human resource management in the changing dynamics of business.

1. Strategies for Learning and
Development within
Organizations

2. Introduction
• When academics discuss Human Resource Development (HRD), most
practitioners and managers simply talk about training, learning, and
development.
• Hence, there is a need to understand the concepts of learning, training, and
development and then explore some of the concepts and theories that have
informed the definitions of HRD.

3. Defining learning, training, and development
• Learning
• Learning is about the acquisition of new knowledge and how this changes the individual in
some way (e.g., in terms of how they think about something, or how they carry out a task,
or how they behave).
• However, there is no universal definition of learning although different theories are based
on two broad perspectives: psychological (i.e., all learning takes place inside a person’s
mind) and sociological (i.e., learning is influenced by the social context).
• Increasingly, HRD practitioners have been endeavoring to create organizational contexts
that foster learning with terms such as ‘learning environment’ (Noe, 2002) and ‘learning
climate’ (Gilley et al., 2002) being used to describe such a context.

4. • Training
• Training involves planned instruction in a particular skill or practice and is intended to result
in change behavior in the workplace leading to improved performance.
• During the training the trainee acquires new knowledge in the form of explicit knowledge or
‘know-what’ (e.g., understanding and being able to explain the principles of occupational
health and safety when using equipment) and tacit knowledge or ‘know-how’ (developing
the practical skills to use equipment in a safe manner).
• As Noe (2002:4) observes: ‘the goal of training is for employees to master the knowledge,
skill, and behaviors emphasized in training programs and to apply them to their day-to-day
activities’.

5. • Development
• Development is much broader than training and usually has a longer term focus. It is
concerned with enhancement of an individual’s personal portfolio of knowledge, skills,
and abilities.
• Development activities can be determined by both the needs of the organization and
the needs of the individual (e.g., attending management seminars in preparation for
future promotion can be an organization’s succession strategy that is beneficial for
both parties).
• Development also embraces education such as getting an DBA.

6. The Foundations of HRL&D
• The performance perspective
• US perspectives on HRD have dominated academic literature since 1970.
• US definitions emphasize the importance of performance, as illustrated by Gilley et al.,
(2002) who define development as ‘the advancement of knowledge, skills, and
competencies for the purpose of improving performance within an organization’ (p.5).
• It is underpinned by an economic perspective that focuses on the role of human capital.
• A seminal definition of HRD is provided by McLagan (1989) who suggested that HRD
comprises three domains: organization development, training and development, and career
development.

7. • Subsequent definitions have referred to similar domains, or have emphasized the role of
learning (e.g., organized learning activities; organized learning experiences; learning based
interventions).
• However,.The focus on performance remained the primary outcome in these definitions.
• An often quoted definition of HRD is offered by Swanson and Holton (2001) who describe
the concept as:
• a process of developing and unleashing human expertise through organization development
(OD) and personnel training and development (T and D) for the purpose of improving
performance. (p.90).

8. • There is something powerful and dramatic about the phrase ‘unleashing human
expertise’ however we see that it is locked in the relatively narrow economic
rationalistic view of organizations. It is criticized on the following grounds:
• it does not differentiate between formal and informal activities and processes,
• it does not acknowledge sociological as well as psychological perspectives on learning, and
• it does not address the implications of managing social as well as human capital.

9. • The humanistic perspective
• In contrast, many of the British and European definitions are based on humanistic thinking
which has its roots in humanistic-psychology (McGuire et al., 2005).
• From this perspective HRD is about enhancing personal growth and developing human
potential (Yang, 2004).
• Arguably, it is a more holistic perspective although it does underestimate the short
pragmatism embedded in business firms (Beattie, 2006).
• Most firms are focused on the short term and are concerned about basic skills not in
enriching the lives of employees and seeT&D as a cost rather than an investment.

