futures)

1, 2 and 3
months(options)
Tick size 0.1 point 0.01*
Price Quotation Sensex point Rupees per share
Trading Hours 9:30a.m. to 3:30p.m. 9:30a.m. to 3:30p.m.
Settlement value In case of sensex In case of stock
options the closing options the closing
value of the sensex value of the

on the expiry day respectative in the
cash segment of BSE
Exercise Notice Time In case of sensex In case of stock
options Specified time options Specified time
(exercise session) on (exercise session) on
the last trading day of the last trading day of
the contract. All in the the contract. All in the
money options would money options would
deem to be exercised deem to be exercised
unless communicated unless communicated
otherwise by the otherwise by the
participant. participant.
Last Trading Day Last Thursday of the Last Thursday of the
contract month. If it is contract month. If it is
a holiday, the a holiday, the
immediately immediately
preceding business preceding business
day day
Final Settlement On the last trading The difference is
day, the closing value settled in cash on the
of the Sensex would expiration day on the
be the final basis of the closing
settlement price of value of the
the expiring respectative
futures/option underlying scrip in
contract. the cash market on
the expiration day

DERIVATIVES PRODUCTS OFFERED BY NSE

INDEX FUTURES

Index Futures are Future contracts where the underlying asset is the
Index. This is of great help when one wants to take a position on market
movements. Suppose you feel that the markets are bullish and the Sensex
would cross 5,000 points. Instead of buying shares that constitute the
Index you can buy the market by taking a position on the Index future

Index futures can be used for hedging, speculating, arbitrage, cash flow
management and asset allocation. The S&P 500 futures products are the
largest traded index futures product in the world.

Both the Bombay Stock exchange (BSE) and the National Stock Exchange
(NSE) have launched index futures in June 2000

ADVANTAGES OF INDEX FUYTURES

The contracts are highly liquid
Index Futures provide higher leverage than any other stocks
It requires low initial capital requirement
It has lower risk than buying and holding stocks
Settled in cash and therefore all problems related to bad delivery,
forged, fake certificates, etc can be avoided.

INDEX OPTIONS

An index option provides the buyer of the option, the right but not the obligation to buy or
sell the underlying index, at a pre-determined strike price on or before the date of
expiration, depending on the type of option.

Index option offer investors an opportunity to either capitalize on an expected market
move or hedge price risk of the physical stock holdings against adverse market moves.

NSE introduce index option in June 2001.

FUTURES ON INDIVIDUAL SECURITIES

A futures contract is a forward contract, which is traded on an Exchange.
NSE commenced trading in futures on individual securities on November
9, 2001.

NSE defines the characteristics of the futures contract such as the
underlying security, market lot, and the maturity date of the contract. The
futures contracts are available for trading from introduction to the expiry
date.

CONTRACT SPECIFICATIONS

PARTICULARS INDEX FUTURES AND FUTURES AND OPTIONS ON
OPTIONS INDIVIDUAL SECURITIES
Underlying S&P CNX Nifty and CNX IT
Individual Securities, at
present 53 stocks
Contract Size S&P CNX Nifty Futures / Futures / Options on Minimum
Permitted lot size 200 and value of Rs 2 Lakh for each
multiples individual securities Individual
S&P CNX Nifty Options there of Security
(minimum value Rs.2 lakh)

Strike Price Interval S&P CNX Nifty Options Rs. Options on individual Between
10/-2. Rs.2.50 and Rs. 100.00
securities : depending on the
price of underlying

Trading Cycle Maximum of three month trading Maximum of three month
cycle- near month(one), the next trading cycle- near
month (two)and the far month month(one), the next month
(three). New series of contract (two)and the far month (three).
will be introduced on the next New series of contract will be
trading day following expiry of introduced on the next trading
near month contract day following expiry of near
month contract.

Expiry Date The last Thursday of the expiry The last Thursday of the expiry
month or the Previous trading month or the Previous trading
day if the last Thursday of the day if the last Thursday of the
month is a trading holiday month is a trading holiday

Settlement Basis Index Futures / Futures Mark to Options on individual Premium
Market and final settlement on settlement on T+1 basis and
individual securities be settled in securities option Exercise
cash on T+1 basis settlement on T+2 basis.
Index Options Premium
settlement on T+1 Basis and
Final Exercise settlement on T+1
basis

Settlement Price S&P CNX Nifty Futures / Daily Final settlement price shall be
settlement price will be the the closing value of the
closing value of the underlying underlying security on the last
index trading day
Index Options The settlement
price shall be closing value of The settlement price shall be
underlying index closing on individual security
price of underlying security.

OPEN INTEREST(OPTIONS)
Open Interest is a crucial measure of the derivatives market. The total
number of options contracts outstanding in the market at any given point
of time. In short Sum of all positions taken by different traders reflects
the Open Interest in a contract. Opposite positions taken by a trader in a
contract reduces the open interest. However, opposing positions taken (in
the same contract) by two different traders are added to the open interest.

