Investigatory Project on the lesson Human Health and Disease: Oncology. It describes the types of cancer, it's causes as well as prevention. It also shares the effect of cancer om social and personal life of a people.

1. PROJECT ON
NAME: SOURYA SUMAN
CLASS: XII ‘C’
ADM NO.: 14316
ONCOLOGY/CANCER
2022-23
SESSION
Pitts modern school,gomia

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am very glad to have the opportunity to make this project & express
my profound gratitude and deep regards to my guide Mr. DP
Mukherjee sir for his exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant
encouragement throughout this project. I would like to thank the
people who helped me directly or indirectly to complete the project.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to Mr. MK Upadhyay,
principal Pitts Modern School, Gomia for their valuable
encouragement and approval of the project work.
Lastly, I thank The Almighty, my parents and friends for their
constant encouragement.
Sourya Suman
XII (PCB)

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PITTS MODERN SCHOOL, GOMIA
BOKARO (JH)
Certification
This is to certify that the project was done by Sourya Suman student of class
XII Biology registration number 14316 is in partial fulfilment of the Biology
examination 2022-23 certify that this project is done by him with his own
efforts and with guidance and supervision of the teacher.
I approve the project for submission as required for the partial fulfilment of the
higher secondary school certificate.
PROJECT GUIDE D P MUKHERJEE
(biology department)
PRINCIPAL
M K UPADHAYAY

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INDEX
Introduction 6
Human Cancer Cell 7
Difference between
Normal and Cancer cell
8-9
Characteristics of Cancer
cell
9
Types of Tumours 10
Cancer Cell Division 11-12
Causes of Cancer 13-14
Types of Cancer 15-22
Treatment of Cancer 23-26

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AWWhat cancer cannot do
Cancer is so limited …
It cannot cripple love
It cannot shatter hope
It cannot corrode faith
It cannot destroy confidence
It cannot kill friendship
It cannot shut out memories
It cannot silence courage
It cannot reduce eternal life
It cannot quench spirit
D

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Introduction
Cancer- The uncontrollable killer that have millions of
victims as well as the undefeated enemy of humanity. It
is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth
with the potential to invade other parts of the body.
Not all tumours are cancerous like benign tumours do
not harm much and remain confined to their location and
mot spread to other body parts. But malignant tumours
are the biggest threat to our body as they show no mercy.
The disease is becoming major cause of death in modern
world as most of the infectious diseases are being
controlled through vaccination and drug. Cancer is more
common in elderly persons though its initiation begins at
quite early age. Slow changes occur at molecular and
cellular levels for the latter to become cancerous.
Over 100 types of cancers affect humans.
These diseases are characterized by a cellular
malfunction. Healthy cells are programmed to 'know
what to do and when to do it'. Cancerous cells do not
have this programming and
therefore replicate and
grow out of control.
Cancerous cells in together
are called Neoplasm.

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Human Cancer Cells
Cancer cells are cells
that divide relentlessly,
forming solid tumours
or flooding the blood
with abnormal cells.
Cancer cells have
distinguishing
histological features visible under the microscope. The
nucleus is often large and irregular, and the cytoplasm
may also display abnormalities.
The shape, size, protein composition, and texture of the
nucleus are often altered in malignant cells. The nucleus
may acquire grooves, folds or indentations, chromatin
may aggregate or disperse, and the nucleolus can become
enlarged.
Different
combinations of
abnormalities are
characteristic of
different cancer
types, to the extent
that nuclear
appearance can be
used as a marker in
cancer diagnostics
and staging.

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Difference between normal and
cancer cells
Normal cell Cancer cell
Cell Reproduction
Cell reproduction is needed to
replenish the cell population
that ages or becomes damaged
or destroyed. Normal cells
reproduce properly.
These cells may have gene
mutations or chromosome
mutations that affect the
reproductive properties of the
cells. They don't experience
biological aging and not
maintain their ability to
replicate and grow.
Cell Communication
Cells communicate with other
cells through chemical signals.
These signals help normal cells
to know when to reproduce
and when to stop reproducing.
Cell signals are usually
transmitted into a cell by
specific proteins.
Cancer cells lose the ability to
communicate with other cells
through chemical signals. They
also lose sensitivity to anti-
growth signals from
surrounding cells. These
signals normally restrict
cellular growth.
Cell Specialization
Normal cells have the ability to
differentiate or develop into
specialized cells. For example,
cells can develop into heart
cells, brain cells, lung cells or
any other cell of a specific
type.
Cancer cells are unspecialized
and do not develop into cells
of a specific type. Similar to
stem cells, cancer cells
proliferate or replicate many
times, for long periods of time.
Cell Death
Normal cells have the ability to
self-destruct when they become
damaged or diseased. Cells
When the genes in a normal
cell are damaged beyond
repair, certain DNA checking

