SlideShare a Scribd company logo

Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex

•Download as DOCX, PDF•
•
A
AlleneMcclendon878

Contents v Causes and Effects: Why Did States Emerge and Expand? 57 Political/Conflict Theories 58 Economic Theories 60 Cultural Theories 61 Diffusion Theories 62 Great Britain, the United Kingdom, or Neither? State and Nation in England and Scotland 65 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Mexico 56 France 59 United Kingdom 62 Nigeria 63 C H A P T E R 4 Political Economy 70 Concepts 72 Inequality 73 Employment and Inflation 75 Types 76 Markets and States in Modern Economies 76 Markets and Economic Performance 77 States and Economic Performance 79 Economic Functions of Modern States 82 States and Economic Management 82 Investments in Human Capital: Education and Health 83 Infrastructure and Other Public Goods 85 Welfare State Functions 85 Causes and Effects: W hy Do Welfare States Emerge? 86 Cultural Changes 87 Industrial Capitalism 87 Mobilization and Political Action 89 International Learning Effects 92 Welfare States in the Nordic Countries: What Can We Learn and How? 93 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T United States 72 United Kingdom 77 Japan 84 Germany 87 C H A P T E R 5 Development 96 Concepts 98 Types 98 Poverty 98 Social Outcomes and Human Development 99 Gender Relations and Racial and Ethnic Identities 100 Satisfaction and Happiness 101 Cultural Development 102 Sustainability 103 Causes and Effects: Why Does Development Happen? 103 Institutions:The Market-State Debate, Revisited 104 Institutions: Beyond the Market-State Debate 106 Culture and Development 107 Civil Society, Social Capital, and Trust 107 Religion 109 Value Systems 109 Systems and Structures: Domestic and International 110 Domestic Economic Structures and Class Interests 111 International Economic Structures and Class Interests 111 Geography 112 Explaining the Development of North and South Korea 114 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T India 99 Nigeria 101 China 105 Brazil 112 C H A P T E R 6 Democracy and Dem ocratization 119 Concepts 121 Democracy and Democratic Regimes 121 Procedural (Minimal) Definitions of Democracy 122 Substantive Definitions of Democracy 123 Regime Change and Democratization 124 Types 125 Types of Democracy 125 Representative Democracy 126 Direct Democracy 128 Types of Democratization 129 Democratic Transitions 129 Democratic Consolidation 129 Causes and Effects: What Causes Democratization? 131 Modernization 132 Culture and Democracy 134 The International System 135 Domestic Institutions 136 Agents and Actors: The Role of Individuals and Groups 137 Combining Arguments and Theories: Multiple Causes 139 l l ! l l ! i m i M U M I i m is American Democracy a Model? 141 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Brazil 130 ■ Contents China 131 India 133 United States 140 C H A P T E R 7 A uthoritarian Regimes and Democratic Breakdown 145 Concepts 147 Authoritarianism and Authoritarian Regimes 147 Transitions to Authoritarian Regimes 148 Types 148 Types of Authoritarianism 148 Totalitar ...