Assuming that the market consists of three traders only following table
indicates how Open Interest changes on different day’s trades in PATNI
COMPUTERS with a call American option at a strike price of Rs. 180

DAY TRADER 1 TRADER 2 TRADER 3 OPEN
INTEREST
1 LONG 1200 SHORT 2400 LONG 1200 4800
2 NO TRADE LONG 1200 SHORT 1200 2400
3 LONG 1200 NO TRADE SHORT 1200 2400
4 SHORT 2400 LONG 1200 LONG 1200 0

OPEN INTEREST(FUTURES)
The total number of net outstanding futures contracts is called as open
interest i.e. long minus short contracts. A decline in open interest of the
near term futures indicates a short-term weakness whereas an increase
in the open interest in the long term futures indicate that the markets
may bounce back after some time provided this trend persists for a long
time

A rising open interest in an uptrend is Bullish
A declining open interest in an uptrend is Bearish

A rising open interest in a downtrend is Bearish

A declining open interest in a downtrend is Bullish

“RELIANCE ADD 5LAKH SHARES IN THE OPEN INTEREST”

This shows that total number of option contracts comprising of 5lakh
shares are outstanding in the market. There has been no square off
positions(opposite positions) in the market. Thus from the open
interest we come to know long and short positions made by the
investor.

RELATIONSHIP OF OPEN INTEREST WITH MARKET VOLUMES

If open interest and market volumes increases but the market is
bullish this shows that there has been buying positions in the
market, which results into the positive open interest.

If open interest and volumes increases but the market is in the
bearish phase this shows that there has been selling positions
made by the investor which results into the negative open interest

If open interest remains constant and volumes are increasing and
market is also bullish this shows that there has been intra day
trading in the market.

RELATIONSHIP OF OPEN INTEREST WITH PRICES

If both open interest and prices are increasing, this shows that the
buyers have entered in the market unfolding. Expect the uptrend to
continue.

If on the other hand, open interest is increasing while prices
decline, sellers are expecting for the price rise in a technically weak

market. As open interest is growing while prices decline, buyers are
obviously the more aggressive party.

In the event of open interest declining while prices are also slipping,
liquidation by long positions is the implication, therefore
suggesting a technically strong market overall. In other words, the
market is strong as open interest declining suggests no new
aggressive shorts, as this would entail an increase in open interest.

When open interest is declining and prices are increasing, short
covering is the most likely cause suggesting that overall the market
is weak - i.e. attracting new buyers would be required for a
technically strong market and consequently open interest would
rise.

ILLUSTRATION
Suppose there are only two brokers Mr. A and Mr. B in the market. A buys
and B sells contracts on Index futures on a specific day. At the end of the
day , we may say that open interest in the market is 10 contracts and
volume for the day is 10 contracts.

Now, if next day a new trader Mr. C comes from Mr. A, open interest at
the endo f the 2 day of trading remains same 10 contracts and volume
for the day is again 10 contracts. Understand that on the second day, Mr.
C assumes Mr. A’s position on first day of trading. But for the market as a
whole, at the end of the 2nd day all only 10 contracts remain open.

COST OF CARRY
The relationship between futures and spot prices can be summarized in
terms of what is know as the cost of carry. This measures the storage
cost plus the interest that is paid to finance the asset less the income
earned on the asset.

Cost of carry gives us an idea about the demand-supply forces in the
futures market. It basically indicates the annualized interest cost which
players are willing to pay (receive) for buying (selling) a futures contract.

In the Indian markets the cost of carry marketing varies between a
negative 35% per annum to a positive 35 % per annum. It can even be
higher or lower than the 35% figure but that would be an extraordinary

event. We all know that at expiry the futures price closes at the cash price
of the security or an index.

The cost-of-carry model in financial futures, thus, is

Futures price = Spot price + Carrying cost — Returns (dividends, etc.)

RELATIONSHIP OF FUTURES PRICE WITH SPOT PRICE
FUTURES PRICE HIGHER THAN THE CASH PRICE

Here futures price exceeds the cash price which indicates that
the cost of carry is negative and the market under such circumstances is
termed as a backwardation market or inverted market.

EXAMPLE

Suppose the RELIANCE share is trading at Rs.400 in the spot market.
While RELIANCE FUTURES is trading at Rs.406.Thus in this circumstances
the normal strategy followed by investors is buy the RELIANCE in the spot
market and sell in the futures. On expiry, assuming RELIANCE closes at Rs
450, you make Rs.50 by selling the RELIANCE stock and lose Rs.44 by
buying back the futures, which is Rs 6 in a month. Thus Futures prices
are generally higher than the cash prices, in an overbought market.

CASH PRICE HIGHER THAN THE FUTURES PRICE

Here cash price exceeds the futures price which indicates that the cost of
carry is positive and this market is termed as oversold market. This may
be due to the fact that the market is cash settled and not delivery settled,
so the futures price is more a reflection of sentiment, rather than that of
the financing cost.

EXAMPLE

Now let us assume that the RELIANCE share is trading at Rs.406 in the
spot market. While RELIANCE FUTURES is trading at Rs.400.Thus in this

circumstances the normal strategy followed by investors is buy the
RELIANCE FUTURES and sell the RELIANCE in the spot market. So at
expiry if Reliance closes at Rs 450, the investor will buy back the stock at
a loss of Rs 44 and make Rs 50 on the settlement of the futures position.
This is applied when the cost of carry is high.

Thus t he ar bi t r ageur can appl y t hi s st r at egy and make t he pr of i t s

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