10. • How can we reconcile organization performance and the humanistic perspective?
• The idea here is that learning and growth for the sole benefit of the individual and which will
never benefit the organization is not acceptable for organization-sponsored HRD.This is if
from a humanistic perspective learning remains subsidiary to performance.
• Most senior managers’ priority will be on performance.
• Hence, many HRD activities are funded with the expectation that they will benefit the larger
system (e.g., the organization or nation) as much as non-financial benefits can also accrue.
• This calls for HRD practitioners to make a business case for HRD activities. “what value can
HRD add to the organization?”

11. Designing Learning and Development Interventions
• Constraints on the design process
 Organization support and culture – do the managers recognize the problem and see
training as the solution?Will top management provide resources in support?
 The resources available – the resources available in terms of money, training facilities,
materials and trainers needs to be determine.
 Timescale for design and delivery -Timings to develop and deliver the learning are
dependent on a number of factors such as consequences of the problem e.g., threatening to
life, costing money etc.
 The learners – how long can learners be released for training, is time enough to achieve the
objectives etc.

12. The six stages in the design process
• Agree aim and objectives based on a learning need.
• Determine appropriate training or learning strategy.
• Select appropriate evaluation methods.
• Agree content, methods, sequence, structure, and media.
• Choose a venue.
• Ensure learning theory is integrated into the design.

13. Stage 1: Objectives
• The starting point is the identification of learning or training objectives (i.e.
an explicit statement of what a learner is expected to be able to understand
and/or do as a result of participating in an intervention). These provide the
initial framework for the design process.
• The design process “must be based on a well-thought-out process that will
minimise later problems and lead to a successful learning experience for all
persons concerned” (Vaughn, 2005: 19).
• It is important at this stage to decide how the intervention will be evaluated.

14. Stage 1: Objectives Cont.…
• Effective objectives help to design the training precisely to fit the needs of trainees
and the organisation.Written objectives indicate that conscious decisions have
been made about what skills, knowledge, and abilities to include in the
training…based on the needs analysis process” (Vaughn, 2005: 66).
• A good objective should contain the following components:
• a clear statement of learner performance at the end of training;
• the conditions under which the performance will take place;
• the standards of performance expected.

15. Stage 1: Objectives Cont.…
• Performance statement: by the end of this training session participants will be able
to type a letter at a speed of 120 words per minute using Microsoft Word without
making any errors.
• Conditions statement: by the end of this training session participants will be able
to type a letter at a speed of 120 words per minute using MicrosoftWord without
making any errors.
• Standards statement: by the end of this training session participants will be able
to type a letter at a speed of 120 words per minute using Microsoft Word without
making any errors.

16. Stage 2: Selecting a training or learning
strategy
• A ‘training’ or learning strategy is a specific approach to the delivery of the HRD
intervention that guides the design process.
• Typical examples include:
• Education
• E-learning
• Off-the-job (external and internal)
• Off-the-job planned development
• On-the-job
• Self-development

17. Stage 3: Selecting the evaluation
methodology
• Evaluation is usually considered as the last stage of the systematic approach
but often gets neglected.
• Evaluation includes the assessment of learners during the intervention
itself: assessment is about measuring learner understanding and/or ability
during the delivery phase of the intervention.
• Assessment can be summative and formative

18. Stage 4: Selecting content, methods and
media
• Deciding the content of an intervention is relatively straightforward and is
determined by the learning objectives.
• Selecting methods, sequence, structure and media can be much more
challenging.
• The mix of materials needs to be considered carefully to ensure the delivery
of content will be at the right level and appropriate to the learning
objectives (Hackett, 2003).

19. Training methods
• Training methods are the different ways in which specific elements within
an intervention can be delivered to learners.
• “Whether a method will reach its potential depends on how well the training
is designed and implemented” (Blanchard andThacker (2004, page 279).
• Examples of methods include: case study, video/DVD, team exercise, role
play, group discussion, coaching etc.

20. Criteria for selecting media
• Benefits to learner(s);
• Suitability (for supporting the selected method);
• Competence of trainer;
• Availability;
• Technical support (particularly important given the increasing reliance on
new technologies and software).