Education
1 of 2714
Contents v Causes and Effects: Why Did States Emerge and Expand? 57 Political/Conflict Theories 58 Economic Theories 60 Cultural Theories 61 Diffusion Theories 62 Great Britain, the United Kingdom, or Neither? State and Nation in England and Scotland 65 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Mexico 56 France 59 United Kingdom 62 Nigeria 63 C H A P T E R 4 Political Economy 70 Concepts 72 Inequality 73 Employment and Inflation 75 Types 76 Markets and States in Modern Economies 76 Markets and Economic Performance 77 States and Economic Performance 79
Economic Functions of Modern States 82 States and Economic Management 82 Investments in Human Capital: Education and Health 83 Infrastructure and Other Public Goods 85 Welfare State Functions 85 Causes and Effects: W hy Do Welfare States Emerge? 86 Cultural Changes 87 Industrial Capitalism 87 Mobilization and Political Action 89 International Learning Effects 92 Welfare States in the Nordic Countries: What Can We Learn and How? 93 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T United States 72 United Kingdom 77 Japan 84 Germany 87 C H A P T E R 5 Development 96 Concepts 98 Types 98 Poverty 98 Social Outcomes and Human Development 99 Gender Relations and Racial and Ethnic Identities 100 Satisfaction and Happiness 101 Cultural Development 102 Sustainability 103
Causes and Effects: Why Does Development Happen? 103 Institutions:The Market-State Debate, Revisited 104 Institutions: Beyond the Market-State Debate 106 Culture and Development 107 Civil Society, Social Capital, and Trust 107 Religion 109 Value Systems 109 Systems and Structures: Domestic and International 110 Domestic Economic Structures and Class Interests 111 International Economic Structures and Class Interests 111 Geography 112 Explaining the Development of North and South Korea 114 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T India 99 Nigeria 101 China 105 Brazil 112 C H A P T E R 6 Democracy and Dem ocratization 119 Concepts 121 Democracy and Democratic Regimes 121 Procedural (Minimal) Definitions of Democracy 122 Substantive Definitions of Democracy 123 Regime Change and Democratization 124
Types 125 Types of Democracy 125 Representative Democracy 126 Direct Democracy 128 Types of Democratization 129 Democratic Transitions 129 Democratic Consolidation 129 Causes and Effects: What Causes Democratization? 131 Modernization 132 Culture and Democracy 134 The International System 135 Domestic Institutions 136 Agents and Actors: The Role of Individuals and Groups 137 Combining Arguments and Theories: Multiple Causes 139 l l ! l l ! i m i M U M I i m is American Democracy a Model? 141 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Brazil 130 ■ Contents China 131 India 133 United States 140 C H A P T E R 7
A uthoritarian Regimes and Democratic Breakdown 145 Concepts 147 Authoritarianism and Authoritarian Regimes 147 Transitions to Authoritarian Regimes 148 Types 148 Types of Authoritarianism 148 Totalitarian Regimes 148 Theocracies 149 Personalistic Dictatorships 149 Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes 151 Hybrid and Semi-authoritarian Regimes 151 Types of Transition (or Nontransition) to Authoritarianism 152 Authoritarian Persistence 153 Democratic Breakdown 155 Transition to Hybrid or Semi-authoritarian Regime 157 Causes and Effects: What Causes Authoritarian Regimes to Emerge and Persist? 158 Historical Institutionalist Theories 159 Poverty and Inequality 160 State Weakness and Failure 162 Political Culture Theories of Authoritarian Persistence 163 Barriers to Collective Action 164 Special Causal Circumstances Surrounding Hybrid and Semi-Authoritarian Regimes 166 Why Did Zimbabwe Become and Remain Authoritarian? 167
C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Iran 150 Russia 153 Mexico 154 Germany 157 France 157 p a r t ill: Institutions of Government C H A P T E R 8 Constitutions and Constitutional Design 171 Concepts 174 Constitutions 174 Constitutional Design 175 Types 176 Flexible and Rigid Constitutions 177 Separation of Powers: Judicial Review and Parliamentary Sovereignty 178 Federalism and Unitarism 180 Federalism 180 Unitarism 182 Authoritarian and Democratic Constitutions 183 Causes and Effects: W hat Are the Effects of Federal Constitutions? 184 Are Federal Constitutions Good for Social Stability? 185 Are Federal Constitutions Good for Democratic Rights? 187 Are Federal Constitutions Good for the Economy? 188 Judicial Review and Democracy 190
What Explains the Similarities Between the Brazilian and South African Constitutions? 193 H B a iiB B iflm i United Kingdom 181 Iran 185 Nigeria 187 India 189 United States 192 C H A P T E R 9 Legislatures and Legislative Elections 198 Concepts 200 What Legislatures Are 200 What Legislatures Do 201 Types 202 Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures 202 Electoral Systems 205 District Systems 205 Proportional Representation (PR) 208 Mixed or Hybrid 209 Executive-Legislative Relations 211 Causes and Effects: What Explains Patterns of Representation? 213 Patterns of Representation 213 Electoral Systems and Representation 215 Legislative Decision Making and Representation 218 Executive-Legislative Relations and Representation 220
Representation in New Zealand and Beyond 222 ES3Q2SE31 United Kingdom 206 Brazil 209 Japan 210 Germany 212 United States 217 Brief Contents p a r t i : Comparative Political Analysis 1 The Comparative Approach: An Introduction 1 2 Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 23 p a r t II: The State, Development, Democracy, and Authoritarianism 3 The State 46 4 Political Economy 70 5 Development 96 6 Democracy and Democratization 119 7 Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic Breakdown 145 p a r t ill: Institutions of Government
8 Constitutions and Constitutional Design 171 9 Legislatures and Legislative Elections 198 10 Executives 226 11 Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest Groups 252 p a r t IV: Politics, Society, and Culture 12 Revolutions and Contention 277 13 Nationalism and National Identity 304 14 Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 325 15 Ideology and Religion in Modern Politics 348 p a r t V : The Comparative-International Nexus 16 Comparative Politics and International Relations 372 p a r t v i : Country Profiles and Cases Brazil 399 China 412 I I France 427 P B B Germany 441
^ 2 lndia 455 ] Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) 468 | ♦ | Japan 482 a Mexico 496 n Nigeria 510 j j j j Russia (Russian Federation) 525 I H H United Kingdom 539 ■ United States 553 Contents Insights, xiii Preface xv Maps of the World xxvi p a r t i : Comparative Political Analysis C H A P T E R 1 The Comparative Approach: A n Introduction 1 Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Politics 2 Major Questions in Comparative Politics 4 Empirical Arguments Versus Normative Arguments 6 Solving Intellectual Puzzles: A Contemporary Analogy 7 Concepts 9 Features of Good Concepts 9 Conceptualization 10
Operationalizing: From Concepts to Measures 11 Empirical Evidence 12 Facts and Evidence 12 Cases and Case Studies 13 The Comparative Method 14 Variables and Comparison 14 Most-Similar-Systems Design 15 Most-Different-Systems Design 18 Comparative Checking 18 Within-Case Comparison 20 Is the Study of Politics a Science? The Limits of the Comparative Method 20 C H A P T E R 2 Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 23 Introduction to Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 24 Theories 25 Flypotheses 25 How Theories Emerge and Are Used 27 Types of Evidence 29 L h Hypothesis Testing 31 Correlation 31 Causation 33 Critiques: Using Theory and Evidence 39 Empirical Critiques: Using Deviant Cases 39 Theoretical Critiques: Improving Theories and Hypotheses 39
The Challenges of Measurement: Biases, Errors, and Validity 41 EU SM B B S* Qualities of Good Analysis and Argumentation 42 Step 1: Asking Good Questions: Why? 43 Step 2: Hypothesis Testing: Generating Good Hypotheses and Testing Them Fairly 43 Step 3: Balancing Argumentation: Evidence, Originality, and Meaningfulness 43 p a r t ii: The State, Development, Democracy, and Authoritarianism C H A P T E R 3 The State 46 Concepts 48 The Modern State 48 State Capacity 49 Failed States 50 The State-Society Relationship 50 Types 52 Cha racteristics of Modern States 52 Bureaucracy 52 Impersonality 53 Sovereignty 54 Traditional Functions of States 55 Defense 55 Policing 55
Taxation 56 Order, Administration, and “Legibility" 57 ■NSgggf C H A P TE R 10 Executives 226 Concepts 228 Types 229 Executive Structures: Presidential and Parliamentary 230 Formal Powers 232 Partisan Powers 235 Coalitions 235 Informal Powers 240 Causes and Effects: What Explains Executive Stability? 240 Stable and Unstable Regimes: Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, and Democracy 241 Stable and Unstable Executives: Styles of Presidential Rule 243 Stable and Unstable Executives: Patterns of Parliamentary Rule 246 U i lllim i l M M H H m Beyond the American and British Models 247 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T France 231 United States 231
Russia 234 China 236 Nigeria 241 C H A P T E R 11 Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest Groups 252 Concepts 255 Political Parties 255 Party Systems 255 Interest Groups 256 Types 257 Political Parties: Elite, Mass, and Catch-All Parties 258 Party Systems: Dominant-Party, Two-Party, and Multiparty Systems 259 Interest Groups: Pluralism and Corporatism 264 Causes and Effects: Why Do Party Systems Emerge, and What Effects Do They Have? 267 Party Systems and Representation 267 What Factors Shape Party Systems? 267 How Do Party Systems Shape Political Outcomes? 269 Interest Groups and Representation 272 Party Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa 275 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T China 260
Japan 261 Contents vii Germany 262 Russia 265 Mexico 267 p a r t i v : Politics, Society, and Culture C H A P T E R 12 Revolutions and Contention 277 Concepts 279 What Is "Contention"? 279 Revolutionary and Non-Revolutionary Contention 279 Types 280 Social Movements 280 Revolutions 284 Insurgencies and Civil Wars 287 Terrorism 287 “Everyday Resistance" 289 Thinking About Contention: Summary 290 Causes and Effects: W hy Do Revolutions Happen? 291 Relative Deprivation 291 Resource Mobilization and Political Opportunities 292 Rational Choice 294 Culture or "Framing" Explanations 296 Q ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Q ^ ^ T h e "Arab Spring" of 2011 298 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Brazil 282
France 285 Russia 292 China 293 Iran 297 C H A P T E R 13 Nationalism and National Identity 304 Concepts 306 Identity 306 Nationalism and the Nation 306 Types 307 Primordialist Approaches 307 Perennialist Approaches 308 Modernist Approaches 308 Types of Nationalism 311 Causes and Effects: W hat Causes Ethno-National Conflict? 313 Primordial Bonds 316 Cultural Boundaries 317 viii Contents Material Interests 318 Rational Calculation 318 Social Psychology 320 Ending Ethnic and National Violence 321 United Kingdom 308
Mexico 309 Japan 310 Germany 312 Nigeria 316 C H A P T E R 14 Race, Ethnicity, and G ender 325 Concepts 327 Race and Ethnicity 327 Gender 328 Sexual Orientation 329 Types 329 Disentangling Race and Ethnicity 329 Discrimination Based on Race and Ethnicity 332 Gender Discrimination 333 Empowerment of Women and Minority Groups 334 Causes and Effects: What Factors Influence the Political Representation of Women and Minority Groups? 337 Social Movement Mobilization 337 Political Parties Based on Gender or Ethnicity 339 Institutions for Promoting Women's and Minority Group Representation 341 WOmmwMEfr Indicators of Gender Empowerment 344 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Iran 334 Japan 335
Brazil 336 Mexico 340 India 341 C H A P T E R 15 Ideology and Religion in M odern Politics 348 Concepts 350 Modernity and Modernization 350 Ideology 351 Religion 351 Secularization, Religion, and Modern Politics 352 Religious Conflict 353 Types 354 Modern Ideologies 354 Liberalism 354 Fascism 355 Socialism 356 Modern Forms of Religion in Politics 357 Lay and Religious States 358 Denominationalism 359 Causes and Effects: W hy Do Religion and Ideology Remain Prevalent in Modern Politics? 360 Why (and How) Does Modernization Alter Religion's Role in Politics? 360 Modernization Theory and Secularization 361 The ‘Religious Economies"Approach 362 Institutional Theories 363
Why Didn't Ideology (and History) End? 364 JBBBSMMESk Two Lefts in Latin America? 367 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T United Kingdom 355 Russia 357 France 359 Iran 360 Nigeria 361 p a r t V : The Comparative-International Nexus C H A P T E R 16 Comparative Politics and International Relations 372 Concepts 375 Issues 376 Globalization and Trade 376 International Institutions and Integration 380 Immigration 382 Environment and Sustainability 384 Transnational Networks 387 Nuclear Threats and Terrorism 388 Causes and Effects: What Are the Main Causes in International Relations? 390 Realism 390 Liberalism 393 Constructivism 394 Marxism 395
Contents ix The EU and Levels of Analysis 395 C A S E S IN C O N T EX T United States 381 France 383 Japan 387 Iran 389 India 389 • Qom I R A N Esfahan » • Dezful ® Y a z d p a r t vi: Country Profiles and Cases m Brazil 399 399 Introduction 399 Historical Development 401 Regime and Political Institutions 404 Political Culture 405 Political Economy 406 407 Does the Global Economy Help or Hurt Developing Nations? (Chapter 5) 407 Democratic Consolidation in Brazil (Chapter 6) 408
Electoral Rules and Party (In)Discipline in Brazil's Legislature (Chapter 9) 409 Brazil's Landless Movement (Chapter 12) 410 Gender and Political Representation in Brazil: Where Has Progress Come From? (Chapter 14) 410 HI C hina 412 412 Introduction 412 Historical Development 414 Regime and Political Institutions 417 Political Culture 418 Political Economy 419 420 How Did China Become an Economic Power? (Chapter 5) 420 Is China Destined for Democracy? (Chapter 6) 421 Who Governs China? (Chapter 10) 423 The Chinese Party System (Chapter 11) 424 The Chinese Revolution (Chapter 12) 425 1 1 France 427 427 Introduction 427 C A S E S T U D IE S C A S E S T U D IE S Historical Development 429 Regime and Political Institutions 431 Political Culture 432
Political Economy 433 434 The State in France (Chapter 3) 434 Authoritarian Persistence in Nineteenth-Century France (Chapter 7) 435 Electing the French President: What Do Runoffs Do? (Chapter 10) 436 The French Revolution (Chapter 12) 437 Religion and Secularism in France (Chapter 15) 438 Globalization and Culture in France (Chapter 16) 439 G erm any 441 2 ^ 441 Introduction 441 Historical Development 443 Regime and Political Institutions 446 Political Culture 447 Political Economy 448 u s m a m i 449 The German State: Unification and Welfare (Chapter 4) 449 Democracy and Authoritarianism in Germany (Chapter 7) 450 Institutional Design: Germany's Bundestag and Bundesrat (Chapter 9) 451 Consensus-Based Politics in Germany (Chapter 11) 452 Ethnic Boundaries of the German Nation? (Chapter 13) 453 India 455 455 Introduction 455 Historical Development 457
Regime and Political Institutions 460 Political Culture 461 Political Economy 462 463 What Explain India's Recent Growth? (Chapter 5) 463 Democracy's Success in India: What Can We Learn from a Deviant Case? (Chapter 6) 464 Federalism and Differences in Development in India (Chapter 8) 464 Ethnicity and Political Parties in India (Chapter 14) 465 India in the Twenty-First Century: Domestic Politics, Identity, and Security (Chapter 16) 466 C 2 Iran (Islamic Republic o f Iran) 468 2 ^ 468 Introduction 468 Historical Development 470 Regime and Political Institutions 473 C A S E S T U D IE S C A S E S T U D IE S X Contents Political Culture 474 Political Economy 474 B E E uE H E I 475 Democratic Features of Authoritarian Systems? The Case of
Iran (Chapter 7) 475 Constitutional Design: Theocracy in Iran (Chapter 8) 476 Iran's Islamic Revolution and "Green Revolution"? (Chapter 12) 478 Gender in Post-Revolutionary Iranian Politics (Chapter 14) 479 Religion and Politics in Iran (Chapter 15) 479 Iran and the Politics of Nuclear Proliferation (Chapter 16) 480 Japan 482 ^ 482 Introduction 482 Historical Development 484 Regime and Political Institutions 487 Political Culture 488 Political Economy 488 C A S E S T U D IE S 490 State-Led Development in Japan (Chapter 4) 490 The Hybrid Electoral System of the Japanese Diet (Chapter 9) 491 How Did Japan's Dominant Party Win for So Long? (Chapter 11) 491 Importing National Identity in Japan? (Chapter 13) 493 Gender Empowerment in Japan? (Chapter 14) 493 Resource Management in Japan (Chapter 16) 494 I I Mexico 496 496 Introduction 496 Historical Development 498 Regime and Political Institutions 501
Political Culture 502 Political Economy 503 E S 2 2 S 3 504 The Mexican State and Rule of Law (Chapter 3) 504 Mexico's "Perfect Dictatorship" and Its End (Chapter 7) 505 The PRI and Corporatism in Mexico (Chapter 11) 506 Industrialization, Modernity, and National Identity in Mexico (Chapter 13) 507 Why Aren't There Major Ethnic Parties in Mexico? (Chapter 14) 508 I I Nig-eria 510 510 Introduction 510 Historical Development 512 Regime and Political Institutions Political Culture 515 Political Economy 516 515 C A S E S T U D IE S 517 What Is a Weak State, and Can It Be Changed? The Case of Nigeria (Chapter 3) 517 Why Are Natural Resources Sometimes a Curse? The Nigerian Case (Chapter 5) 518 Federalism and the States in Nigeria: Holding Together or Tearing Apart? (Chapter 8) 519
The Presidency in Nigeria: Powers and Limitations (Chapter 10) 521 The Nigerian Civil War or Biafran War: Nationalism and Ethno- National Conflict in a Post-Colonial Society (Chapter 13) 522 Religious Difference and Conflict in Nigeria: Disentangling Ethnicity and Religion? (Chapter 15) 523 Russia (Russian Federation) 525 525 Introduction 525 Historical Development 527 Regime and Political Institutions 531 Political Culture 532 Political Economy 532 m m 533 Oligarchy, Democracy, and Authoritarianism in Russia (Chapter 7) 533 Executives in Russia: Formal and Informal Powers (Chapter 10) 534 Personalism and the Party System in Russia (Chapter 11) 535 The Russian Revolution (Chapter 12) 536 Communist Ideology in Practice— Russia and the Soviet Union (Chapter 15) 537 IH H U nited Kingdom 539 539 Introduction 539
Historical Development 541 Regime and Political Institutions 544 Political Culture 545 Political Economy 545 I4M 4-W H.IIH 546 The State in the United Kingdom (Chapter 3) 546 Political Economy of Britain (Chapter 4) 547 No Constitution? No Supreme Court? Constitutionality in the United Kingdom (Chapter 8) 548 The Mother of Parliaments: The United Kingdom and the Westminster Model (Chapter 9) 549 National Identity in the United Kingdom (Chapter 13) 550 Liberal Ideology in the United Kingdom (Chapter 15) 552 Contents United States 553 553 Introduction 553 Historical Development 555 Regime and Political Institutions 558 Political Culture 559 Political Economy 560 I 2 2 J2 I3I3 561 Did Free Markets Help the United States Get Rich? Will They in the Future? (Chapter 4) 561 Is American Democracy in Trouble?
