Issues in Urban Environmental Governance in Indian Cities

13th
International Congress of Asian Planning Schools Association (APSA)
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia, 12-14 August 2015
Urben Environment and Governance: Issues and Challenges in Indian Cities
Prof. Subhrangsu Goswami1
, Anuradha Adhikari2
1
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Planning, Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology,
Ahmedabad, India. Email: sgoswami31@gmail.com
2
Consultant, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Hyderabad, India. Email:
nisha.adhikari19@gmail.com
Abstract:
In 2011 India is 31.1 percent urbanized with urban population growth of 2.76 percent reversing the
declining rate of previous decades. This current trend of urbanization is creating tremendous pressure
on urban environment.In fact the administrativestructurehasgivenvery little powerto the localbodies
in India for doing something essentially for environment. The primary objective of this paper is
therefore to examine if the environmental governance at the level of Urban Local Bodies’ (ULB)
remains true to its termboth regarding devolution of power to this strata of administration and taking
sensitive action for environmental management on its own.The research focuses on examining different
stages of governance and identification of problems for local level pertaining to India’s legislative
framework, institutional mechanism and policy measures all across three strata of Governance to
understand the gap. Capacity building initiativesby the national government have also been examined
to understand the shortage in human resourcesfortaking appropriate action at the urban local body.
Thus it raises serious shortcomingsof the multilevel environmental governance in India especially at
the level of urban local bodies. It is also evident fromthe study that several national programs and
plans are formulated to improve urban quality of life through better management of urban
infrastructure and environment. However due to governance issues and lack of capacity at the local
body in terms of trained human resourcesand financial resources,urban local bodies are unable to
play significant role in taking care of urban environment.
Keywords: Urban Local Bodies, Urban Environment, Environmental Governance, Indian Cities
1.0.Introduction:
Man has always been of high influence to environment. Starting with the invention of fire, he is
constantly changing environment which attained another height with the advent of agriculture and
industrialisation, having severe impact on land, water and air. But the growth in world population has
masked what may be an even more important human-environmental interaction: While the world's
population is doubling, the world's urban population is tripling. (Torrey n.d.) Population growth
especially urbanisation is a major problem for all of the developing countries throughout the world.
Though urbanisation brings economic development with it, the associated environmental deterioration
is a phenomena which must not be ignored. This may be the result of inappropriate urban policies, lack
of the power of ULBs to cope up with the rapidly increasing urban population and inadequate service
delivery. When talking about India, it is also important to know about the administrative structure which
has given very little power to the local bodies for doing something essentially for environment. Most
of the activities related to environmental governance is associated with Central and State Government
which actually has very little to do for managing environmental issues at the grassroots level other than
formulate policies and acts and implementing the same. Therefore this paper tries to look into what are
the major environmental problem emerging in urban areas and if the environmental governance at the
Urban Local Bodies’ (ULB) level is remaining true to its term both regarding devolution of power to
this strata of administration and taking sensitive action for environmental management on its own.