21. Stage 5:Venue
• This depends on the training/learning strategy adopted.
• The venue for training needs to be appropriate for:
• Training objectives: performance, conditions, and standards.
• Assessment measures: individual or group, use and feedback.
• Training methods: group rooms, work rooms, workshop, test place.
• Media: equipment and facilities to use.
• Learners: expectations, status, travelling.
• Trainers: administrative and technical support.
• Image/culture: the organisation, training, learning event.
• Budget: costs of use, travel, subsistence

22. Advantages and disadvantages of internal
facilities (training centres)
• Advantages
• You can design purpose-built training facilities that
maximise training and learning opportunities (rather
than settling for some of the inadequacies of hotel
rooms which have not been designed by professional
trainers.
• Facilities are directly within your control (and you can
make any physical changes you feel to be appropriate).
• Running costs can be cheaper than hiring external
facilities (depending on the frequency of usage).
• Disadvantages
• You may be pressurised into ensuring it is kept fully
utilised.There is nothing wrong in hiring out your own
training centre to maximise utilisation and generate
revenue; however, you must not allow this to distract
you from achieving your learning and development
objectives.
• The organisation may not want to increase overheads.
• There may be increased travel and subsistence costs in a
multi-site organisation.
• It may not be convenient for all employees (e.g. multi-
site organisation).

23. Stage 6: Integrating learning theory
• Participation in learning is important for both sustaining motivation and
enabling new learning to be integrated with existing knowledge and skills.
• The learning needs to be interesting and offer variety to sustain motivation
and attention.
• There also needs to be some flexibility in a design to allow for differences in
learners preferred ways of learning.

24. Formal training and development
interventions
• The systematic training cycle (STC) is a generic framework that has been used for
many years to guide the design of formal training and development (T&D)
interventions.
• The STC comprises of four stages:
• The identification of training and development needs;
• The design;
• Delivery; and
• Evaluation ofT&D intervention.

25. • Stage 1: Identification of training and development needs
• Sloman (1994) identified two types ofT&D needs:
• Supply-led: one that has to be addressed in order for an organization to be capable of
achieving its strategic goals (e.g., introduction of a new computerized system).
• Demand-driven: one that has arisen as a result of an individual employee or line manager
identifying a performance gap or development need (during appraisal or review discussion).

26. • In order for this stage to be successful the HRD practitioner has to understand the
methods for carrying outTNA analysis which is normally done at three levels:
• Organization Analysis-examines the entire organization to determine whereT&D should be
conducted.(How does the training relate to organizational objectives? Impact of day-to-day
workplace dynamics? Costs and expected costs and benefits of the training?
• Task analysis-provides information on tasks, necessary skills, minimum acceptable
standards, and behaviors required.
• Person analysis-focuses on the individual employee in performance gap & employee
proficiency gap. (skills, knowledge, abilities)

27. • Stage 2: Designing of training and development interventions
• Some of the issues to agree at this stage are:
• The learning objectives: what is the intervention being designed to achieve? Is it knowledge
about a topic (i.e. know-what; or develop the skills (i.e., practical knowledge).
• The budget: who is funding the intervention and is there a budgetary limit?What are the
direct (trainer’s fees, room, and equipment hire) and indirect costs (time lost, incidental
expenses) of the intervention?
• Entry behavior of learners: what are the learning styles or preferences of the learners?What
motivates them to learn?What are their present skills profile?

28. • There is a problem when as a trainer you hear sentiments like ‘I don’t know why I’m here’,
‘I've done something like this before’,.This highlights why the line manager and the trainer
need to work collaboratively in the following areas:
• Training strategy: this means the specific approach being adopted by the trainer (e.g., in-house
workshops; on-the-job training; self-managed learning etc.)
• Time constraints: often the HRD practitioner has to reach a compromise over the timing and/or
duration of the training intervention. E-learning and blended leaning interventions are being
increasingly promoted as more flexible delivery systems than traditional interventions.
• Accountability: the HRD practitioner, the trainer, and the line manager need to be accountable
for their respective contributions (no blame games).