(Chapter 6) 562 Is Judicial Activism in the United States a Problem? (Chapter 8) 563 The United States Congress: Dysfunctional or Functioning by Design? (Chapter 9) 564 "The Most Powerful Person in the World”? Checks on American Presidents (Chapter 10) 566 The United States and the World: A Love-Hate Relationship? (Chapter 16) 567 Notes 569 Glossary 581 References and Further Reading 591 Credits 617 Index 618 r Insights C H A P TER 3 C H A P TER 4 C H A P T E R S C H A P TER 6
C H A P TER 7 C H A PTER 8 Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States 60 Douglass North, John Wallis, and Barry Weingast, Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History 61 Philip Gorski, The Disciplinary Revolution: Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modem Europe 62 Hendrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors 64 John Meyer, John Boli, George M. Thomas, and Francisco Ramirez, World Society and the Nation-State 65 Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom 79 Peter Evans, Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation 80 Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy 89 Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time 90 Gasta Esping-Andersen, Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism 91 Atul Kohli, State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery 107 Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development 108 Francis Fukuyama, Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity 109 Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System 113 Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human
Societies 114 Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics and Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy ’ 132 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America 135 Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century 137 Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule 139 Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel, Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence 140 Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in theMaking of the Modem World 161 Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy 162 Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations 164 Timur Kuran, Now Out of Never: The Element of Surprise in the East European Revolution of 1989 165 Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War 166 William Riker, Federalism:Origin, Operation, Significance 186 Alfred Stepan, Federalism and Democracy: Beyond the U.S.
Model 186 Wallace Oates, Fiscal Federalism 189 Jonathan Rodden and Erik Wibbels, Beyond the Fiction of Federalism: Economic Management in Multi-Tiered Systems 190 Ran Hirschl, Toward Juristocracy: The Origins and Consequences of the New Constitutionalism 193 Insights CH A P TE R 9 C H A P TER 10 CH A P TER 11 CH A P TER 12 CH A P TER 13 C H A P TER 14 C H A P TER 15 C H A P TE R 16 Scott Morgenstern and Benito Nacif, Legislative Politics in Latin America 213 Hannah Pitkin, The Concept of Representation 214 Gary Cox and Matthew McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan: Party Government in the House 219 Morris Fiorina, Divided Government 221 Michael Mezey, Comparative Legislatures 222
Juan Linz, The Perils ofPresidentialism and The Virtues of Parliamentarism 242 Scott Mainwaring and Matthew Shugart.duan Linz, Presidentialism, and Democracy: A Critical Appraisal 243 Guillermo O'Donnell, DelegativeDemocracy 244 Kenneth Roberts, Neoliberalism and the Transformation of Populism in Latin America: the Peruvian Case 245 Arend Lijphart, Consociational Democracy 247 Robert Dahl, Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City 266 Maurice Duverger, Les Partis Politiques [Political Parties] 268 Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis 269 Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy 271 Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups and The Rise and Decline of Nations: Economic Growth, Stagflation, and Social Rigidities 273 Mark Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks 289 Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, and Ted Gurr, Why Men Rebel 292 Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China 294 Marc Lichbach, The Rebel's Dilemma 296 John Foran, Taking Power: On the Origins of Third World Revolutions 298 Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism 309 Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity 310
David Laitin, Nations, States, and Violence 319 Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict 320 Joane Nagel, American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Red Power and the Resurgence of Identity and Culture 338 Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity 338 Donna Lee Van Cott, From Movements to Parties in Latin America 340 Mala Htun, Is Gender Like Ethnicity? The Political Representation of Identity Groups 342 Mona Lena Krook, Quotas for Women in Politics: Gender and Candidate Selection Reform Worldwide 344 Jose Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World 358 Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide 361 Anthony Gill, The Political Origins of Religious Liberty 362 Ahmet Kuru, Secularism and State Policies Toward Religion: The United States, France, and Turkey 364 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man 365 Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order 366 Shmuel N. Eisenstadt. Multiple Modernities 366 Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons 386 Moises Naim, The Five Wars of Globalization 388 Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics 392 Michael Doyle, Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs 393 Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics 394 The field of comparative politics is changing, not only in how it’s studied but in how it’s taught. We set out to write this textbook because we saw the need for a new approach—one that is truly comparative, that goes
beyond a litany of facts or abstract ideas. In the process, we had to rethink what a book for this course should look like. We started with a central aim: to get students to think like comparativists. Toward that end, we have integrated theories and methods with a range of country case applications to address the big questions in com- parative politics today. Many undergraduates take a course in comparative politics because they are broadly interested in world affairs. They want to understand issues such as democ- racy and democratization, economic and social development, transnational social movements, and the relationship between world religions and conflict around the globe, just as we did as students (and still do!). This book focuses squarely on these big issues and offers a framework for understanding through comparison. Our job is to teach students how to think critically, how to analyze the world around them. We want our students to do more than just memorize facts and theo- ries. Ultimately, we want them to learn how to do comparative politics. This course is successful if students can use the comparative method to seek out their own an- swers. We are successful as educators if we give them the analytical skills to do so. What's New in This Edition?
We have thoroughly updated this edition of Comparative Politics to reflect feed- back we received from numerous readers, instructors, and students, not to men- tion our own experiences of teaching with the book. We are truly grateful to those who have shared their perspectives with us. Whereas the first edition covered the state, political economy, and develop- ment across two chapters, the second edition expands this coverage into three: • Chapter 3 now focuses on describing and defining the state, emphasizing its organizational form, its order-generating characteristics, and its linkages to both domestic and international conflict. This chapter retains a focus on explaining the rise of modern states in the “Thinking Comparatively” section and includes an expanded discussion of civil society and society- state relations. • Chapter 4 is now devoted entirely to political economy, including considerable discussion of welfare states and efforts to explain variation in their form and extent. • Chapter 5 picks up the thread from the political economy discussion and focuses on development issues.
In addition to these changes in several key chapters, we have made the follow- ing revisions throughout the book: • Streamlined the chapter on nationalism and national identity, and in the process highlighted its focus on intergroup conflict. • Substantially revised several of the “Thinking Comparatively” features that close the chapters, showing how comparativists work with models as a crucial step in their method. • Emphasized the case studies that readers found most useful, while elimi- nating some that were less so. • Updated the entire set of country materials and the broader text. An Integrative Approach One of the distinctive features of this book is the way we have integrated theories, methods, and cases. Rather than focusing on either country information or themes Democracy's Success in India: What Can We Learn from a Deviant Case? India is a major anomaly for modernization theories of develop- ment. In essence, the relationship between its political and eco- nomic development has been the inverse of what modernization theory would predict. India is the world's second largest society and its largest democracy— consider, therefore, the share that
Indian citizens hold in the world's broader democratic popula- tion. This anomaly has potentially serious implications and makes the puzzle of Indian democratization all the more intriguing. For more on the case of democratization in India, see the case study in Part VI, p. 464. As you read it, keep in mind the following questions: 1. What, if anything, does Indian anti-colonial resistance have to do with the country's democratization? 2. What, if anything, does Indian about the importance of and institutional design? 3. Can you think of a way to the face of the case of India? suggest leadership, theory in Indian voters, 2012. India is the world's largest democracy. Democracy's Success in India: What Can We Learn from a Deviant Case? CHAPTER 6, PAGE 133 How does modernization theory account for low-income democracies such as India? As discussed in chapter 6, modern- ization theory predicts that economic de- velopment will lead to democratization and democratic consolidation. Indeed, this relationship generally holds. More
often than not, increasing economic de- velopment increases the probability that any given society will have democratic decide that this anomaly disproves or re- futes modernization theory, and turn to some other theory of democratization. For example, we could turn to institu- tional theories of democratization as an alternative. Perhaps something about the parliamentary form of government rather than presidential government contrib- uted to India's rather successful democ- racy (as is discussed in chapter 10); one economic development fa c ilita te s democ- ratization and democratic consolidation? Why would this be different? Because the theory would now say that it is u n lik e ly t h a t India could successfully democratize with- out first achieving a higher level of eco- nomic development, but not that it is im p o s s ib le . A more flexible theory of mod- ernization might be compatible with in- cluding insights from other theories. For of comparative politics, we have combined these approaches while emphasizing application and analysis. By providing students with the tools to begin doing their own analyses, we hope to show them how exciting this kind of work can be. These tools include theories (presented in an accessible way), the basics of the comparative
method, and manageable case materials for practice, all in the context of the big questions. We thus take an integrative approach to the relationship between big themes and country case studies. This text is a hybrid containing sixteen thematic chapters plus linked materials for twelve countries of significant interest to comparativists. The country materials following the thematic chapters include both basic country information and a series of case studies dealing with spe- cific thematic issues. We link the country cases to the thematic chapters via short “call out” boxes— " C a s e s in C o n t e x t " — at relevant points in the chapters. For example, a “Case in Context” box in a discussion of theory in chapter 6, “Democracy and Democra­ tization,” points students to a full c a s e s t u d y on democratization in India, in- cluded at the back of the text. Another “Case in Context” box in chapter 6 invites students to consider whether democratization in China is inevitable. Other boxes in that chapter focus on issues of democracy and democratization in Brazil and the United States. Using these short “linking” boxes has enabled us to integrate a complete set of case materials without interrupting the narrative flow of the
chapters. The kind of reading we suggest with the structure of this text is similar to following hy- perlinks in online text—something students do easily. This flexible design fea- ture also caters to the diversity of teaching styles in today’s political science. Instructors can choose to have students follow these links to case studies as they go, using all or just some of them, or they can choose to teach thematic chapters and country materials separately. The text integrates theories, methods, and cases in other ways as well. " I n s ig h t s " boxes make connections by briefly summarizing important scholarly works repre- sentative of the major schools of thought. INSIGH TS Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity bvlM>c,h<$0feld • ' Greenfeld argues that nationalism is fundamentally c u lt u r a l and needs to be understood as an imaginative response to social conditions. To understand nationalism's emergence and growth, we must understand why the idea spread that humanity is divided into distinct "peoples" who are "sovereign" and "equal." For Greenfeld, the key preconditions for the development of na- tional identity are problems in s t r a tific a tio n system s through which societies hierarchically divide themselves, such as the class structure. Elite s ta tu s -in c o n s is te n c y — a condition present when
the stratification system breaks down and elites are no longer sure of their status— leads some groups to seek to transform identity, and national identity often seems to such groups to serve their interests well. Greenfeld hypothesis against a number of cases (includingî ^ ^ K . F rance, Russia, Germany, and Japan), finding pronounced status-inconsistency in each case in the key groups that are most central in redefining their societies as nations. At the same time, Greenfeld acknowl- edges the importance of institutions like the state prior to na- tional identity's emergence in helping to shape the type that develops in any given case. Scholars working with this theory also note that political institutions play an important role in spreading and preserving national identity. Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992. W h y Did Z i m b a b w e B e c o m e a n d R e m a in A u t h o ri ta r ia n ? Au th o rita ria n regim es com e in m any varieties, a n d th e y com e from m any d ifferent origins. W e have em phasized th a t th e re is no single th in g called “authoritarianism” th a t one theory can explain. Rather, authoritarian regimes have distin ct features an d exhibit m any different types o f transitions (and nontransi- tions). Scholars have developed a n um ber o f explanatory m odels to account for these. Some o f th e m ain general factors in m ost cases, though, include (1) histori- cal relationships betw een contending groups, (2) th e stren g th
and form o f exist- in g institutions, (3) a country’s level o f econom ic developm ent, (4) p o litic al-cu ltu ral tra d itio n s a n d te n d en cie s, a n d (5) th e strateg ic situ a tio n s a n d choices o f key actors. O f course, as w e have seen in o th e r ch a p te rs , it is n o t en o u g h to merely lis t such c o n trib u tin g factors; w e m u s t figure o u t ho w su ch factors in te ra c t an d w h ich are m ost im p o rtan t. W h a t do you th in k ? A n d how could we te st your ideas empirically? A s we noted at the outset o f the chapter, m odern-day Zim babw e is an authori- tarian regime th a t is characterized by many o f the features w e have discussed. I t is a “personalist” regime, the population o f which is subject to many o f the vagaries o f au- thoritarianism. It is characterized by repression, a lack o f secure political rights, seem- ingly arbitrary rule, and so on. N o t everyw here in A frica is like this, and Zim babw e itse lf has n o t always been like th is, so o u r research question m ig h t be “W h y is Z im babw e authoritarian? W h y did it becom e so, and w hy has it rem ained so?” W e should expect theories o f au th orita rian rule to be able to account for an au th orita rian regim e like R o b ert M u g ab e’s Z im babw e. L o o king at th e various causal theories o f au thoritarianism w e can consider how each m ig h t propose an explanation for th e em ergence a n d /o r persistence o f th e regim e. I n th e section on
TfTTT i W i KEY M E T H O D O L O G IC A L T O O L Evidence and Empirical Critiques One reason that many theories con- tinue to endure in different areas of comparative politics is that most of the major theories have some empiri- cal support. This makes it challenging to determine which theory is the most accurate. In reality, most theo- ries will not be accurate under all circumstances, but rather each will explain some outcomapiiacter than others. So how do yo i| making "laundry lists'! tier) and saying, "Every In preparing to make thee arguments, it is of course ifl for any particular question 1 how the empirical evidenc® with the theoretical predicw the specific hypotheses y o p offer. One very useful tool J evidence that allows you jb critique a particular argument. In aiming to build arguments. Each chapter after the introduction closes with a " T h i n k i n g C o m p a r a t i v e l y "
feature, which focuses on a case or set of cases to illustrate how students can apply the theories discussed in the chapter. In these features we highlight important methodological tools or strategies, such as the use of deviant cases and the most-similar-systems (MSS) design. We then model for students how to use these analytical tools in practice. Organization The sixteen thematic chapters of this book are divided into five parts: • Part I (chapters 1 and 2) focuses on basic methods in comparative politics, covering conceptualization, hypothesis testing, the formation of theories, and the use of evidence. The goal in these first two chapters is not to focus on the details of methodology, which can be taught in more specialized courses, but on the overarching logic of comparative inquiry. • Part II (chapters 3 through 7) focuses on the state (chapter 3), political economy (chapter 4), development (chapter 5), democracy and democrati- zation (chapter 6), and the various forms of authoritarian regimes (chapter 7). • Part III (chapters 8 through 11) focuses on the analysis of political institu- tions, giving students the tools to analyze institutional design in constitutional