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2.0.Methodology:
The research focuses on the understanding where ULBs stand regarding environmental protection in
India. The following steps will be very crucial in accomplishing the stated aim. This particular topic
has been evolved from the concept of environmental governance and its relevance in the wake of urban
induced environmental challenges especially in the context of developing country like India which is
moving towards a future of technology driven smart cities. What is happening in India is directives
coming from Central Government and very negligible power are observed at the stage of ULB who
have the actual authority of implementation. For the heterogeneous structure of India. ‘One size fits all’
policy cannot be applicable. But in reality most of the environmental management related acts are
focused on central government and environmental improvement is considered a discretionary function
in the 74th
CAA. At the same time very little effort has been observed on their own in this direction.
The study is to be initiated with reviewing literature and cases involving the concept of environmental
integration in urban planning at local level across the world for eg. the reports The Alternative Urban
Future, Livable Cities and Sustainable Cities Programme are to be consulted to develop the
understanding of urban local level governance and several initiatives taken worldwide. Innovative
approach like Eco city programme etc is also to be studied as part of literature review. There is going
to be two approaches in analysis- firstly the comparison across different stages of governance and
identification of problems for local level which as discussed in the literature will be mainly in terms of
devolution of power as well as finance. For this the focus will be narrowed down to studying India’s
legislative framework, institutional mechanism and policy measures all across 3 stages of Governance
to understand the gap. By studying devolution of financial allocation and its capacity of generating own
revenue, its power to expense in something discretionary can be assessed. Capacity building initiatives
by the Ministry of Urban Development also to be incorporated to analyse the shortage in human
resource for taking appropriate action. The 2nd
approach is about identifying shortcomings solely at the
ULB level in terms of scope available to them for taking action but they are not sensitive or conscious
enough to go ahead in this direction. Hence, this paper will raise the shortcomings of the multilevel
environmental governance in India especially at the lowest level of government and the major areas
where improvements are required. Most of the time severalplans are formulated regarding conservation
and management of environment without considering whether the ULBs are equipped enough both
financially and legally with adequate human resource. It would be interesting to look into the fact that
in spite of severalpolicies and acts,why India ranks low (155 in Environmental Performance Index) in
the environment related studies worldwide especially Indian cities ranks average or below average in
city based studies (Asian Green City Index).
3.0.India’s Urbanisation Scenario:
As per MGI report, there is a projection of 590 mil population i.e. 40% of total population of India
residing in urban areas (Sankhe 2010). Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Maharashtra,Karnataka and Punjab have
possibility of more population residing in cities than in village. These possibilities are coming out to be
true in the census figure of 2011 which shows decadal population growth rate for urban India was
31.8%, while for rural India it fell to 12.2%. Leaving behind the projected figure of urban population
growth rate of 2.23 % by The Office of the Registrar Generaland CensusCommissioner of India, actual
growth rate came to be 2.76%. Another problem of urbanisation as emerged from the census 2011 is
growth of lower classes of towns and many entities priorly considered village, have acquired the status
of Town (Kundu 2011). These newly declared town are not equipped enough to provide with the
required services to increased population size and to deal with newly emerging environmental issues.
In spite of these pressures, there is apprehension of cities becoming the centre of economic
development. As per 11th
five-year plan, overall urban sector development contributes 62% of the GDP
while, 9-10% of growth rate in GDP can be attributed to vibrant urban sector (Bhagat 2011).
Keeping with the demand of these ever increasing population, pressure is also going to be enormous on
the ULBs. In this regard Indian cities fall miserably short of the basic standard and with the current
level of investment there is no scope of improvement in near future (Sankhe 2010) and when the bodies
are failing miserably in terms of mandatory service provisioning, it is not expected of them to do

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something which is a choice. Though many studies still put an emphasis on urbanisation as an engine
of economic growth, Good Cities are those which deliver robust economic growth as well as a
sustainable quality of life including preservation of natural resource and ensuring access to clean air,
water and soil as well as matching standard of climate change, emission and sustainability (Sankhe
2010).
4.0.Complex Environmental Problems:
Urban development induced environmental problems can be categorised into three parts- pollution
related (air, water,soil etc.),infrastructure related (inadequate watersupply, solid waste collection, lack
of coverage),resource exploitation (ecosystem destruction, loss of biodiversity, encroachment of water
bodies etc.). At various stages of economic development and urbanisation, the nature of environmental
problem also differs. After crossing the stage 1 and 2 of economic development, human civilisation is
approaching the phase 3 which is and will be laced with consumption related problems (Dr.
Nitivattananon n.d.).
Most of the pollution related problems are localised in nature but resource exploitation related issues
have implication on global scale in terms of high Ecological Footprint. London needs 125 times its own
area to provide the resources it consumes and if urban areas in the developing world grow in the same
way and consume at the same levels, their environmental impact will be catastrophic. Responsible
authority for a particular pollution and its victims also belong to different governing bodies leading to
a gap of communication for taking rapid action. Moreover most of these problems are so much
interrelated that they need a holistic approach instead of sector specific intervention. Emphasising on
any particular problem may incur issue in other sector for eg. introduction of more intense transport
network will further exacerbate the problem of air pollution. Therefore, the integration of various
authorities at different level of governance is of utmost importance to look into the urban environmental
challenges in a rational manner.
5.0.Theories for Environmental Integration into Urban Planning:
Before adopting any procedure for incorporating environmental conservation in urban planning process,
the problems should be assessed properly. Although the population impact model provides some
perspective on local impact, and the Ecological Footprint model on global impact, only the
sustainability assessment approach allows us to see the positive benefits of urban growth and provides
policy options that can help cities reduce their local and global impact while improving their liveability
and opportunity, which continue to drive their growth (Newman 2006).
Figure 1 PROGRESSION OF ENVIRONMENTALIMPACT WITH ECONOMIC ADVANCEMENT