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break down and are disposed
of by white blood cells.
mechanisms signal for cell
destruction.
Morphological Difference Between
Normal AND Cancer Cells
Fine chromatin Coarse chromatin
Characteristics of Cancer Cells
❖ The cancer cells do not require extracellular
growth factors.
❖ The cells continue to divide repeatedly.
❖ There is no control over cell divisions.
❖ The cells do not remain attached to one another
but can slip past one another.
❖ Due to repeated divisions, cells form a large
mass of undifferentiated tissue called tumour.
❖ Cells pass out from the tumour to new sites for
forming secondary
tumours. The spread of
cancerous cells from
one part to the other
parts (through body
fluids or secondaries) is
called metastasis.
Normal cell Cancer cell
Large cytoplasm Small cytoplasm
Single nucleus Multiple nuclei
Single nucleolus Multiple and large nucleoli

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Types of Tumours
There are two types of tumours, benign and malignant.
a) Benign Tumour: Benign tumour is noncancerous or
non-malignant tumour which remains confined to
the original position of its formation, stops
increasing in size after certain growth, gets
encapsulated in connective tissue so that it is unable
to infiltrate into adjacent tissues, e.g., warts. It may,
however, cause discomfort or pain.
b) Malignant tumour: Malignant tumour is the actual
cancerous tumour which grows rapidly because the
dividing cells continue proliferation, produce
angiogenic factors for blood supply and become
progressively invasive. Malignant tumour is not
encapsulated. Its cells reach other parts of the body
through blood, lymph and formation of secondaries.
They form new malignant tumours in invaded parts.
The phenomenon is called metastasis. Malignant
tumours prove fatal when they disrupt the function
of some vital organs.

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Cancer Cell Division
Cell division is a normal process used by the body for
growth and repair. A parent cell divides to form two
daughter cells, and these daughter cells are used to build
new tissue, or to replace cells that have died as a result of
ageing or damage. Healthy cells stop dividing when there
is no longer a need for more daughter cells, but cancer
cells continue to produce copies. Cancer is divided into 4
stages (1st
,2nd
,3rd
& 4th
).
Cancer is unchecked cell growth. Mutations in genes can
cause cancer by accelerating cell division rates or
inhibiting normal controls on the system, such as cell
cycle arrest or programmed cell death. As a mass of
cancerous cells grows, it can develop into a tumour.

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Causes of Cancer
Physical, chemical and biological agents that cause cancer
are known as carcinogens.
1) Physical carcinogens: They
include mechanical irritants, heat
and radiations.
a) Mechanical Irritants: friction,
trauma and continues irritation
seems to produce cancer.
b) Heat: Excessive smoking causes
mouth as well as lung cancer
c) Radiations: UV radiations, X-
Rays, radioactive isotopes etc
causes cancers, e.g., leukaemia, skin cancer
2) Chemical Carcinogens: A number of chemicals are
known to cause cancers, e.g., nitrosodimethylene
(cigarette smoke, lung
cancer), 3, 4-benzopyrene
(skin and lung cancer),
synthetic dyes (blood
cancer), aflatoxin (liver
cancer), cadmium oxide
(prostate cancer),
diethylstilbesterol (vaginal cancer), sex hormone
(breast cancer) etc.
3) Biological Carcinogens: Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)
causes cervical cancer (Cancer of cervix). Epstein Bar
Virus produces Burkitt's lymphoma (jaw tumour) and
nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Human Herpes Virus-8
forms Kaposi’s sarcoma (vascular neoplasm) common
in AIDS patients. Hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV, HCV)
seem to cause liver cancer. Helicobacter pylori, the
causative agent of peptic ulcer may cause gastric

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carcinoma. Schistosoma haematobium produces
urinary bladder cancer.
4) Tobacco use, alcohol consumption, unhealthy diet,
physical inactivity and air pollution are most common
causes.
֎Alcoholism is the leading cause of liver cancer
destroying 28000 lives per year…
֎ Around 1.80M people dies from lung cancer in 2020
estimated by WHO.