structures and judiciaries (chapter 8), legislatures and elections (chapter 9), executives (chapter 10), and political parties and interest groups (chapter 11). • Part IV (chapters 12 through 15) focuses on issues that link comparative politics to political sociology, such as the study of revolution and other forms of contention (chapter 12), national identities and nationalism (chapter 13), race, gender, and ethnicity (chapter 14), and religion and ideology (chapter 15). ' Preface xix Part V consists of a single chapter, 16, which links comparative politics to international relations, emphasizing how global politics has produced new sets of problems that both comparativists and international relations scholars must analyze. As such, the book points to another kind of integration, pushing students to see connections between comparative politics and other courses in political science. After chapter 2, the thematic chapters follow a common format. They are di- vided into three main sections:
• Concepts: covers basic definitions and develops a working vocabulary. • Types: discusses useful typologies, such as the major types of dramatic social change that interest political scientists. • Causes and Effects: walks students through the major theories that aim to explain causes and effects, ending with the “Thinking Comparatively” feature to model analysis. The final part of the book, Part VI, comprises country " p r o f i l e s " and in- depth " c a s e s t u d i e s . " We selected twelve countries after surveying more Preface than 150 instructors of comparative politics to see which they considered most crucial for inclusion. The cases are Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Iran, Japan, Mexico, Nigeria, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. This selection offers broad coverage of every major world region, dem- ocratic and authoritarian polities, every major religious tradition, highly vary- ing levels of economic and social development, and quite different institutional designs.
For each country, we first provide a “profile”: an introduction with a table of key features, a map, and pie charts of demographics; a timeline and historical overview; and brief descriptions of political institutions, political culture, and political economy. Following each profile is a set of case studies (five or six for each country) that we reference in the thematic chapters as described earlier (via the " C a s e in C o n t e x t " boxes). The case sets end with research prompts to help students get started as comparativists. Flexibility in Instruction: Ways of Using This Text T he chapters are arranged in a logical order yet w ritten in such a way that instructors might easily rearrange them to custom-fit a course. Some in- structors, for example, may wish to pair chapter 3 (on the state) with chapter 13 (on nationalism and national identity). Others might wish to assign chapter 15 (on religion and ideology) alongside chapters 6 and 7 (on demo- cratic and authoritarian regimes). We have w ritten the book w ith the flexi- bility to facilitate such pairings. Indeed, while we strongly suggest beginning w ith chapters 1 and 2, students will be able to follow the text even without
reading them first. Similarly, the book’s structure supports a range of options for using the coun- try materials. Some instructors may wish to teach selected country materials at or near the beginning of a course. Some may wish to make reference to country materials as the course proceeds, assigning students to read them as they are clearly and visibly “called out” in the text. One approach could require all stu- dents in a course to familiarize themselves with only a subset of the countries detailed here, rather than all twelve. Another might require each student to select three or four countries, following rules or categories of countries as laid out by the instructor. The book also works with or without supplemental materials chosen by the instructor. The “Insights” boxes throughout the text provide indications of excel- lent options for further readings. Many other choice readings are noted in the “References and Further Reading” section at the back of the text, organized by chapter. A companion book of classic and contemporary readings is available (see Packaging Options, p. xxii). In short, instructors can use this text alone or link it seamlessly to other readings.
Summary of Features We have built a number of useful features into the text, some of which we have already mentioned: • " C a s e in C o n t e x t " boxes tie in to the narrative of the main chapters, pointing students to full case studies in the book’s final part. • " i n s i g h t s " boxes illustrate causal theories by describing the work of key authors in the field, making this work accessible to introductory students. • "T h in k in g C o m p a r a t i v e l y " sections at the end of every chapter (after chapter 1) model the application of theories and the testing of hypotheses. Each “Thinking Comparatively” section includes a " K e y M e t h o d o l o g i c a l To o ls " feature, which introduces key skills and strategies for doing compar- ative political analysis and reinforces lessons learned in the first two chapters. • "T h in k in g It T h r o u g h " questions close every chapter. These help students test their ability to apply comparative politics theories to cases. • Every section of case studies offers a series of "R e s e a r c h P r o m p t s " that can be used to develop comparative projects and papers, applying what students have learned as they start to do comparative analysis. • Every chapter ends with a " C h a p t e r S u m m a r y , "
enabling students and instructors to review the main points at a glance. • At the back of the text, we include " R e f e r e n c e s a n d Fu r th er R e a d i n g " by chapter that students can use to dig deeper into the issues raised or as they begin their own research. • A runni ng g l o s s a r y in the margin of the text highlights the meaning of key terms as they appear and serves as a quick study reference. Supplements Oxford University Press offers instructors and students a comprehensive ancil- lary package for qualified adopters of Comparative Politics: Integrating Theories, Methods, and Cases. Ancillary Resource Center The Ancillary Resource Center (ARC) at www.oup-arc.com is a convenient, instructor-focused single destination for resources to accompany this book. Accessed online through individual user accounts, the ARC provides instructors with up-to-date ancillaries while guaranteeing the security of grade-significant resources. In addition, it allows OUP to keep instructors informed when new content becomes available. The ARC for Comparative Politics contains a variety of materials to aid in teaching:
• Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Item File—The Instructor’s Resource Manual includes chapter objectives, detailed chapter outlines, lecture suggestions and activities, discussion questions, video resources, http://www.oup-arc.com and Web resources. The Test Item File includes more than eight hundred test questions selected and approved by the authors, including multiple- choice, short-answer, and essay questions. • Computerized Test Bank—Using the test authoring and management tool Diploma, the computerized test bank that accompanies this text is designed for both novice and advanced users. Diploma enables instructors to create and edit questions, create randomized quizzes and tests with an easy-to-use drag-and-drop tool, publish quizzes and tests to online courses, and print quizzes and tests for paper-based assessments. • PowerPoint-Based Slides—Each chapter’s slide set includes a succinct chapter outline and incorporates relevant chapter graphics. • CN N Videos—Offering recent clips on timely topics, this collection includes fifteen films tied to the chapter topics. Each clip is
approximately 5-10 minutes, providing a great way to launch your lectures. Course Cartridges For qualified adopters, OUP will supply the teaching resources in a course car- tridges designed to work with your preferred Online Learning Platform. Please contact your Oxford University Press sales representative at (800) 280-0280. E-Book This text is also available as a CourseSmart eBook (978-0-19- 027102-2) at www .coursesmart.com. CourseSmart’s eTextbooks can be read on any browser-enabled computer or mobile device and come with the ability to transfer individual chapters or the entire book offline. Furthermore, CourseSmart was the first to introduce free eTextbook apps for the Android and Apple devices for an even better reading experience. Companion Website Comparative Politics is also accompanied by an extensive companion website at www.oup.com/us/dickovick. This open-access website includes a number of learning tools to help students study and review key concepts presented in the text. For each chapter, you will find learning objectives, key- concept summaries, quizzes, essay questions, web activities, and web links. Packaging Options
Adopters of Comparative Politics: Integrating Theories, Methods, and Cases can pack- age A N Y Oxford University Press book with the text for a 20% savings off the total package price. See our many trade and scholarly offerings at www.oup.com, then contact your OUP sales representative at (800) 280-0280 to request a pack- age ISBN. In addition, the following items can be packaged with the text for free: • Oxford Pocket World Atlas, Sixth Edition—This full-color atlas is a handy reference for political science students. Please use package ISBN 978-0-19-046231-4. xxii Preface http://www.oup.com/us/dickovick http://www.oup.com • Very Short Introduction Series—-These very brief texts offer succinct intro- ductions to a variety of topics. Titles include Nationalism, Citizenship, Global Economic History, Fascism, and Democracy, to name just a few. • The Student Research and Writing Guide fo r Political Science—This brief guide provides students with the information and tools necessary to conduct research and write a research paper. The guide explains how to get started writing a research paper, describes the parts of a research paper,
and presents the citation formats found in academic writing. Please use package ISBN 978-0-19-046160-7 to order. Acknowledgments We are very grateful to a number of individuals who have been helpful to us as we worked on this project. At Washington and Lee University, we thank our respective provosts, deans, and department chairs who have supported our work. This includes June Aprille, Bob Strong, Daniel Wubah, Larry Peppers, Rob Straughan, Hank Dobin, Suzanne Keen, M ark Rush, Lucas Morel, David Novack, and Krzysztof Jasiewicz. We are very grateful to the many friends and colleagues, both at Washington and Lee and elsewhere, who read and com- mented on chapters or country profiles, including Francoise Fregnac-Clave, Rachel Beatty Riedl, Tim Lubin, Dan Kramer, Christian Jennings, Robin Leblanc, Ay§e Zarakol, Rich Bidlack, David Bello, Ken W hite, and Alessandra Del Conte Dickovick. We also thank Hardin Marion for his excellent close reading of the first edition and the comments he generously shared with us. We have many other colleagues and friends who have given us intellectual and moral support for which we are grateful. Numerous students have been extraor- dinarily helpful as well. We are particularly grateful to Miranda Galvin and Ali
Greenberg. Other students to whom we wish to express our appreciation in- clude, but are not limited to, Samara Francisco, Morten Wendelbo, Maya Reimi Wendelbo, Linnea Bond, Natasha Lerner, Amy Dawson, Justine Griffin- Churchill, David Razum, John Twomey, Grant Russell, Lauren Howard, and Kate LeMasters. We are also thankful to students in numerous iterations of Politics 105 (Global Politics), many of whom offered insightful questions on a “prototype” of this text (in early years) and on the first edition (more recently), as well as students who read the book in Eastwood’s International Comparative Sociology course. We owe thanks to Washington and Lee for support for the work of some of the students mentioned previously through the Summer Re- search Scholar Program, and our own work through the Lenfest Sabbatical Grant, and the Glenn Grant, Lenfest Grant, and Hess Scholars programs for summer research. Our families have been characteristically supportive and gracious throughout the several years that we worked on this project. Their collective patience has been extraordinary. We owe eternal gratitude to our spouses, Maria Emilia Nava and Alessandra Del Conte Dickovick. We are also grateful to (and for) our won- derful children: Gabriela Eastwood, Carolina Dickovick, Gabriela Dickovick,
Samuel Eastwood, and Alexander Eastwood. We owe much gratitude to our parents and extended families as well, of course. xxiv Preface Diane Bulpett Northeastern University Ivy Hamerly Baylor University Katherine H. Keyser Drew University Eric Langenbacher Georgetown University We are grateful as well to the fine editorial staff at Oxford University Press. We particularly appreciate the excellent ideas and efforts of Jennifer Carpenter, Lauren Mine, and Thom Holmes. All of them improved this text substantially with their insights and hard work over several years. We have also benefited from the work of Jane Lee, Barbara Mathieu, David Bradley, Maegan Sherlock, and Brianna Provenzano, among others. We owe gratitude as well to those who developed our passion for (and under- standing of) comparative politics. W ith the standard caveat that any errors of
fact or interpretation in this text are solely our own, we want to thank first our earliest teachers of comparative politics. Above, all, we wish to thank Kent Eaton and Liah Greenfeld. We also owe great thanks to Jeffrey Herbst, Deborah Yashar, Chuck Lindholm, Scott Palmer, John Stone, and Evan Lieberman, as well as Nancy Bermeo, Atul Kohli, Lynn White, and Claudio Veliz, among others. Finally, we thank the external evaluators of this edition, who gave generously of their time and expertise: Cheryl Van Den Handel Northeastern State University Adryan Wallace University of Hartford. Jeffrey Lewis Cleveland State University Vanja Petricevic Florida Gulf Coast University Laura Roselle Elon University Hootan Shambayati Florida Gulf Coast University We also thank the many reviewers of the first edition, whose insights helped
shape the book: Dauda Abubakar Ohio University Despina Alexiadou University of Pittsburgh Michelle Allendoerfer George Washington University Jason Ross Arnold Virginia Commonwealth University Andrew Appleton Washington State University Tanya Bagashka University of Houston Karolyn Benger Georgia Institute o f Technology Anna Brigevich The University o f North Carolina at Chapel Hill Joel R. Carbonell Kent State University at Stark Ryan Carlin Georgia State University Luis F. Clemente Ohio University
Howard Cody University of Maine Jeffrey Conroy-Krutz Michigan State University William Crowther The University o f North Carolina at Greensboro Ian Down University o f Tennessee—Knoxville Glen Duerr Cedarville University M atthew Fails Oakland University Ronald A. Francisco University of Kansas Preface Nathan W. Freeman University o f Georgia Joseph J. Foy University of Wisconsin-Parkside John D. Granger University of Central Florida
Ivy Hamerly Baylor University Keisha Haywood Ramapo College of New Jersey Tobias Hofmann National University of Singapore Jennifer Horan The University of North Carolina at Wilmington John Hulsey James Madison University Eunsookjung Fairfield University Peggy Kahn University of Michigan—Flint Stephen Juan King Georgetown University Natalie A. Kistner James Madison University Lada V. Kochtcheeva North Carolina State University Galiya Lahav Stonybrook University Ricardo Rene Laremont Binghamton University
Jeffrey Lewis Cleveland State University Rahsaan Maxwell University of Massachusetts Amherst Mary M. McCarthy Drake University Gregory J. Moore Eckerd College Katarina Moyon Winthrop University Anna Ohanyan Stonehill College Sanghamitra Padhy Davidson College Juris Pupcenoks Washington College Dietmar Schirmer University of Florida James Seroka Auburn University Oxana Shevel Tufts University Tracy H. Slagter
University o f Wisconsin Oshkosh Marcus Stadelmann University o f Texas at Tyler Jeffrey K. Staton Emory University Emmanuel Teitelbaum George Washington University Anca Turcu University of Central Florida Rollin F. Tusalem Arkansas State University Meredith Weiss University at Albany-SUNY Aubrey Westfall Virginia Wesleyan College Jennifer J. W hite University of Georgia Fiona Yap University of Kansas Gamze Cavdar Yasar Colorado State University Jiangnan Zhu University ofNevada-Reno The field of comparative politics is always changing, and a
book of this sort covers a huge array of research areas. As such, we anticipate a need to update this text in the future. We are very eager for suggestions, corrections, and other com- ments that instructors or students might make. We have established an e-mail address specifically for these inquiries, and all comments will go to and be read by the authors. The address is c o m p a r a t i v e . p o l i t i c s @ o u p . c o m . So if you have any suggestions for future issues, or find any errors or omissions, please let us know. We hope you enjoy the book. mailto:[email protected] r G R E E N L A N D (K A L A A L L IT N U N A A T ) G u l f o f UNITED KINGDOM' Dakar ‘ ' 0**‘- VENEZUEIA- ;o tS 7 * COLOMBIA
G u lf o f Guinea ? B 0 L I V IA Pa* U O D E JA N E I R O 9 0 ° W Projection: Winkel III Norilsk 15 000- S e a o f O k h o t s k A l e u t i a nYekaterinburg .Krasnoyarsk MOSCOW Changchun SHENYANG .Baku Tl;n .-, . W kan o b e i j i .v g , Taiyuan® .AFGHANISTAN ; V ' LAHORE- ,* i J* K 1 SsT A N ISHANGIGHDAO
a KONG Naypy^- Bay of Rangoon, Bengal 11 Omdurman f f KHARTOUM"! | vJC SOUTH .-<r IK U - SUDAN 1 THAILANt BANGAIJ (B en gali •PINES1 CHENNAI(Madras) MARSHALL IS- FED. STATES OF MICRONESIA A LS A Y S ‘C‘>"So Kisangani,, fc 0 N G O EM. REE K O I T H , r - 1' KENYA ‘New Ireland .TANZANIA Lusaka*
MAiutrniis AFRKV Adelaide S e a .. . . . NEW ZEALAND : 12 000- 3 0 °W ® T h e t i m e a t t h i s lo n g itu d e w h e n it is 12 .0 0 ( n o o n ) a t G r e e n w i c h ( v MALTA M O R q i CA IRO B El FaiyOm ©?“ - .R IY A D H )M e d in a A R A B I A -Mpyldhibou St-Louis k ' N S *
D a k a r^ SENEGAL GAMBI p j Abeche B U R K IN A ® O u a g ; ■ FA SO 5ulasso ■- El O b e i d l B O irri Qiibouti ( un.ikrvj Freetowi E T H I O P I A SOMALILAND C E N T R A L . A F R I C A N R E P . .Ibadan Monrovia C A M E R O O N S e k o n d i- L l Takoradi B ig h t o f B e n in H a r c o u r t # Rey. EQUATORIA
Y ao u n d e Guinea SAO TOME & PRINCIPE ! Libreville 2 Mbandaka An nobon (&}. Guinea) N a ir o b i (DEM. RER OF THE) I N D I A N SEYCHELLES® O C E A N jKananga S alaam-M buji- M a'iL u a n d aA s c e n s io n I. * (U.K.) Aldabra Is.(Seychelles) C. Deigado A COMOROS Moroni© * * Mamoudzou i K o h y e z i Malav.'i luambo Ndola ® >-■ Z, A M B I( iEsaka*Namibe St. H elena