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As per the report of Liveable Cities by ICLEI and Cities Alliance there are several instruments that a
city canuse to integrate the environment into urban planning and management. Instruments can fall into
several categories: policy instruments, process instruments, planning instruments and management
instruments. Policy instruments provide guiding principles for urban decision-makers. Process
instruments provide ways of doing something, steps that can be taken to reach a desired goal. Planning
instruments offer a variety of methods by which urban development plans can be developed and
implemented. Managementinstruments provide tools to direct and administer urban planning decisions.
Table 1: DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS AVAILABLE FOR INTEGRATION OF
ENVIRONMENT INTO URBAN PLANNING
Policy
instruments
Process
instruments
Planning instruments Management
instruments
Information
Voluntary
Economic
Regulatory
Visioning
Baseline Studies
Participation
Environmental Profile
Rapid Ecological Footprint Assessment
Strategic Environmental Assessment
Monitoring and Indicators
SWOT Analysis
Environmental
Budget and Audit
Environmental
Quality
Management
Sustainable Cities Programme: The process tools address the full range of the SCP city demonstration
activities covered in a series of five source books: preparing an environmental profile; organising and
conducting a city consultation; establishing and supporting working groups; formulating environmental
strategies and action plans; and institutionalising the EPM process. During 1996 and 1997 the source
books underwent field testing prior to incorporating comments and inputs from the cities. The thematic
tools include Environmental Management Information System (EMIS) and Urban Air Quality
management emphasising on usage of high end technologies to assess environmental activities. The
City Summit in 1996 stressed the vital need for partnership between the various levels of government,
and betweeneachof these and other major groups involved in development such asNon - Governmental
Organisations, Community – Based Organisations, the business sector,professional associations, trade
unions, academia and researchinstitutions. For EPMto be successfulin a city, it requires understanding,
agreement, and coordinated action by the full range of public, private and popular sector groups and
organisations (stakeholders) at neighbourhood, community, city, and national levels. To achieve this, it
is important for cities to undertake a wide-ranging process of identifying these stakeholders and
involving them in the process.
An Eco city is a human settlement modelled on the self-sustaining resilient structure and function of
natural ecosystems. The Eco city seeks to provide healthy abundance to its inhabitants without
consuming more renewable resources than it replaces in its bioregion. It seeks to function without
producing more waste than it can assimilate or recycle for newuses or than nature can dilute and absorb
harmlessly, and without being toxic to itself or neighbouring ecosystems.
6.0. Institutional and Legal Framework of Environmental Protection in India:
Indian constitution has several article quoting the need and duties for environmental conservation.
Article 48 A and 51 A(g) delegates the responsibility of protecting the environment and safeguarding
our wildlife and forest resource to state and citizens respectively without any article in particular
chalking out the duties of urban local bodies.
At present the activities related to environment protection are majorly entitled to Central and State
Governments in the form of MoEF, SDoE and CPCB and SPCB. They are the responsible organisation
for making law to its enforcement,promoting education and research to monitoring under various acts
which are mentioned below.
Table 2: LEGISLATIVE STRUCTURE FOR URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE
Central State Local