29. • Stage 3: Delivery of training and development intervention
• The HRD practitioner must ensure that all trainers and consultants deliver to an appropriate
standard. Simple things such as the layout of the room or readability of training materials
can have massive impact on the participants assessment of the intervention.
• There is nothing worse than a participant:
• Sitting in a training venue and watching a poor quality video that has faults with sound and
picture.
• Being forced to accept one point of vie only – the trainer’s
• Having to do nothing except listen to the trainer – make it interactive.

30. • Stage 4: Evaluation of theT&D intervention
• Evaluation is “any attempt to obtain information (feedback) on the effects of a training
program, and to assess the value of the training in light of that information.
• Evaluation needs to be viewed in two ways. First, at the training activity
itself, second, at the level of HRD function.

31. • Type 1 evaluation: this is at the level of the interventionThe most commonly used framework is by
Kirkpatrick (1959) presented in four levels:
• Level 1 – Reaction –evaluation measures how those who participated have reacted (immediate
customer satisfaction). (Measure-questionnaires)
• Level 2 – evaluating learning – information on the extent to which learning objectives have been
attained (how much was acquired). (measure-written tests, performance tests)
• Level 3 – Evaluating behavior – the extent to which behavior has changed as required after training.
(measure – appraisals by superior, peers, clients, subordinates)
• Level 4 - Evaluating results – assessing the benefits of the training against costs. (measure – quality,
costs, profits).
• Type 2 evaluation: this is at the level of the HRD function (e.g. balance scorecard, return on investment).

32. Criticisms of the systematic approach
• It is too mechanistic and over-reliant on the role of the professional trainer.
• It is often felt that it is too time consuming.
• However, rigid adherence to any framework at the expense of common sense and intuition
can create a problem. Hence the framework is still useful.
• Too inflexible.
• Limited input by other stakeholders.
• Can be counter-intuitive in some situations.

33. The HRD cycle
• Traditionally the STC is seen as separating the role of the professional trainer from
that of the line manager.
• The HRD cycle builds on the STC by providing a methodical step-by-step approach
to the key stages in developing HRD interventions that span learning and
development, career development, and life long learning, organizational
development and organizational knowledge by recognizing the role of key
stakeholders.
• The HRD cycle proposes a partnership approach in which key stakeholders are: the
HRD practitioner, the learner, and the learner’s line manager.This
diagrammatically presented below.

34. The HRD Cycle Figure
Identification of
learning and
development needs
Design of training
and development
needs
Delivery of learning and
development
interventions
Evaluation of
learning and
development
interventions
1. HRD
practitioner
2. Leaner
3. Line manager
Fig: the systematic training cycle showing key stakeholders

35. References
• Beattie, R.S, (2006) Line managers and workplace learning: learning from the voluntary sector.
Human Resource Development International, 9(1): 99-119.
• Gilley, J.W.,Eggland, S.A. and MayCunich GilleyA. (2002) Principles of Human Resource Development
2nd edition. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.
• McGuire, D., Cross, C. and O’Donnell, D. (2005)Why humanistic approaches in HRD won’t work.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16(1) 131-7.
• McLagan, P. (1989) Models of HRD Practice. Alexanderia,VA:ASTD Press.
• Noe, R.A, (2002) EmployeeTraining and Development 2nd edition, NewYork: McGRaw-Hill.
• Walton, J. (1999) Strategic Human Development. Harlow: Prentice Hall
• Yang, B. (2004) Can adult learning theory provide a foundation for human resource development?
Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6(2): 129-45
• Swanson, R. and Holton, E.F. (2001a) Foundations of Human Resource Development. San Francisco,
CA: Berret-Koehler

36. • Mankin D. (2009) Human Resource Development. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
• Sloman, M. (1994) A Handbook forTraining Strategy. Aldershot: Gower.
• Sloman, M. (2005) Branching Out. People Management, 24 November: 38-40
• Kirkpatrick, D.(1959)Techniques for EvaluatingTraining Programs. Parts 1 to 4.
Journal of the American Society forTraining and Development. 13(1).
• Eraut, M. (2004)Transfer of Knowledge between Education andWorkplace. In H.
Reinbird, A, Fuller and A. Munro (eds) Workplace Learning in Context. London:
Routledge.