(U.K.) ® H a r a r e N, I l v c J ■- ~Z i m b a b w e ! BulawayoA M I B I * W |n dh o i k -Mauritius ‘ St-D enis Port $ K ̂ nion B O T S W A N ' J o h a n n e s b u r g § ® " • M ̂ aseru -" LESOTHO ® D u rb a n TH AFRICA' la p u to C a p e Tow n C. of G o o d H o p e ta b e th COPYRIGHT PHILIPSProjection: Azimuthal Equidistant DO HI a ® D a k a r C a p ita l C itie s 1:35 0 0 0 0 0 0 ^SKATCHfiVVAN ffimpeg
P p c n v e r Topeka X A S m , s s o U R ! ® P(i, J ’; ' A w w lo r r e o n M E X I C O , .Acapulco S .n S a l P roje ction: Bonne 120 [ 7 ] ■ M e x i c o C a p ita l C itie s [8 ] H a v a n a / S a n to D o m in g o PUERTO RICO (US, A.) JA M A IC A Kingston Guak>-mair%@ S a n S a l v a d o r ' E L SA LV A DO R | | ^ > e o T A ' Oi.OMB I Zayenre
RO RAIMA (£coo*d .BeicnV G . o f G u a y a q u il Iquitos Porto R Q N P 0 N 1A A l l ) G R O S S ® C o ia n ia ® f )|<’S an ta ubrajs MATO GROSSO P A R A G 1 D£'antosJANfifto San Ambrosio (CMe) WO GRA,®Sf~ __0OSUL_y Vina del Mar ( Valparaiso < SANTIAG ’ R U G - 0 A yrR o sa rio j F e r n i n d e z B U EN O S A I ^ E S m
La Plata Valdivia P uerto Mor fom od oro Rivadavia G u lf o f S an Jorge, W est Falkland FAt^ ND rs Falkland Projection: Lambert's Azimuthal Equal Area COPYRIGHT PHILIP'S H l i m a C a p ita l C itie s 60W est from Greenwich 50rEi CHAPTER 1 The Comparative Approach: An Introduction • Germany's Angela Merkel and Russia's Vladimir Putin converse at the World Cup in Brazil, July 2014.
op quiz. Fill in the blank in the following sentence: I n _____________________, Columbus sailed the ocean blue. IN THIS C H A P T E R A skin g Why: Research Questions in Com parative Politics 2 Major Questions in Comparative Politics 4 Empirical Arguments Versus Normative Arguments 6 Solving Intellectual Puzzles: A Contemporary Analogy 7 Concepts 9 Features of Good Concepts 9 Conceptualization 10 Operationalizing: From Concepts to Measures 11 Em pirical Evidence 12 Facts and Evidence 12 Cases and Case Studies 13 The Com parative Method 14 Variables and Comparison 14 Most-Similar-Systems Design 15 Most-Different-Systems Design 18 Comparative Checking 18 Within-Case Comparison 20 Is the Study of Politics a Science? The Limits of the Com parative Method 20
A large proportion of American students who have completed elementary school will be able to answer correctly: fourteen hundred ninety-two. This recollection from childhood illustrates the ways we first begin to learn about societies and their histories. We learn important events and the dates, names, and places associated with them. We learn simple facts: that Columbus set sail in 1492 and discovered the New World. For many of our formative years, this is what we think learning means in our courses on social studies, history, world affairs, or current events. Scholarship is not defined, however, by knowledge of facts alone, and the learning we do as adults must be differ- ent: It must be based on more than just description and recall. The task now, at the collegiate level, is to develop analytical skills. In this book, we examine the similarities and differ- ences in politics within and between countries around the world, using comparisons and contrasts as our central tools. We cover more than just facts about the politics of China, or India, or France. W e analyze politics comparatively. Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Politics To illustrate the type of learning this book promotes, we turn to another mnemonic device from primary school: List the “Five W ’s” used to ask questions. You may easily recall the answer (or be able to reconstruct it):
Who, What, Where, When, and Why. (And to this list we often add “How”.) Now ask yourself about the relative merits of these “Five W ’s.” W hich of these questions are the most profound and lead us to learn the most? Are we likely to gain a deep understanding of the social and political world from questions of the general form “W ho did this?” or “Where did this happen?” or “W hen did this happen?” For the most part, these relatively simple questions lead us to answers Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Politics 3 based on simple facts, such as prominent historical figures (Who), or places (Where), or dates (When). Consider how most of the “Five W ’s” are answered in the sentence In fourteen hundred ninety-two, Columbus sailed the ocean blue. W ho is the subject? Columbus. Where did this event occur? The ocean blue. W hen did it happen? 1492. W hat did the subject do (or how did the event happen)? He sailed. W ithin one easily remembered rhyme, we have answers to a host of basic questions. And, of course, the same is true for more contemporary politics. For instance, saying, “In 2012, Franpois Hollande was elected president of France” also provides answers to who, where, what, and when questions.
Even if we don’t know certain facts, we can often find them easily in modern life, and we do not need rhymes, other mnemonics, or even reference books. Online search engines (e.g., Google) provide virtually free access to basic facts (though they can also provide access to inaccurate information). Smart phones, laptops, and other devices make basic information accessible almost anywhere. Try typing some basic questions using the “Five W ’s” into a search engine. W ho is the president of Brazil? Where (or what) is the capital of Estonia? W hen did Tanzania become a free and independent nation? For these questions, the correct and complete answer is available almost instantly. Some knowledge of basic facts is obviously important, but this is not the type of question that interests us in this text. We will not focus simply on descriptions of who did what and when, nor on where things happened. Now try searching for “Why did Columbus sail the ocean blue?” or “Why did Tanzania gain independence from its colonizer?” or “Why was Fran5ois Hollande elected president of France?” Your search will probably lead to an essay full of reasoning and argumentation, as well as facts. O f course, the essay may or may not be reliable, and more comprehensive searching—using scholarly articles and book chapters—could provide you with other essays that offer contrary perspectives. These
why questions lend themselves to richer discussions and debates than who/what/ when/where questions. We cannot answer many why questions in one or two sen- tences. Answering why correctly requires more research, more reasoning, and more debate than the preliminary factual questions about who did what, where, and when. We can debate the correct answer to why questions. You may think you have a simple answer to why Columbus set sail: He was an explorer by nature, intellectu- ally curious and seeking adventure. But a classmate may offer an equally compel- ling answer: The exploration westward across the Atlantic was promoted and financed by the Spanish crown (King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella), who were forced by geopolitical rivalries and strategic concerns to extend and expand their territories. W ho is correct? In your answer, you focus on Columbus himself, while your classmate makes reference to impersonal factors (such as geopolitical strategy) that push individuals toward certain actions. Both of you include facts in defending your answers, such as the relevant actors (who), the period in which this took place (when), and the country from which Columbus set sail (where). But the debate is not easily resolved, even with these basic facts. We can respectfully disagree on the primary cause of why something happened. We construct arguments by supplying evidence in a logical form in support of positions or claims, and
the relative merit of our arguments depends on who has the better supporting evidence. Generally, we do not debate at great length about when an explorer set sail, who he was, or where he left from and where he went.1 We either know these facts argument The placement of evidence in logical form in support of a position or claim. 4 Chapter 1: The Comparative Approach: An Introduction comparative politics The subfield of political science that aims to analyze multiple cases using the comparative method. or don’t. Anyone who has watched Jeopardy! or played trivia games will notice that such games almost never ask why something happened. The answers would surely be too long and almost certainly too debatable. Basic factual knowledge may earn you points on a game board, but it alone cannot be the route to a deeper understanding of the social and political world. Questions that begin with that little word— why— are often answered not with a simple fact; rather, the answers begin with another deceptively powerful
word: because. Note that the root of the word because is cause. Why questions give rise to answers that talk about the causes of events, and they turn basic facts (who, what, where, when, and how) into evidence supporting a claim about cause and effect.2 This is the core pursuit of comparative politics: We seek to develop strong claims about cause and effect, testing various hypotheses (that is, possible answers to our questions) using factual evidence, and developing larger theories about why the world operates the way it does. Through most of this book, we will provide some basic information necessary to speak the language of comparative scholars, but our emphasis is on asking and trying to answer why questions. We do not ignore factual information when we ask questions. Indeed, some knowledge of a particular case usually makes us interested in a topic and moti- vates the questions we want to ask. We find some set of facts that does not fit with our intuition, and we pursue it further. We are intrigued by facts that pre- sent us with puzzles. The number of such puzzles is virtually infinite, but certain major questions take center stage in comparative politics. Many are easy to ask but challenging to answer. As we note later, some may be phrased as how ques- tions, but the logic behind them is the same: We seek to understand causes and effects to comprehend the world around us.
Few political phenomena are monocausal', or caused by just one thing. Often many factors combine to produce an outcome. Explaining something does not amount to simply naming one or another of these factors. Rather, we try to ex- plain by identifying not just the necessary conditions to produce an effect, but those that are sufficient to produce it. For example, the fact that a given commu- nity is divided into different groups might be a necessary factor of civil war. But since most such divided countries are not engaged in civil war most of the time, the condition of being divided is clearly not sufficient to produce this effect by itself, and thus probably cannot be said to be the main cause of war.3 Major Q uestions in Com parative Politics Comparative politics focuses on certain key questions that researchers have de- bated for years. Some important questions that we examine in this book are listed in Table 1.1. All of these are about causes and effects and can be answered, at least partly, by comparing and contrasting the politics of different countries. Some such questions, like the last two in the table, may also imply research on relations between countries as well as politics within countries. The questions in the table are very general, and we would likely begin research by asking a more specific version of such questions about one
or two countries. Rather than “W hy do countries go to war?” we might ask, “W hy did France opt not to support the Iraq War in 2003?” This question is more specific but also open- ended enough to have many possible answers. In scientific terms, this question can t a b l e i.i Prom inent Q uestions in Com parative Politics Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Politics Why are some countries democratic and others not? Why are some countries rich and others not? Why do countries have different institutions and forms of government? Why do countries have different policies in a variety of areas? Why do some social revolutions succeed and endure while others fail? Why do some countries develop strong senses of statehood and nationhood and others not? Why do countries go to war or establish peace? Why are some societies subjected to terrorism and others not? have several competing hypotheses we can test out using evidence, as we discuss later in this chapter and in the next. Possible answers may be
based on France’s strategic interests and calculations, its position in global affairs, French attitudes or culture with respect to war, and/or other possibilities. Contrast this question with a more leading one, such as “How did French defeat in World War II lead to France’s decision not to support the Iraq War?” In this version, the questioner presumes he/she knows the answer to why France decided not to support the war. The researcher is entering the research expecting to confirm one particular answer. Given our own human biases, this researcher may well choose evidence selec- tively, neglecting that which does not fit his/her assumptions and preconceptions. It is highly unlikely that someone asking this leading question will answer with “France’s defeat in World War II had no effect.” This type of question can there- fore lead to a biased argument. Forming questions with why is a good rule of thumb, but good questions may also begin with other words, such as how. The questions in Table 1.2 also lead to debates about cause and effect. The first question asks about “consequences,” which is just another way of asking about the effects of certain causes (in this case, the causes would be institutions). The question is also open-ended; that is, no hunch or expected answer is built into it, so the researcher
can remain open to what the evidence reveals. The second question is just a bit more specific, identi- fying a certain consequence and a certain institution, but it is also open-ended. As we get more specific, we must take care not to commit the error of building the answer into the question, or assume that what we are researching is the only answer. In this case, we would not want to assume that a presidential versus a parliamentary system of government is the main factor that shapes education policy.4 The next question asks “under what conditions” democracies form, which is just another way of asking about the causes of democracy, if we compare and contrast where and when and how it happens. So too does the final question ask about cause and effect, as shown by the verb affect. These are all valid research questions, even if they don’t begin with why. open-ended question A ques- tion that, in principle, is open to numerous possible answers. 6 Chapter 1: The Comparative Approach: An Introduction empirical Drawn from observa- tions of the world. Students in Paris, France, protest the Iraq War in 200S. Why did France opt not to support the
Iraq War? t a b l e 1.2 A dditional Research Q uestions A bout Cause and Effect What are the consequences of different kinds of instituti ons for policy? What are the consequences of presidential versus parliamentary systems of government for education policy? Under what conditions will democracies emerge and consolidate? How do major social revolutions affect subsequent political developments in their respective countries? Some questions that begin with why may be poor questions, or at least they may be ill suited to cause-and-effect research. Contrast the following two questions, where the how question is a more open-ended and better question than the why. • Why did the United States foolishly invade Iraq in 2003 for no good reason? • How did the decision to initiate military action against Iraq come about? It is perfectly legitimate to ask “why the United States invaded Iraq” as an open-ended social science question, but the tone of the why question here sug- gests that it is focused more on the issue of right and wrong
than on cause and effect. The key is keeping our minds open to the possibility that any of several hypotheses may have the power to explain what we want to explain. Em pirical A rgum en ts Versus Norm ative Argum ents The issue of right and wrong relates to the issue of causal or empirical arguments versus normative arguments. In this text, we mainly address empirical arguments: Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Politics 7 arguments that link cause and effect, uncovering answers to why the political world operates as it does. Normative arguments, by contrast, emphasize the way things should be. 1116 following pair of questions highlights the distinction: • W hy are some countries democratic and others authoritarian? (causal/ empirical) • Why is democracy preferable to authoritarianism? (normative) Comparativists answer questions like the first more often than the second, though we care about the answers to both types of questions. We are not primar- ily concerned in this book with resolving normative arguments about what is right and wrong. This is not because comparativists are
indifferent to moral con- cerns. To the contrary, most social scientists hold strong convictions, indeed probably stronger normative views about politics than the average citizen, given their choice of career. Comparativists would overwhelmingly express a prefer- ence for democracy over authoritarianism if asked, though some might note the limitations of democracy and/or argue that authoritarian rule has sometimes led to economic growth. Yet, as comparativists, we do not usually spend our intellec- tual energy coming up with new arguments for why democracy is morally super- ior to authoritarianism. Rather, we spend this energy trying to solve the puzzle of why democracy and authoritarianism arise in the first place. So the point of analyzing politics comparatively is not to come up with good arguments in favor of democracy, or grearer wealth, or peace. Rather, our job is to find what causes these things, and we can assume that a commitment to uncover- ing the causes comes from some interest in the outcome. Comparativists are like doctors diagnosing social problems: Instead of explaining why it is better to be healthy, we focus on explaining how we can be healthy as a political society. Com- parative political scientists often have an ethical or moral passion that drives re- search, as we may wish to make government and society more effective, efficient, equitable, just, responsive, and accountable. Yet our principal
role in that process is to describe what is and explain why, rather than proclaim what ought to be. So lving Intellectual Puzzles: A C ontem porary A n a lo gy Social science is a process of problem solving. By way of analogy, we can glimpse the sort of intellectual puzzles we solve through the mirror of pop culture. Among the most successful TV shows in the world today (apart from reality shows) are those in which researchers, academics, and scientists are presented with a puzzle that they must solve, usually within a short period. Medical dramas, legal dramas, and crime dramas all fit this mold. The researchers may be doctors trying to diagnose a potentially fatal disease, detectives trying to solve a murder using forensic evidence, or attorneys trying to prosecute a case against a pre- sumed perpetrator. Examples are legion: NCIS, The Mentalist, Sherlock (or the Sherlock Holmes adaptation Elementary), and the long-running CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, among others. W hat these shows have in common is the basic approach to puzzle solving used by the experts. The protagonist will typically be presented with a puzzle early in the episode and will then begin gathering evidence and formulating hypotheses. Usually, some of these hypotheses will be inconsistent with the