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Constitutio
nal
Provision
Article 48(A) To be followed by people at large
74th Amendment Devolution of
state to ULBs
Environment is
discretionary,
depends on
requirement and
funding
General
Overarchin
g Act
Environmental
Protection Act, 1986 √ x
Subject/Are
a Specific
Act
Air Act, 1981 √ (constitution of
boards, disseminating
information)
√ (prevention
and control of air
pollution) x
Water Act, 1974 √ (constitution of
boards, disseminating
information)
√ (prevention
and control of air
pollution)
x
The Forest
Conservation Act,
1980
√ Only with
permission of
state
governments
x
Wildlife Protection
Act, 1972 √ √ x
Biodiversity Act,
2002 √ √ x
EIA Notification
2006 √ √ x
CRZ Notification
√ √ for selected areas
But as the matrix suggests all of these acts’ provision have given very limited power to the ULBs. For
eg. for prevention and control of air pollution, the demarcation of pollution free zone or collecting and
testing the samples all are with the respective state boards. There is no specific act pertaining to
pollution prevention and control to urban local bodies where most of the pollution sources are
concentrated. One of the most important legal support of EIA notification hardly bears any significance
to any ULBs. The entire clearance process pertain to central or state authorities even when the project
solely belongs to the ULB. No concerned person from the ULBs are incorporated in the Expert
Appraisal Committee (EAC) or Impact Assessment Authority (IAA) for raising any points pertaining
to their jurisdiction solely.
7.0.Policies Addressing Environmental Concern:
Most of the environmental protection related plan and policies in India are initiated by national
Government with fixed target areas and funds are channelized in those directions separately without
looking at the related components at large which resulted in failure of many such missions is India. As
ULBs are the sole organisation to actually implement the required actions as suggested in the policy

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there should be discussion with the ULB officials as well as continuity in the action taken instead of
separate project level activities.
Plan/ Policy/ Programme Local
National Environmental Policy, 2006 Empowerment of ULBs limited to capacity building
National River Conservation Plan Fragmented approach, focused on interception and
diversion of sewage without considering factors like
connectivity of sewage network or load of the sewage.
even after being town centric plan, technical, managerial
& financial constraints of ULBs a major issue
National Water Policy No specific function to be performed by ULBs.
Database to be developed at national and state level only
without any specific emphasis on the state level activities.
National Urban Sanitation Policy Setting up of City Sanitation Task Force, policy in line
with Sanitation as a mandatory function of ULBs,capacity
building and fund channelization through centrally
sponsored scheme, preparation of City Sanitation Plan
National Urban Transport Policy No specific activity pertaining to ULBs. Capacity building
of ULB is also in a fragmented manner, absence of any
focused approach
National Wetland Conservation
Programme
National Biodiversity Action Plan
Green India Mission Urban area is quite left out in terms of criteria for selection
of landscape or fund channelization. More emphasis is
given on the panchayat level structure for implementation
of the mission objectives
8.0.Institutional Structure and Functions of ULBs:
To sustain and maintain the future demand of continuously rising urban population, a separate authority
was the call of the day. In 1992 through Local Self Government Act, the devolution of power to local
bodies have started by the 73rd
and 74th
amendment of constitution. These Local Bodies play a critical
role in the delivery of social, economic and infrastructure services like public health, sanitation, primary
education, water supply, and maintenance of road networks. The 74th Amendment Act provided a list
of functions to be performed by the ULBs which is mentioned in the 12th Schedule of the Constitution
(Table 1). All these functions were to be devolved to the ULBs by the state government for their
effective functioning.
1) Urban Planning including town planning.
2) Regulation of land use and construction of building.
3) Planning for economic and social development.
4) Roads and bridges.
5) Water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposes.
6) Public health, sanitation conservancy and solid waste management.