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Types of Cancers
On the basis of tissue affected, some 200 clinically
distinct cancers are recognised. They are, however,
grouped under five types- carcinomas, melanomas,
sarcomas, leukaemia and lymphomas and adenomas.
1) Carcinomas: They are the cancers of epithelial tissues
like skin and epithelial lining of internal organs.
a) Lung Cancer: A cancer that begins in the lungs and
most often occurs in people who smoke.
Symptoms- Cough (often with blood), Chest pain,
Wheezing and weight loss.
Prevention- Avoid smoking and carcinogens at work,
eat diet full of fruits and vegetables, Exercise most
days of the week.

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b) Breast Cancer: A cancer that forms in the cells of
breasts caused by mutations of genes like BRCA1
and BRCA2.
Symptoms- Bloody nipple discharge, discomfort,
inverted nipple, lump formation near breasts.
Prevention- Keep weight in check and be physically
fit.
• Avoid alcohol and smoking.
• Avoid post-menopausal hormones.
• Avoid birth control pills and have regular
screening.

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c) Liver Cancer: Liver cancer is cancer that begins in
the cells of your liver. Liver cancer can be caused by
chronic infections with hepatitis C virus (HCV) or
hepatitis B virus (HBV).
Symptoms:
• Loss of weight and appetite
• Upper abdominal pain
• Nausea and vomiting
• White chalky stools
• Jaundice
• Abdominal swelling
Preventions:
• Avoid excess alcohol
• Maintain healthy weight
• Get vaccinated against hepatitis B

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2) Melanomas: they are the tumours arising from
melanocytes of skin and epithelial lining of internal
organs.
a) Mucosal Melanoma: It occurs on your mucus
membranes, which are tucked away inside your nose,
mouth, anus and vagina.
Symptoms:
• Bleeding lumps
• Pigmented lesions
• Ulcers
For head and neck:
• Dentures that do not fit properly
• Difficulty and pain when you swallow or
speak
• Frequent nosebleed
• Nasal obstruction and loss of sense of smell
Prevention:
• Avoid sun during middle of day
• Wear sunscreen
• Wear protective clothing
• Avoid tanning lamps and beds
• Take care of your skin

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b) Nodular Melanoma: Nodular melanoma is a type of
skin cancer. It's a firm, raised, discoloured growth on
your skin that may look like a blood blister.
Overexposure to ultraviolet light is the primary
cause of nodular melanoma.
Symptom:
• A firm, dome-shaped growth on your skin
• Discoloration (red, pink, brown, black, blue-
black or the same colour as your skin)
• Texture may be smooth, crusty or rough, like
cauliflower
• Bleeding
• Itching
• Stinging
Prevention:
• Avoid sun and seek shade, especially between
10 a.m. and 4 p.m. when the sun's rays are the
strongest.
• Don't use tanning beds. Use a spray tan
(cosmetic) instead.
• Wear hats with brims, sunglasses, long-sleeved
shirts and pants whenever possible.
• Use a broad-spectrum sunscreen with a skin
protection factor (SPF) of 30 or higher. Reapply
it often, especially if you're swimming or
sweating.
• Take care of your skin and seek for a medical
help if anything abnormal happens.

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3) Sarcomas: They are cancerous growths of mesodermal
tissues like bone, cartilage, fat, etc. In human beings,
sarcomas constitute only one percent of all tumours,
e.g., osteoma (cancer of bone), lipoma (cancer of
adipose tissue.
Osteoma: Osteomas are benign head tumours made of
bone. They're usually found in the head or skull, but
they can also be found in the neck.
Symptoms:
• Headaches
• Sinus infections
• Hearing or vision problems

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4) Leukaemia (Blood Cancer): It is one of the most
common and life-threatening type of cancer. It affects
the blood cells.
Symptoms:
• Weight loss that’s unexplained
• Bruising and bleeding that’s unexplained
• Lumps or swelling
• Shortness of breath
• Drenching night sweat
• Fever that’s unexplained
• Rash, itchy skin and pain in bones, joints and
abdomen
• Fatigue and paleness
Prevention:
• Avoid exposure to radiations
• Avoid exposure to chemicals
• Avoid smoking in any form
• Regular exercise
• Eat healthy
• Don’t ignore symptoms
• Have a healthy and correct lifestyle