normative Concerned with speci- fying which sort of practice or institution is morally or ethically justified. Chapter 1: The Comparative Approach: An Introduction evidence, or new evidence will emerge that contradicts a hypothesis. In such shows, this development is deliberate, of course, in order to build suspense and mislead the viewer. We may find, for example, that the person we were supposed to think was the killer had an alibi and was somewhere else on the night of the murder. By the latter part of the show, the protagonist usually comes across some piece of evidence that pulls the case together and gives it a logical interpretation. The episode typically concludes when a hypothesis is confirmed, sometimes sig- nified by a criminal’s confession or maybe by a medical treatment that succeeds. Social scientists operate in a similar fashion to these puzzle- solving profes- sionals, but comparativists face some additional constraints. (If we really want to solve our puzzles, we have to be even more clever than the people on TV.) The most obvious constraint is the lack of laboratories in comparative politics.5 Whereas physicians, forensicologists, and prosecutors often have recourse to
physical evidence such as blood samples or DNA or cell phone records, social scientists rely on social facts and evidence of a more qualitative and historical nature. The evidence used by social scientists is often subject to interpretation. For example, one political scientist may deem Mexico a democratic success story since 2000, because an opposition party won a presidential election, and multiple parties now compete successfully for power. Another may argue that Mexico is not a democratic success story, because the country still suffers from high levels of social and economic inequality and from unequal political participation.6 Many academics and other professionals rely on evidence and logic and reason to make persuasive arguments, even in the absence of absolute proof. Returning to our pop culture analogy, the detective Sherlock Holmes often rules out many options by process of elimination, gathers evidence that is consistent with a cer- tain interpretation of the facts, and builds a hypothesis. Sometimes, Sherlock will have a particular hypothesis that is shown to be wrong by some new bit of evidence. In those instances, he must generate a new hypothesis to solve the case. Typically, at the end of a detective story, proof comes with a confession that re- veals the full story. In courtroom dramas, to use another example, there may not be “prooF’ that someone committed a crime, but the jury may be
convinced “beyond a reasonable doubt” that the accused is guilty. Again, in some instances, there may eventually be a confession by the perpetrator that does lead to “proof,” once the hypothesis is backed by substantial evidence and the perpetrator is in- formed of the strength of the prosecution’s case. Medical dramas are similar in that the doctors must diagnose complicated cases using the evidence available to them. The solution usually takes the form of a treatment that cures or saves the patient. In all of these cases, the common theme is the need to solve a puzzle using a combination of evidence, logical reasoning, and educated guesses. Unfortunately for social scientists, the world never confesses its secrets like some TV criminal, and we cannot typically administer some pharmaceutical in controlled fashion to cure a body politic. The best social scientists can do is work with a standard that requires scholars to make the strongest and most persuasive case possible by using and interpreting the available evidence. Many social scien- tists who use statistical methods—including sociologists, political scientists, and most economists—even formalize standards for what is a persuasive finding. Some use 95 percent certainty as a crucial benchmark in testing and trying to
Concepts 9 confirm hypotheses (however arbitrary that 95 percent threshold may be, and even this threshold only relates to their confidence that they can reject the “null hypothesis” that the factor in question has absolutely no eifect). Good scholarship seeks evidence, tests hypotheses, makes arguments, and contributes to theoretical debates. We address theories and hypotheses in greater detail in chapter 2. First, however, we turn to the ideas of concepts, variables, and causal relationships. Concepts Social science works with concepts, abstract ideas that we usually attempt to define as we ask and answer our questions. Examples of concepts are numerous and include freedom, democracy (as well as liberal democracy, electoral democ- racy, delegative democracy, and many other subtypes), justice, nationalism, con- stitutionalism, federalism, identity, gender relations, special interests, and social movements, among many others. Working with concepts helps us think about the social world, which is too complex to analyze without them. We must be very careful in defining them, because bad concepts make for bad analysis. Most concepts are categories. In some areas, such as physical and natural sci-
ence, certain categories are relatively clear.7 The elements of the periodic table are an example. Concepts like “helium” and “oxygen” describe things in the real world that have certain numbers of electrons and protons. Yet there are few such clear-cut categories in social and political life. Concepts like “democracy” and “revolution” do not define phenomena the same way that “hydrogen” refers to an atom composed of a single proton and a single electron. Social and political con- cepts like democracy and revolution shade into each other by degree. Definitions do not capture exact boundaries between social and political phenomena in the real world, but we use them so that we can get a handle on that world. Reasonable concepts and categories help us make sense of all the events that take place. Features of Good Concepts W hat makes a concept worthwhile? Good concepts have several features, including clarity, coherence, consistency, and usefulness. The concept of “democratization” when used correctly is an example of a concept that is worthwhile on all these counts. First, concepts must be clear and coherent.8 Maybe you begin a research proj- ect because you are troubled by differences in levels of democratization across different countries. At the beginning, you have a common-sense understanding of democratization. To do good comparative work, however,
you must make the meaning of the term explicit and clear. W hat do you mean by democratization? W hat is it you are studying? You cannot say “democratization consists of all the positive things that happen when a society changes.” This is neither clear nor co- herent. A clearer and more coherent statement would be “democratization is the process by which civil liberties and political rights are extended to all adult citi- zens in a nation.” We begin with common-sense concerns about specific prob- lems, but we need to define our key concepts precisely. Second, concepts must be logically consistent, both internally and from one to another. For example, one cannot conceptualize democratization in terms of “expansion of liberty and equality” without addressing the likelihood that increasing concept An idea comparativists use to think about the processes we study. 10 Chapter 1: The Comparative Approach: An Introduction conceptualization The deliberate process through which we create and select social-scientific concepts. Sartori's ladder of abstraction
The idea that we can organize concepts on the basis of their specificity or generality. liberty will likely lead to some degree of inequality. The issue here is whether our concept of democratization is internally consistent. Likewise, one cannot concep- tualize democracy as being about a “set of institutional arrangements,” such as elections, while viewing democratization as being about a “sort of political cul- ture or set of values and norms.” This is an issue of logical consistency between the concepts of democracy and democratization, which we presume are related, but which seem to point in different directions here. Third, concepts should be useful. They must be specific enough that they allow you to draw distinctions in analyzing examples. The concept of democrati- zation can be useful because we can meaningfully distinguish between countries that have democratized and those that have not. Our use of concepts is prag- matic, because we identify concepts based on how they help us answer research questions.9 For comparative analysis, concepts must allow us to identify varia- tions between places, which the concept of democratization does: It allows us to differentiate and examine the variations between places that have undergone the process and those that have not. To be useful, concepts must also allow us to
measure variables, which we examine further later. Conceptualization Using concepts may be creative, because social scientists need to develop their own in many cases. The process of making up and defining concepts is called conceptualization. It is often necessary to come up with new ideas and defini- tions, though we must be self-conscious and thoughtful in how we conceptual- ize. In comparative politics, a good practice is to look to how scholars have already conceptualized major ideas in books (including textbooks) and articles. We should not coin a new phrase just for the sake of it, and we do not want to end up with a thousand different definitions of a concept like “democracy” when there are already several good and accepted definitions available. Too much cre- ation of concepts could generate confusion and make discussion more difficult. Nonetheless, no concept is perfect, and you may need to conceptualize in novel ways on your own, depending on your specific projects.10 Doing so can be part of an intellectual contribution, so long as your concepts are clear, consistent, and useful.11 Some concepts are very general, while others are very specific. To take “na­ tionalism” and “national identity” as an example, we might see the concept of collective identity (an individual’s sense of belonging to a
group) as being quite general, though sometimes we ask questions that don’t require more specific concepts.12 Greater specificity comes with adding more attributes to the con- cept, maybe by specifying that we are interested in those collective identities that are political. More specific still, one can divide political identities into more specific subtypes, for example, political identities that say that everybody in your country is like you and that they are all equal. Some questions require more general concepts, and others more specific concepts. This issue is sometimes referred to as “Sartori’s ladder of abstraction.”13 The ladder ranges from gen- eral concepts at the top to very specific concepts at the bottom, and the rung one stands on depends on the specific questions being asked and the cases being examined. Concepts 11 The Concept of Freedom I n societies such as the United States, freedom is seen as a core lvalue. Virtually everyone is a supporter and defender of freedom, and popular images present the American nation as the "land of the free." Yet what it means to be free is not so clear, and the term has multiple, distinct, and perhaps even contradictory
meanings.14 Some view freedom in "negative" terms: One is free to the extent that nobody impinges on his or her ability to act in accordance with his or her will. Others view freedom in "positive" terms: One is free to the extent that one can engage in particular sorts of acts or ways of life. Others may view freedom in mystical terms, suggesting that one is free to the extent that one experiences transcendence through service to others, through participation in collective action, or through spiritual contemplation. There are also Marxist- inspired interpretations of freedom holding that one is free to the extent that one is not alienated from others, from one's work, and from a sense of purpose or meaning. (And, last but not least, Janis Joplin sang that "Freedom's just another word for nothing left to lose") All of these understandings take freedom to be a quality of an individual. Yet many also speak of the collective freedoms of groups. For instance, many societies, in seeking independence from colonial powers, produce authoritarian regimes that do not promote individual freedoms. Often, the members of these soci- eties nevertheless celebrate them as distinctively free. Note that all of these meanings of the term (and we could list many more) resonate with millions of people in the world today.15 Libyan women celebrate liberation from Qaddafi's rule. Tripoli, September 2011. O perationalizing: From C oncepts to Measures
Once we have a clear notion of a concept, we need to be able to measure it; that is, we need to operationalize our concept. To operationalize a concept is to make operationalization The process it workable, mainly by making it measurable. W hen a concept is operational— through which we make a concept or we have an operational definition—we can begin to explain what we are study- measurable, ing. We can start to explain cause and effect only when we have clarified what we are talking about and can measure it. There may be many ways to operationalize a certain concept, as shown by the example of democratization in Table 1.3. All of these may be valid ways to t a b l e 1 . 3 Possible Operational Definitions of D em ocratization A case of democratization occurs when... • a country holds a free and fair multiparty election • two turnovers of government at the ballot box have occurred, in which the ruling party loses an election and peacefully steps down from power • free and fair elections are held, and a constitutional law is in place guaranteeing the rights of freedom of speech, press, assembly, and religion to all citizens • there is no verifiable suppression of political participation and expression • more than two-thirds of citizens in a survey express values that reject authoritarian rule
12 Chapter 1: The Comparative Approach: An Introduction evidence A set of facts or obser- vations used to support a proposi- tion or hypothesis. operationalize democratization, so long as the operational definition matches up with the concept. I f we conceptualize democratization in terms of elections, we should measure it in terms of elections (not, for example, by values people hold). As we begin to measure our concepts, we move more toward the “real,” or empir­ ical, world we observe. Empirical Evidence Questions demand answers. Social scientists do not ask questions just to ask them, but to attempt to answer them. So how do social scientists answer their questions? In short, they couple empirical evidence with theory. In comparative politics, em- pirical means those observations we can make from looking at the real world rather than using abstract theories or speculation. We look at how theory and evidence interact in chapter 2. For the moment, we only highlight the forms of evidence most often used in comparative politics, since this is necessary for understanding the method. A key is the distinction between facts and evidence. Facts and Evidence Facts—understood here as simple statements about what is or is
not the case— are abundant, but evidence is more precious. As noted previously, online sources such as Wikipedia and Google provide almost costless access to a massive set of facts (though a lot of information found online is inaccurate or incorrect). Evidence consists of facts used in support of a proposition or hypothesis. Notice something built into these definitions: evidence is indeed based on facts. So a point of view or an opinion, whether your own or someone else’s, is not evidence. The fact that someone else believes something does not mean there is evidence for it, even if that opinion has been published by a prominent scholar or public figure. Evi- dence should be available for the reader to gather as well, and not be simply based on hearsay, though research sometimes requires anonymity of sources. Wherever possible, research should be replicable by someone else. To use a simple example of varying qualities of evidence, say we ask two stu- dents to make a simple claim about whether Saudi Arabia is a democracy and to back this claim with evidence. In the two examples in Table 1.4, the difference t a b l e 1.4 Exam ples of Strong and W eak Use of Evidence Student 1 Student 2 Claim: Saudi Arabia is not democratic. Claim: Saudi Arabia is not democratic.
Evidence: Saudi Arabia has not held free and Evidence: Saudi Arabia is an Islamic country fair elections for its national government. whose economy is based on exporting oil. It is Women do not have the same political and a long-time ally of the United States and is led social rights as men. by King Salman and a large royal family. Claim: strong Claim: strong Facts: correct Facts: correct Evidence: strong Evidence: weak Empirical Evidence 13 between the two students is not the correctness of the claim, which is the same. Nor is it the facts, which are true on both sides. Rather, the difference is in how well evidence is used to back the claim. Successful comparativists are known not for the correctness of their assertions but for the ways they empirically support their claims. Strong evidence has several characteristics. Most obviously, it must be rele- vant to the issue at hand. I f you are arguing about Saudi Arabia’s democracy, the fact that the country is Muslim, or an oil exporter, is not an indicator of democ- racy. We may debate whether these factors help came democracy or a lack of democracy, but they are not measures of democracy itself the
way free and fair elections and civil rights are. The evidence should also be at the same level o f analysis as the claim you are making—that is, at the individual, organizational, or societal level, for example. We can ask good research questions at many levels of analysis: individuals, groups within a country, whole countries and societies, regions of the world, and the world as a whole. But we need to be careful that our evidence reflects our level of analysis. Countries are made up of individuals, but individuals are not countries, and there are important differences between individuals, groups, and societies at large. So if you are seeking evidence about gender attitudes in Saudi Arabia, it is insufficient to note what a certain small group of men in the capital city thinks, unless you can show that these men happen to be representative of the country at large. The same is true the other way around: I f you are talking about an individ- ual or a small group, you cannot assume you know everything about them just because of what country they come from; this is essentially stereotyping. Ana- lysts risk committing logical fallacies if they do not pay attention to levels of analysis. Cases and Case Studies Cases are the basic units of analysis in comparative politics. In many instances,
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex
Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex

Recommended

Mark Turner, David Hulme & Willy Mccourt, Governance, Management & Developmen...
Mark Turner, David Hulme & Willy Mccourt, Governance, Management & Developmen...Mark Turner, David Hulme & Willy Mccourt, Governance, Management & Developmen...
Mark Turner, David Hulme & Willy Mccourt, Governance, Management & Developmen...Dadang Solihin
 
Week_3_Lecture_6_Review_Slides.pdf
Week_3_Lecture_6_Review_Slides.pdfWeek_3_Lecture_6_Review_Slides.pdf
Week_3_Lecture_6_Review_Slides.pdfAnonymousHj7vA6
 
Chapter 15 Lecture Notes.pptx
Chapter 15 Lecture Notes.pptxChapter 15 Lecture Notes.pptx
Chapter 15 Lecture Notes.pptxssuserd14842
 
Texas Politics Today 2017–2018 EditionTexas .docx
Texas Politics Today 2017–2018 EditionTexas .docxTexas Politics Today 2017–2018 EditionTexas .docx
Texas Politics Today 2017–2018 EditionTexas .docxtodd191
 
Democracy index 2018
Democracy index 2018Democracy index 2018
Democracy index 2018ilfattoquotidiano.it
 
Democracy - Correcting the balance of power
Democracy - Correcting the balance of powerDemocracy - Correcting the balance of power
Democracy - Correcting the balance of powerFred (Juan) Kelly
 
Doug Schoen's Poll on American Expectations from the Obama Administration
Doug Schoen's Poll on American Expectations from the Obama AdministrationDoug Schoen's Poll on American Expectations from the Obama Administration
Doug Schoen's Poll on American Expectations from the Obama Administrationaspeninstitute
 
Civics test United States citizenship
Civics test United States citizenshipCivics test United States citizenship
Civics test United States citizenshipSergio Grunbaum
 

Recommended

Mark Turner, David Hulme & Willy Mccourt, Governance, Management & Developmen...
Mark Turner, David Hulme & Willy Mccourt, Governance, Management & Developmen...Mark Turner, David Hulme & Willy Mccourt, Governance, Management & Developmen...
Mark Turner, David Hulme & Willy Mccourt, Governance, Management & Developmen...Dadang Solihin
 
Week_3_Lecture_6_Review_Slides.pdf
Week_3_Lecture_6_Review_Slides.pdfWeek_3_Lecture_6_Review_Slides.pdf
Week_3_Lecture_6_Review_Slides.pdfAnonymousHj7vA6
 
Chapter 15 Lecture Notes.pptx
Chapter 15 Lecture Notes.pptxChapter 15 Lecture Notes.pptx
Chapter 15 Lecture Notes.pptxssuserd14842
 
Texas Politics Today 2017–2018 EditionTexas .docx
Texas Politics Today 2017–2018 EditionTexas .docxTexas Politics Today 2017–2018 EditionTexas .docx
Texas Politics Today 2017–2018 EditionTexas .docxtodd191
 
Democracy index 2018
Democracy index 2018Democracy index 2018
Democracy index 2018ilfattoquotidiano.it
 
Democracy - Correcting the balance of power
Democracy - Correcting the balance of powerDemocracy - Correcting the balance of power
Democracy - Correcting the balance of powerFred (Juan) Kelly
 
Doug Schoen's Poll on American Expectations from the Obama Administration
Doug Schoen's Poll on American Expectations from the Obama AdministrationDoug Schoen's Poll on American Expectations from the Obama Administration
Doug Schoen's Poll on American Expectations from the Obama Administrationaspeninstitute
 
Civics test United States citizenship
Civics test United States citizenshipCivics test United States citizenship
Civics test United States citizenshipSergio Grunbaum
 
barbour1
barbour1barbour1
barbour1David Woodard
 
BAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdf
BAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdfBAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdf
BAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdfRicha830843
 
Can you Build on the BRICs?
Can you Build on the BRICs?Can you Build on the BRICs?
Can you Build on the BRICs?Ilan Alon
 
History of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexua
History of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexuaHistory of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexua
History of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexuaSusanaFurman449
 
Solving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docx
Solving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docxSolving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docx
Solving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docxlillie234567
 
Ap Mc Review
Ap Mc ReviewAp Mc Review
Ap Mc ReviewMatt Baier
 
AP Exam Review
AP Exam ReviewAP Exam Review
AP Exam Reviewadutcher
 
Pad 510 wk 11 final exam strayer
Pad 510 wk 11 final exam strayerPad 510 wk 11 final exam strayer
Pad 510 wk 11 final exam strayerHomework Help Online
 
Global IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth E
Global IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth EGlobal IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth E
Global IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth EMatthewTennant613
 
Searching for Better
Searching for BetterSearching for Better
Searching for BetterSteveG28
 
Government pp chapter 1
Government pp chapter 1Government pp chapter 1
Government pp chapter 1emilyyy12
 
© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docx
© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docx© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docx
© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docxLynellBull52
 
Burma Analysis FINAL
Burma Analysis FINALBurma Analysis FINAL
Burma Analysis FINALMichael Yatskievych
 
Why America Needs to Talk About Fairness
Why America Needs to Talk About FairnessWhy America Needs to Talk About Fairness
Why America Needs to Talk About FairnessFairnessCoalition
 
POL 252 Parties Interest Groups
POL 252 Parties Interest GroupsPOL 252 Parties Interest Groups
POL 252 Parties Interest Groupsatrantham
 
Chapter 1 for blog review
Chapter 1 for blog reviewChapter 1 for blog review
Chapter 1 for blog reviewarippee
 
Democracy Index 2021: the China challenge
Democracy Index 2021: the China challengeDemocracy Index 2021: the China challenge
Democracy Index 2021: the China challengeGuy Boulianne
 
FirstView Election Survey
FirstView Election SurveyFirstView Election Survey
FirstView Election SurveyStratacomm.net
 
Short Review
Short ReviewShort Review
Short ReviewWilliam Carder
 
Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]
Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]
Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]ssh09
 
Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docx
Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docxExplain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docx
Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docx
Explain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docxExplain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docx
Explain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 

More Related Content

Similar to Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex

BAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdf
BAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdfBAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdf
BAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdfRicha830843
 
Can you Build on the BRICs?
Can you Build on the BRICs?Can you Build on the BRICs?
Can you Build on the BRICs?Ilan Alon
 
History of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexua
History of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexuaHistory of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexua
History of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexuaSusanaFurman449
 
Solving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docx
Solving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docxSolving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docx
Solving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docxlillie234567
 
AP Exam Review
AP Exam ReviewAP Exam Review
AP Exam Reviewadutcher
 
Global IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth E
Global IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth EGlobal IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth E
Global IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth EMatthewTennant613
 
Searching for Better
Searching for BetterSearching for Better
Searching for BetterSteveG28
 
Government pp chapter 1
Government pp chapter 1Government pp chapter 1
Government pp chapter 1emilyyy12
 
© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docx
© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docx© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docx
© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docxLynellBull52
 
Why America Needs to Talk About Fairness
Why America Needs to Talk About FairnessWhy America Needs to Talk About Fairness
Why America Needs to Talk About FairnessFairnessCoalition
 
POL 252 Parties Interest Groups
POL 252 Parties Interest GroupsPOL 252 Parties Interest Groups
POL 252 Parties Interest Groupsatrantham
 
Chapter 1 for blog review
Chapter 1 for blog reviewChapter 1 for blog review
Chapter 1 for blog reviewarippee
 
Democracy Index 2021: the China challenge
Democracy Index 2021: the China challengeDemocracy Index 2021: the China challenge
Democracy Index 2021: the China challengeGuy Boulianne
 
FirstView Election Survey
FirstView Election SurveyFirstView Election Survey
FirstView Election SurveyStratacomm.net
 
Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]
Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]
Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]ssh09
 

Similar to Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex (20)

barbour1
barbour1barbour1
barbour1
 
BAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdf
BAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdfBAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdf
BAPSH COURSE DETAILS (2).pdf
 
Can you Build on the BRICs?
Can you Build on the BRICs?Can you Build on the BRICs?
Can you Build on the BRICs?
 
