2. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY ▪ 2
WCS HEALTH PROGRAMS
Saving Wildlife in the Clinic, Lab, and Field
WCS’s health programs are renowned world-wide for their scientific research, clinical acumen, and innovative
problem-solving at the interface of wildlife, domestic animal, and human health. The veterinary clinicians and
pathologists, technicians, molecular scientists, and epidemiologists who work in our Bronx-based Wildlife
Health Center and around the globe are committed to ensuring the mutual health of animals and people,
furthering conservation action, and educating the next generation of wildlife health professionals.
We directly apply the research we gain
from maintaining our animal collections
at our four zoological parks and
aquarium to our conservation practices
in the field: for instance, the turtles and
amphibians cared for and propagated at
the Bronx Zoo and through our global
field programs are valuable assurance
colonies, contribute to regional and
globally managed populations, and are
being reintroduced into their native
habitats. WCS’s wildlife health experts
have incredibly diverse clinical and
policy experience, which not only
assures the best possible care for the
animals in our parks and protection in
the landscapes and seascapes where we
work, but also makes them a sought-
after resource worldwide.
We remain deeply grateful for your
support of WCS’s health programs,
which ensures that we can continue to
develop innovative approaches to
wildlife care, wildlife-friendly land-use
policy, and research on new and
emerging diseases. We are proud to
share some of the recent
accomplishments of our remarkable
zoological and wildlife health staff.
Above: Postdoctoral Pathology Resident
Dr. Julia Rodriguez-Ramos Fernandez
advances her professional specialty training
in the necropsy laboratory at the Bronx
Zoo.
Right: Dr. Paul P. Calle (far right) joined
Turtle Conservation Coordinator Dr. Brian
Horne (far left) and local terrapin conser-
vationists in Cambodia.
3. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY ▪ 3
WCS Scientists Identify an Emerging Disease in Endangered Tiger Populations
Disease transmission between domestic and wildlife
animal populations is a major conservation challenge.
As human activities and development expand and
encroach on wild habitat, the potential for pathogen
transmission between domestic and wild animals
increases. In the Russian Far East, research by a team
lead by WCS scientists—collaborating with colleagues
from Russian veterinary institutions and the Albert
Einstein College of Medicine—has discovered a new
threat to endangered, wild Amur (also known as
Siberian) tigers (Panthera tigris altaica): canine distemper
virus (CDV). CDV is the second most common cause
of infectious disease death in domestic dogs and also
poses a significant threat to endangered and non-
endangered wildlife around the globe, including lions
(Panthera leo), Baikal seals (Pusa sibirica), and the black-
footed ferret (Mustela nigripes). The study is the first to
genetically characterize and confirm the presence of
CDV in tigers, and this important wildlife health
research highlights the critical importance of
investigating the presence and significance of disease as part of ensuring that tiger conservation is successful.
There are likely no more than 3,500 tigers left in the wild, and all of the living subspecies are currently listed as endangered
or critically endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The Amur tiger is among the
most endangered cats on the planet, with only 400 to 500 individuals left across their range in the Russian Far East and
China. Abnormal behavior by these normally reclusive creatures was initially observed in 2001: tigers were seen walking
into villages and onto roadways, showed a complete lack of fear of humans, and were unresponsive to stimuli. These
neurological symptoms—the same in every case—suggested that an infectious disease might be running through the tiger
population. With tigers’ survival being of paramount concern, WCS scientists and our Russian colleagues began collecting
specific tissues from dead tigers for disease testing, which was conducted at the WCS’s Bronx-based labs.
There are only between 400 and 500 wild Amur tigers left
across their range in the Russian Far East and China.
“In addition to the major threats of poaching and habitat loss, we must be attentive
to the potential impact that disease may have on tiger populations.”
-Dale Miquelle, Director, WCS Russia
Two students from the Primorskaya
State Agricultural Academy interview
a local villager during the Household
Questionnaire survey that collected
dog demographic and ownership
patterns.
4. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY ▪ 4
WCS’s Molecular Scientist Dr. Tracie Seimon,
a lead researcher in the CDV investigation,
has helped to train Russian colleagues in test
procedures to continue research in regional
labs.
Our testing (which included microscopic examination of brain tis-
sue, special immunologic tissue staining, and genetic tests for vi-
ruses) confirmed our greatest fear: canine distemper had, in fact,
been introduced into the tiger population and was confirmed as a
direct and indirect cause of death in Amur tigers in the Russian Far
East (RFE). The results of the study, published in mBIO, the Journal
of the American Academy of Microbiology, are an important contri-
bution to wildlife conservation. Important next steps in our research
include developing a better understanding of CDV ecology and epi-
demiology in tigers and other species across the RFE. This includes
our ongoing research to determine the geographic distribution of
CDV, the virus’s reservoir species, and the viral strains that are
transmissible to and among wildlife species. “Now that we have the
genetic fingerprint of the virus in tigers, we can search for a genetic
match in other species that carry and spread the virus,” explained
Dr. Tracie Seimon, WCS’s Molecular Scientist and a lead researcher
in the tiger CDV investigation.
With such a small, at-risk population, disease research and mitiga-
tion is vital to conservation efforts. WCS’s wildlife health team is
working with staff from the Primorskaya Agriculture Academy and
other partners to establish a wildlife lab for local diagnostic testing
at the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Science in
Ussuriysk. Your support can help us further develop our own diagnostic resources as well as support our partners in the
Russian Far East as we pursue this critical research. In collaboration with our Russian colleagues, we aim to create a
center of applied scientific research that will aid tiger conservation and other wildlife conservation efforts.
The progress we are making in Russia is raising awareness of the significant risk that infectious diseases can pose in
wildlife populations, including those in other tiger range countries. Our health professionals are already participating in
the development of a collaborative veterinary network in Indonesia to collect data and develop an approach for re-
sponding to reports of sick tigers or disease outbreaks in Southeast Asian tiger populations, should these occur.
5. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY ▪ 5
Health Contributions to Global Turtle Conservation
Freshwater turtles, sea turtles, and tortoises are facing critical threats across the globe, and WCS is working with re-
gional partners and at our zoos to conserve these priority species both in situ and ex situ. Recently, Dr. Paul P. Calle,
WCS Chief Veterinarian and Director of the Zoological Health Program, traveled to Singapore, Cambodia, and China
with Dr. Brian Horne, WCS Turtle Conservation Coordinator, to explore further opportunities for regional turtle con-
servation projects.
In Cambodia, Drs. Calle and Horne met with WCS Cambodia Country Program staff and visited the headstarting facil-
ity for the critically endangered Southern River terrapin (Batagur affinis) in Sre Ambel. During the visit, through both
physical examinations and surgical procedures, Drs. Calle and Horne were able to determine the sex of the turtles,
which will help conservationists determine the appropriate sex ratios and genetic diversity for breeding groups at the
Singapore Zoo and at headstarting facilities in Cambodia. WCS has been actively engaged in conservation of the South-
ern River terrapin for over ten years, and we are advancing our turtle breeding capabilities in Southeast Asia with our
partners, with the goal of reintroduction of these terrapins to the wild in the near future.
In addition to this field work, a visit to the WCS China Program gave Drs. Calle and Horne the opportunity to assess
the range of turtle species currently for sale in regional pet and food markets and to visit an aquatic conservation insti-
tute. Our health staff and country program offices continue to build upon our regional partnerships in Asia and else-
where around the world to pursue further priority tortoise and turtle conservation projects.