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5) Adenoma: It is a cancer caused by the excessive growth
of glandular epithelium caused by mutation of DNA in
the cells.
Thyroid Cancer: Thyroid cancer is a growth of cells
that starts in thyroid.
Symptoms:
• Lump on neck
• Difficulty in swallowing
• Swollen lymph nodes in your neck
• Pain in your neck and throat
Prevention: Adults and children with and inherited
gene that increases the risk of medullary thyroid cancer
may consider thyroid surgery to prevent cancer.

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Treatment of cancer
It depends on the type of cancer. There are four types of
treatment or strategies which are used singly or in
combination.
1) Surgery
The tumour is removed surgically. However, as
malignant tumour has migrating cells, the latter
cannot be removed. Therefore, surgical removal of a
malignant or cancerous tumour is never completely
successful. Repeated surgery is required. Surgical
reduction of tumour is also used for other modes of
cancer treatment. Certain tumours are, however, not
accessible to surgical excision. In some of these
cases laser microsurgery has been used successfully.

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2) Radiation Therapy
Cancer cells are undifferentiated dividing cells. They
are more easily damaged by radiations than the
other differentiated body cells. Radon (Rn-220),
Iodine (1-131) and cobalt (Co-60) are radioisotopes
commonly used in radiotherapy. Administration of
2-deoxyglucose half an hour before radiation therapy
kills most of the cancer cells. However, some
harmful changes do occur to normal tissues around
the tumour mass.

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3) Chemotherapy
It is the use of cytotoxic drugs often along with other
types of therapies. The common drugs are cisplatin
and fluorouracil, nitrosoureas, vincristine and
vinblastine (from Catharanthus roseus in leukaemia),
Taxol (from Taxus baccate) and tetra thiomolybdate.
Cytotoxic drugs, however, have a number of side
effects. Prophylactic use of tamoxifen and raloxifene
in ladies with mutated BRCA genes (risk of breast
cancer) has been useful. PARP (Poly ADP ribose
polymerase) inhibitors have been found to kill
tumour cells without any side effects.

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4) Immunotherapy
It is strengthening of anticancer immunological
defence mechanism of the body because tumour
cells avoid detection and destruction by immune
system. For this the patients are given biological
response modifiers such as a-interferon. They
activate the immune system which helps in
destroying tumour cells. Monoclonal antibodies with
attached radioisotopes combine immunotherapy
with radiotherapy. Another approach is to develop
vaccines against cancers. Bone marrow transplant is
used in case of leukaemia

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Effect of cancer on Human Society
Almost all cancer survivors will face psychological and emotional
issues that can show up many years after treatment. The good news is
that you don’t have to suffer alone. Therapy, support groups, social
media and community resources are available to help you cope with
these issues.
Here are some of the most common
issues that cancer survivors may deal
with:
Fear of recurrence: Many survivors
worry that their cancer will come
back at some point. Milestone events in their cancer journey can
often trigger these feelings. Knowing your own body can help
distinguish between normal physical changes and more serious
symptoms that need to be reported to your doctor.
Depression: It is estimated that 70% of cancer survivors
experience depression at some point. Know the symptoms of
depression and seek treatment as soon as possible.
Body image: Cancer survivors who have experienced
amputations, disfigurement or a major change in physical
function can suffer from a lack of self-esteem. A negative body
image can affect your desire for intimacy and social interaction.
Honesty and open communication with loved ones can minimize
negative feelings.
Relationships: You may find that friends, co-workers and family
members treat you differently after a cancer diagnosis. They may
avoid you or won’t discuss your cancer It can help to seek new
relationships with other cancer survivors who know what you’ve
been through.
The workplace: Cancer survivors often feel that they can no
longer relate to co-workers who haven’t experienced cancer. You
may be reluctant to talk about your cancer treatment to
employers or co-workers for fear of being treated differently. See
if your employer has a support group or other resources for
cancer survivors.

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“Cancer is only the chapter of
your life not the whole story”