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7) Fire services.
8) Urban forestry, protection of the environment and promotion of ecological aspects.
9) Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections of society, including the handicapped and mentally
retarded.
10) Slum improvement and up gradation.
11) Urban poverty alleviation.
12) Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects.
Again, all of these are not mandatory tasks and activities related to urban forestry being a discretionary
task, its implementation depend on the ULBs capacity in terms of funds and human resource
requirement. Studies by Zakaria Committee suggests that there is severe under spending of
infrastructure related investment and most of the studies incorporate only the grey infrastructure
components. Moreover, MoUD introduced SLB framework and several other norms by National
Institute of Urban Affair (NIUA) or Planning Commission for infrastructure delivery by ULBs do not
account for green infrastructure part in its measurement.
9.0.Financial Support of the ULBs:
Revenue of the ULBs come from two sources mainly- internal and external. Internal/own source of
revenue consists of tax revenue and non-tax revenue. Internal tax revenue includes property taxes; tax
on vehicles, animals, trade and callings and professions; theatre tax/show tax; tax on advertisements,
boats, etc. Non tax revenue includes rents from municipal assets; income from municipal undertakings;
user charges; fees and fines; income from municipal investments, etc. External sources of revenue
consist of grants-in-aid and sharedtaxes.Grants-in-aid include generalpurpose; specific purpose; grants
in lieu of taxes. Shared taxes include entertainment tax; motor vehicle tax; land revenue; stamp duties;
profession tax; etc.
The share of own revenue, devolution of power to the ULBs and its sustenance play an intricate
relationship among themselves. Higher the share of own revenue, higher is the authority of making
investment decision. But the own revenue generated by ULBs across the country varies from a measly
Rs. 38 in Orissa to Rs. 2600 per capita in Maharashtra. The total revenue of ULBs accounts for only
0.94% of GDP (2007-08) (Working Group on Capacity Building 2011).
Besides, there are certain conditions of external fund channelization for e.g. providing with the
utilisation certificate of the previous instalment by 15 days. But most of the ULBs do not keep an
account of all these documents properly leading to lag in external funding. If the ULBs are self-
sufficient they are in a better position to prioritise their investments. But to generate own revenues
ULBs need well defined powers for proper functioning. And it is possible only if there is more
devolution of powers to the ULBs by the states (IDF n.d.).
10.0. Capacity Building of ULBs:
10.1. JnNURM and CDP Preparation:
All the 65 cities under JnNURM scheme has to prepare CDP focussing on infrastructure and future
investment. Human resource involved in a CDP preparation comprises of expert from every field
excepting that of environment. CDP Policy Committee does not involve any personnel with
environmental expertise while one of the Technical Committee belongs to Environment, Sustainable
Development & Disaster Mitigation sector, the broad structure does not show the involvement of
environmental expert. This shortage is very evident when it can be seen that CDP of one of the most
organised ULBsin India- SuratMunicipal Corporation take resort to the GPCB reportsfor incorporation
of water and air quality assessment and formulating future strategies.
10.2. Comprehensive Capacity Building Programmes for ULBs:

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The objectives of Comprehensive Capacity Building Programme are to create an enabling environment
for capacity building of ULBs through the right mix of policy and implementation supports in the areas
of organisational development, human resource development, strategic planning, technology
improvements, and resource mobilization capacities. To enhance the capacity of ULBs to plan,
implement and monitor capacity building programmes, reforms & projects, it is proposed to establish
reform and Performance Management Cell (RPMC) with adequate human resource support in
cities/towns. The RPMC will be established in 375 cities & towns (including Class 1 and small and
medium towns) and provide support for a period of four years. But neither in terms of specialists nor
regarding the function to be done by RPMC,is there any obligation towards environmental development
related activities. Even the performance indicator asperthe capacity building toolkit doesnot emphasise
on environmental factors solely.
Table 3 CAPACITY BUILDING RELATED ACTIVITIES
Pre JnNURM JnNURM Post JnNURM
Public Health and
Engineering
Department- focused
on providing
engineering training to
in-service Engineers
and Para Engineering
Staff of the various
State Public Health
Engineering
Departments, Water
Supply and Sewerage
Boards, Urban Local
Bodies etc
Rapid Training Programme-
professional and administrator
(electedrepresentatives)are to be
trained in the matter related to:
• Constitutional
framework for Urban
Management
• User charges and
financial sustainability
• Internal systems
improvement
• Services to poor
• Other reforms in areas
such as land and
property markets, etc.
Capacity Building for Urban Local
Bodies (CBULB) – here some
organisations were setup with focuson
environment related issues and
increasing knowledge, human
resource, related training activities
Training of Elected
Representatives-
administrative function
and governance related
training proper
orientation about the
working of municipal
administration and
service delivery
mechanisms at the city
and ward level
Peer Experience and Reflective
Learning (PEARL)- One of the
potential area was urban
environment and heritage
conservation. Categorisation of
cities in Industrial Mega Cities,
Hill Cities and North Eastern
Cities among others is fruitful
from environmental angle as
environment needs special
attention in these cases.
North Eastern Region Urban
Development Programme
(NERUDP):Toimprove quality of life
of urban residents b. To enhance urban
productivity through improved
infrastructure and services, and c. To
build capacity for enhanced urban
governance, finance and service
delivery systems through institutional
and financial reforms with the support
of Design Construction, Supervision
and Monitoring Consultants (DSMC),
and (ii) Institutional Development
Consultants (IDC)
11.0. Other Environment Related Initiatives at the Urban Level:

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Asper the provision of section 67-A in the Maharashtra Municipal Corporation and Municipal Councils
(Amendment) Act, 1994, all the municipal corporation of Maharashtra are compelled to make an
environmental status report.
The City Biodiversity Index (CBI) is a dynamic process, being prepared for depicting the urban
biodiversity status. This helps in evaluation, planning, improving and reviewing the city conditions in
biodiversity perspective. As adopted by Greater Hyderabad City for formulating Greater Hyderabad
Biodiversity Index, the city biodiversity index system has 92 score system with 23 indicators. But other
than that this technique has not been implemented anywhere.
As the governance structure of India regarding environmental protection is discussed before, it is very
evident that there are two kind of problems regarding the power of ULBs for governing environment.
Firstly there is shortage of devolution of responsibilities as per legislative framework and poor
institutional structure in the local level for accomplishing the required activities pertaining to
environment. On the other hand, there is reluctance and insensitive attitude on the part of the ULBs for
doing any activities related to the same. As mentioned above the CBI as per URDPFI guidelines can be
easily incorporated in the study of status of present biodiversity in the urban areas. Strategic
Environmental Assessment of Master Plan or CDP would be a good approach as indicated in the report
Liveable Cities to assess the environmental implication of the investment plan which are made 20-25
yearsin advance.Presently NaviMumbai Municipal Corporation haslaunched Eco city cell to integrate
urban environmental aspect in urban planning. This should be an exemplary situation for other local
bodies to move towards environmental governance which is a very rare phenomena in India.
Conclusion:
From the above discussion it is quite evident that environment is a thing which is grossly overlooked
and remained quite centralised in the so called decentralised administrative structure of India. Other
than the 74th
CAA, there is Bombay Provincial Municipal Corporation Act 1949 controlling the
activities of Municipal Corporations of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Even in this act environmental
protection related measures have been considered as discretionary. Though it is not mandatory to
incorporate environmental activities, Surat Municipal Corporation has a separate environmental cell
looking forwardto projects like ambient air quality monitoring system or India’s first biogas basedSTP.
Energy Efficiency Cell is also getting operated there to optimise the specific energy consumption
required to provide various services without affecting quantity and quality. Ahmedabad Municipal
Corporation also comprises of Parks and Gardens Department, putting emphasis on the green
infrastructure aspect. But these specials cells are not in existence for most of the urban local bodies
showing their self-insensitive approach towards handling environmental protection and management
issues. Moreover lack of focus on integrating environment in urban governance in the directives from
Figure 2 CITY BIODIVERSITY INDEX

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CentralGovernment is aggravating the issue. Besides, the concepts like City Biodiversity Index remain
only on pen and paper other than exceptional cases like Greater Hyderabad instead of getting
implemented in the planning process.
Therefore there is a need of threefold changes to setup environmental governance in India. First of all
the legislation system should give due importance to environment. In India, the environmental
consideration always get mixed up with infrastructural improvement focusing on engineering
construction activities. Everything related to environmental protection are required to be mandatory.
The second aspect is sensitization of the ULBs so that there is no lethargy on their part to put the best
effort in environmental protection.
References
Bhagat, R. B. (2011). "Emerging Pattern." Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 46, No. 34: 10-12.
Dr. Nitivattananon, V., Tangwanichagapong,S. n.d. "URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENT: Trends and
Consequences ofSolid Waste Mangement in Thai Cities."
IDF. n.d. "Urban Local Bodies: Decentralisation and Sustainance."
Kundu, Amitabh. (2011) "Method in Madness:Urban Data from 2011 Census ." Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol. 46, No. 40: 13-16.
Newman, Peter. (2006). "The environmental impact of cities." Environment & Urbanization,Vol. 18, No. 2:
275-295.
Sankhe, S. Vittal, I., Dobbs, R., Mohan,A., Gulati, A., Ablett, J., Gupta, S., Kim, A., Paul, S., Sanghvi, A.,
Sethy, G. (2010). India'sUrban Awakening:Building Iclusive CIties, Sustaining Economic Growth.
McKinsey Global Institute.
Torrey, Barbara Boyle. n.d. "Population reference Bureau." Available from.
http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2004/UrbanizationAnEnvironmentalForcetoBeReckonedWith
.aspx.
Working Group on Capacity Building. (2011). "Urban Development Management for the formulation of the
Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012 – 2017)." New Delhi.

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