In Belize, Dr. Calle was joined by Kate McClave, Curator of Aquatic Health at the New York Aquarium, to work with
the WCS Marine and Belize Programs to perform health assessments during the annual sea turtle survey. While sea tur-
tle surveys have been conducted annually at Glover’s Reef since 2007, this was the first time a health component has
been part of the process. Dr. Calle performed physical examinations and collected blood and epibionts (barnacles, algae,
etc.) from 27 sea turtles [Caribbean hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), green (Chelonia mydas), and loggerhead sea turtles
(Caretta caretta)] and was pleased to note that all were in good condition and free of fibropapillomas, a sea turtle disease
that is spreading across the globe. Isotope analysis of the collected epibionts will allow for determination of ocean mi-
gration patterns, and a better understanding of this life history characteristic will aid in conservation efforts.
Dr. Paul P. Calle and Kate
McClave, New York Aquarium
Curator of Aquatic Health,
examine and collect samples
from a Caribbean hawksbill
sea turtle at Glover’s Reef,
Belize.
WCS Belize has conducted an
annual sea turtle survey for
the past seven years; this
summer marked the first time
that a health component has
been part of the marine
wildlife assessment.
6. Studying Snow Leopards in the Mountains of Afghanistan
Last year, for the first time in Afghanistan, a team of WCS international and Afghan veterinarians captured, exam-
ined, satellite collared, and released three snow leopards (Panthera uncia). This summer, two of the three collars were
successfully retrieved by the WCS team after their programmed drop-off (the third collar is scheduled to drop off
this fall). The collars were worn for 390 days, and after analysis, the data retrieved will give much more detailed un-
derstanding of the snow leopards’ home range, landscape use, foraging behavior, social interactions, and livestock
predation.
This fall, two more leopards—an adult female and an adult male—were successfully trapped, anesthetized, exam-
ined, collared, and released by the WCS veterinary team on site. Both big cats recovered smoothly from anesthesia.
These newly tagged animals will extend our understanding of snow leopard ecology across the Afghan Hindu Kush.
WCS leads snow leopard conservation efforts in Central Asia, and we remain the only international conservation
organization in Afghanistan, where we work with local communities and government partners to save these big cats
and their magnificent habitat.
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY ▪ 6
Tracking Genetic Diversity and Viral Pathogens in Wild Gorilla Populations
As human encroachment into great ape habitat increases, so does the risk of zoonotic (animal to human) and anthropo-
zoonotic (human-to-animal) disease transmission—and infectious diseases from humans can have devastating effects on
already threatened ape populations. As part of a regular Ebola-related reconnaissance survey, a WCS wildlife health team
collected fecal samples from 250 western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in the
Republic of Congo to study viral exposures and to contribute to genetic analyses.
WCS scientists, working with researchers from Columbia University’s Center for Infection and Immunity, conducted a
survey of viruses using a specific type of genetic testing called polymerase chain reaction, or PCR for short. The study
showed a high infection rate with herpes- and adenoviruses, and identified several areas with a relatively higher number
of infected primates (and where viral infections and co-infections overlapped with high ape densities). This new research
into viral infection rates and distribution provides important baseline information for future research.
Gorilla fecal samples were also sent to the Max Planck institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany for
genetic analysis, with the results shedding light on patterns of habitat connectivity and thus the potential for infectious
contacts between gorilla groups. The analysis identified two to three genetically distinct gorilla populations in the area of
focus, which supports the hypothesis that major rivers are substantial—although not complete—barriers to gene flow.
Studies such as these help health scientists (a) predict how the physical landscape might influence the spread of wildlife
diseases, (b) identify populations at risk, and (c) target disease control activities for the benefit of wildlife and local peo-
ple.
Dr. Hafizullah Noori (left), resident
veterinarian of the WCS Afghanistan
program, monitors the respiratory rate
of an anesthetized female snow leopard
while Dr. Stephane Ostrowski (right)
inspects for injuries on the snared leg of
the animal in the Hindu Kush mountain
range in Badakhshan Province, Wakhan
District, Afghanistan.
7. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY ▪ 7
WILDLIFE HEALTH IN SOUTH AMERICA
Peccaries and Penguins
This summer, WCS wildlife health staff in Peru responded to reports of declining white-lipped peccary populations.
The white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pacari) is a target species for conservation in Manu National Park, a Biosphere Re-
serve in central Peru, and researchers at the Cocha Cashu Biological Station have reported dead peccaries floating in the
river without signs of predation over the past two years. WCS scientists visited the area to recover information and to
provide in-the-field training to park rangers on mortality/disease detection and reporting, as sample collection poses
potential health risks and requires special training. Our staff developed a four-day course on disease surveillance for
park rangers in the affected area, and sample collection kits and field protocols were delivered to three ranger stations
located in the white-lipped peccary distribution area across the park. Training sessions such as these serve as excellent
opportunities to deepen relationships between agencies charged with conservation and public health.
In Brazil, WCS has been involved in an ongoing project with the One Health Institute of UC-Davis and the Veterinary
Medicine Program at the University of São Paulo, Brazil to study avian malaria and morbidity and mortality patterns in
Magellanic penguins. The Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) inhabits Argentina, Chile, and the Falkland Islands,
but the species visits the Brazilian continental shelf
during its winter migration, and a significant number
of penguins become stranded on Brazilian beaches in
poor condition and are admitted to rehabilitation cen-
ters (RCs). While in RCs, penguins are susceptible to
avian malaria, a sudden and severe infection that re-
sults in a high mortality rate. This long-term joint
study combines molecular, serological, pathological,
and hematological diagnostic methods to better under-
stand this serious disease. Although there are numer-
ous reports of avian malaria outbreaks in captive pen-
guins, there are no studies clarifying the distribution of
the disease in penguins in Brazil, nor is it clear if the
infection impacts free-ranging birds or is only mani-
fested when the birds are brought into the RCs.
Penguins are important representatives of the marine
environment and can offer us vital insights into the
nature and intensity of human impacts on the oceans
of the Southern Hemisphere; a better understanding
of the vectors of this disease is more important than
ever as coastal ecosystems are further affected by
climate change.
Dr. Virginia Rago, a WCS Field
Veterinarian based in
Argentina, prepares to sample
a Magellanic penguin as part of
a collaborative project with
WCS Brazil and other partners.
The white-lipped peccary (seen here with a southern crested
caracara) is an indicator species in the South American landscapes
where we work.
8. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY ▪ 8
CASE STUDY
Holli the Gorilla
The zoological health team at the Bronx Zoo has performed countless unique
veterinary surgeries over the years, but the recent operation on 24-year-old
gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) Holli was a particularly remarkable endeavor. Holli, a
resident of the Congo Gorilla Forest, presented clinical signs of illness over a
period of months this summer: loss of energy and appetite, progressive weight
loss, and depression. When she did not respond to symptomatic treatment, in
early September Holli was anaesthetized for a complete medical evaluation—
X-rays, blood tests, and an ultrasound—which revealed abdominal and subcu-
taneous abscesses. The Zoological Health Program mobilized a surgical team
that included specialists in gastrointestinal surgery from Mount Sinai Hospital,
who worked with our staff to per-
form an emergency operation.
Following the five-hour surgery,
Holli spent a month recovering at
the WHC, receiving 24-hour in-
tensive care. She returned home
at the beginning of October, shar-
ing a private area of Congo Go-
rilla Forest with the silverback
Zuri as she completes her recov-
ery. We are all delighted by the
progress Holli has made since
such a significant surgery.
Molecular Diagnostic
Laboratory
The Molecular Diagnostic
Laboratory continues to build,
improve, and develop new
diagnostic tests for the
identification of known and
discovery of new pathogens of
conservation concern. This past
summer, Molecular Scientist Dr.
Tracie Seimon and Post-
Doctoral Fellow Dr. Robert
Ossiboff developed and oversaw
several projects that included the
participation and training of two
undergraduate college students
from Fordham University and
New York University. The
experience provided hands-on
research experience for these
budding young scientists and
contributed to optimization of
existing protocols for pathogen
screening. The scientists and
interns tested samples from
frogs endemic to the Albertine
Rift and turtles from the Bronx
River and the tri-state region as
part of several ongoing pathogen
screening projects. Additionally,
we continue to routinely screen
all amphibians entering our
collections for the deadly chytrid
fungus, which threatens global
amphibian populations.
Top Left: The surgical team from Mt.
Sinai hospital performs an ultra-
sound examination on Holli, a west-
ern lowland gorilla, prior to
abdominal surgery.
Bottom Left: Holli, a resident of
Congo Gorilla Forest at the Bronx
Zoo, is recuperating in a private
area of the exhibit with her
companion, the silverback Zuri.
9. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY ▪ 9
Training the Next Generation of Zoological and Wildlife Health Professionals
WCS health scientists also invest heavily in ensuring that there is a well-trained next generation of zoological and wild-
life health specialists at home and abroad. WCS has helped to train veterinary students in Cambodia and Peru, support-
ing them as they conduct their thesis research. In Cambodia, two veterinary students conducted research on entero- and
herpesviruses in wild primates; as primates are hunted for food and medicinal use in parts of rural Cambodia, the po-
tential for zoonotic diseases could be a severe public health hazard. In Peru, WCS has supported the thesis projects of
veterinary students from four Peruvian universities; projects have included basic research on leptospirosis, tuberculosis,
enteric bacteria and antimicrobial resistance, hemoparasites, and zoonotic diseases specifically associated with wildlife
trade.
Our collaboration with health colleagues in the Russian Far East has also included professional training. This past sum-
mer Russian veterinarians Drs. Nadia Sulikhan and Misha Goncharuk as well as WCS staff member Dr. Martin Gilbert
spent several weeks in New York working in the Wildlife Health Center. Dr. Goncharuk’s training was focused on clini-
cal veterinary medicine and overseen by Dr. Bonnie Raphael. His activities were focused on developing greater expo-
sure to all of the medical procedures and diagnostic methods employed in managing the health of our zoo collections.
This training will contribute to his field health work with Amur tigers and leopards in the Russian Far East. As part of
their PhD dissertation work, Drs. Sulikhan and Gilbert were mentored by Dr. Tracie Seimon. The focus of their train-
ing was molecular diagnostic techniques, including all aspects of PCR testing and data analysis, so that they could per-
form diagnostic testing for canine distemper virus in samples from domestic dogs and wild carnivores. This work is be-
ing performed as part of our ongoing investigation into the ecology and epidemiology of canine distemper virus in ti-
gers and other species in the Russian Far East. In addition to being a critical component of Dr. Sulikhan’s graduate
work, this training builds capacity for molecular diagnostics at partner laboratories in the Russian Far East, extending
the expertise in pathogen detection that is so critical for conservation.
WCS veterinarians also provide professional guidance for students in the U.S.: Dr. Paul P. Calle presented lectures for
the Aquavet program and for Mount Sinai Masters of Public Health students; Dr. Steve Osofsky, our new Executive
Director for Wildlife Health & Health Policy, was the keynote speaker at Cornell University’s “Special Species Sympo-
sium,” a forum attended by hundreds of veterinary students from around North America; and Drs. Bonnie Raphael and
Robert Ossiboff were also invited speakers at the conference. These educational opportunities include training for vet-
erinary and veterinary technician students, and also mentoring of pre-professional students: Drs. Ken Conley and John
Sykes shared their experiences in veterinary science and pathology through talks and mentorships with New York City
area high school students who are interested in careers in animal health. Our wildlife health team endeavors to incorpo-
rate WCS’s educational mission into all of its activities. We thank you sincerely, on behalf of the world’s wildlife and
wild places, for all of your support of our conservation work around the globe.
As Executive Director for Wildlife Health & Health Policy, Dr. Steve Osofsky oversees all of the WCS Global Conservation
Program's work in the health realm. The WCS One World, One Health approach is characterized by interdisciplinary collabo-
ration focused on addressing conservation challenges at the interface of wildlife health, domestic animal health, and human
health and livelihoods—all of which must be underpinned by earnest environmental stewardship.