History of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexua
History of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexuaHistory of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexua
History of Sexuality.htmlHistory of Sexuality  Human sexua
 
Solving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docx
Solving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docxSolving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docx
Solving Equations using Square Roots or the Quadratic FormulaI.docx
 
Ap Mc Review
Ap Mc ReviewAp Mc Review
Ap Mc Review
 
AP Exam Review
AP Exam ReviewAP Exam Review
AP Exam Review
 
Pad 510 wk 11 final exam strayer
Pad 510 wk 11 final exam strayerPad 510 wk 11 final exam strayer
Pad 510 wk 11 final exam strayer
 
Global IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth E
Global IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth EGlobal IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth E
Global IssuesPolitics, Economics, and CultureFifth E
 
Searching for Better
Searching for BetterSearching for Better
Searching for Better
 
Government pp chapter 1
Government pp chapter 1Government pp chapter 1
Government pp chapter 1
 
© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docx
© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docx© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docx
© StraighterLine POLS101 American Government American.docx
 
Burma Analysis FINAL
Burma Analysis FINALBurma Analysis FINAL
Burma Analysis FINAL
 
Why America Needs to Talk About Fairness
Why America Needs to Talk About FairnessWhy America Needs to Talk About Fairness
Why America Needs to Talk About Fairness
 
POL 252 Parties Interest Groups
POL 252 Parties Interest GroupsPOL 252 Parties Interest Groups
POL 252 Parties Interest Groups
 
Chapter 1 for blog review
Chapter 1 for blog reviewChapter 1 for blog review
Chapter 1 for blog review
 
Democracy Index 2021: the China challenge
Democracy Index 2021: the China challengeDemocracy Index 2021: the China challenge
Democracy Index 2021: the China challenge
 
FirstView Election Survey
FirstView Election SurveyFirstView Election Survey
FirstView Election Survey
 
Short Review
Short ReviewShort Review
Short Review
 
Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]
Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]
Democratic Politics Chapter 8 Grade 10 CBSE [Challenges to Democracy]
 

More from AlleneMcclendon878

Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docx
Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docxExplain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docx
Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docx
Explain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docxExplain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docx
Explain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain the degree to which media portrayal of crime relates to publ.docx
Explain the degree to which media portrayal of crime relates to publ.docxExplain the degree to which media portrayal of crime relates to publ.docx
Explain the degree to which media portrayal of crime relates to publ.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype. Give an examp.docx
Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype. Give an examp.docxExplain the difference between genotype and phenotype. Give an examp.docx
Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype. Give an examp.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain the history behind the Black Soldier of the Civil War In t.docx
Explain the history behind the Black Soldier of the Civil War In t.docxExplain the history behind the Black Soldier of the Civil War In t.docx
Explain the history behind the Black Soldier of the Civil War In t.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain the fundamental reasons why brands do not exist in isolation.docx
Explain the fundamental reasons why brands do not exist in isolation.docxExplain the fundamental reasons why brands do not exist in isolation.docx
Explain the fundamental reasons why brands do not exist in isolation.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperati.docx
Explain the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperati.docxExplain the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperati.docx
Explain the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperati.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain in 100 words provide exampleThe capital budgeting decisi.docx
Explain in 100 words provide exampleThe capital budgeting decisi.docxExplain in 100 words provide exampleThe capital budgeting decisi.docx
Explain in 100 words provide exampleThe capital budgeting decisi.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain how Supreme Court decisions influenced the evolution of the .docx
Explain how Supreme Court decisions influenced the evolution of the .docxExplain how Supreme Court decisions influenced the evolution of the .docx
Explain how Supreme Court decisions influenced the evolution of the .docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain how an offender is classified according to risk when he or s.docx
Explain how an offender is classified according to risk when he or s.docxExplain how an offender is classified according to risk when he or s.docx
Explain how an offender is classified according to risk when he or s.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain a lesson plan. Describe the different types of information.docx
Explain a lesson plan. Describe the different types of information.docxExplain a lesson plan. Describe the different types of information.docx
Explain a lesson plan. Describe the different types of information.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
explain the different roles of basic and applied researchdescribe .docx
explain the different roles of basic and applied researchdescribe .docxexplain the different roles of basic and applied researchdescribe .docx
explain the different roles of basic and applied researchdescribe .docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain the basics of inspirational and emotion-provoking communicat.docx
Explain the basics of inspirational and emotion-provoking communicat.docxExplain the basics of inspirational and emotion-provoking communicat.docx
Explain the basics of inspirational and emotion-provoking communicat.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain how leaders develop through self-awareness and self-discipli.docx
Explain how leaders develop through self-awareness and self-discipli.docxExplain how leaders develop through self-awareness and self-discipli.docx
Explain how leaders develop through self-awareness and self-discipli.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain five ways that you can maintain professionalism in the meeti.docx
Explain five ways that you can maintain professionalism in the meeti.docxExplain five ways that you can maintain professionalism in the meeti.docx
Explain five ways that you can maintain professionalism in the meeti.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Explain security awareness and its importance.Your response should.docx
Explain security awareness and its importance.Your response should.docxExplain security awareness and its importance.Your response should.docx
Explain security awareness and its importance.Your response should.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Experimental Design AssignmentYou were given an Aedesaegyp.docx
Experimental Design AssignmentYou were given an Aedesaegyp.docxExperimental Design AssignmentYou were given an Aedesaegyp.docx
Experimental Design AssignmentYou were given an Aedesaegyp.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Expand your website plan.Select at least three interactive fea.docx
Expand your website plan.Select at least three interactive fea.docxExpand your website plan.Select at least three interactive fea.docx
Expand your website plan.Select at least three interactive fea.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Exercise 7 Use el pronombre y la forma correcta del verbo._.docx
Exercise 7 Use el pronombre y la forma correcta del verbo._.docxExercise 7 Use el pronombre y la forma correcta del verbo._.docx
Exercise 7 Use el pronombre y la forma correcta del verbo._.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 
Exercise 21-8 (Part Level Submission)The following facts pertain.docx
Exercise 21-8 (Part Level Submission)The following facts pertain.docxExercise 21-8 (Part Level Submission)The following facts pertain.docx
Exercise 21-8 (Part Level Submission)The following facts pertain.docxAlleneMcclendon878
 

More from AlleneMcclendon878 (20)

Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docx
Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docxExplain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docx
Explain in your own words why it is important to read a statistical .docx
 
Explain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docx
Explain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docxExplain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docx
Explain how Matthew editedchanged Marks Gospel for each of the fol.docx
 
Explain the degree to which media portrayal of crime relates to publ.docx
Explain the degree to which media portrayal of crime relates to publ.docxExplain the degree to which media portrayal of crime relates to publ.docx
Explain the degree to which media portrayal of crime relates to publ.docx
 
Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype. Give an examp.docx
Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype. Give an examp.docxExplain the difference between genotype and phenotype. Give an examp.docx
Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype. Give an examp.docx
 
Explain the history behind the Black Soldier of the Civil War In t.docx
Explain the history behind the Black Soldier of the Civil War In t.docxExplain the history behind the Black Soldier of the Civil War In t.docx
Explain the history behind the Black Soldier of the Civil War In t.docx
 
Explain the fundamental reasons why brands do not exist in isolation.docx
Explain the fundamental reasons why brands do not exist in isolation.docxExplain the fundamental reasons why brands do not exist in isolation.docx
Explain the fundamental reasons why brands do not exist in isolation.docx
 
Explain the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperati.docx
Explain the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperati.docxExplain the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperati.docx
Explain the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperati.docx
 
Explain in 100 words provide exampleThe capital budgeting decisi.docx
Explain in 100 words provide exampleThe capital budgeting decisi.docxExplain in 100 words provide exampleThe capital budgeting decisi.docx
Explain in 100 words provide exampleThe capital budgeting decisi.docx
 
Explain how Supreme Court decisions influenced the evolution of the .docx
Explain how Supreme Court decisions influenced the evolution of the .docxExplain how Supreme Court decisions influenced the evolution of the .docx
Explain how Supreme Court decisions influenced the evolution of the .docx
 
Explain how an offender is classified according to risk when he or s.docx
Explain how an offender is classified according to risk when he or s.docxExplain how an offender is classified according to risk when he or s.docx
Explain how an offender is classified according to risk when he or s.docx
 
Explain a lesson plan. Describe the different types of information.docx
Explain a lesson plan. Describe the different types of information.docxExplain a lesson plan. Describe the different types of information.docx
Explain a lesson plan. Describe the different types of information.docx
 
explain the different roles of basic and applied researchdescribe .docx
explain the different roles of basic and applied researchdescribe .docxexplain the different roles of basic and applied researchdescribe .docx
explain the different roles of basic and applied researchdescribe .docx
 
Explain the basics of inspirational and emotion-provoking communicat.docx
Explain the basics of inspirational and emotion-provoking communicat.docxExplain the basics of inspirational and emotion-provoking communicat.docx
Explain the basics of inspirational and emotion-provoking communicat.docx
 
Explain how leaders develop through self-awareness and self-discipli.docx
Explain how leaders develop through self-awareness and self-discipli.docxExplain how leaders develop through self-awareness and self-discipli.docx
Explain how leaders develop through self-awareness and self-discipli.docx
 
Explain five ways that you can maintain professionalism in the meeti.docx
Explain five ways that you can maintain professionalism in the meeti.docxExplain five ways that you can maintain professionalism in the meeti.docx
Explain five ways that you can maintain professionalism in the meeti.docx
 
Explain security awareness and its importance.Your response should.docx
Explain security awareness and its importance.Your response should.docxExplain security awareness and its importance.Your response should.docx
Explain security awareness and its importance.Your response should.docx
 
Experimental Design AssignmentYou were given an Aedesaegyp.docx
Experimental Design AssignmentYou were given an Aedesaegyp.docxExperimental Design AssignmentYou were given an Aedesaegyp.docx
Experimental Design AssignmentYou were given an Aedesaegyp.docx
 
Expand your website plan.Select at least three interactive fea.docx
Expand your website plan.Select at least three interactive fea.docxExpand your website plan.Select at least three interactive fea.docx
Expand your website plan.Select at least three interactive fea.docx
 
Exercise 7 Use el pronombre y la forma correcta del verbo._.docx
Exercise 7 Use el pronombre y la forma correcta del verbo._.docxExercise 7 Use el pronombre y la forma correcta del verbo._.docx
Exercise 7 Use el pronombre y la forma correcta del verbo._.docx
 
Exercise 21-8 (Part Level Submission)The following facts pertain.docx
Exercise 21-8 (Part Level Submission)The following facts pertain.docxExercise 21-8 (Part Level Submission)The following facts pertain.docx
Exercise 21-8 (Part Level Submission)The following facts pertain.docx
 

Recently uploaded

Activity 01 - Artificial Culture (1).pdf
Activity 01 - Artificial Culture (1).pdfActivity 01 - Artificial Culture (1).pdf
Activity 01 - Artificial Culture (1).pdfciinovamais
 
Basic Civil Engineering first year Notes- Chapter 4 Building.pptx
Basic Civil Engineering first year Notes- Chapter 4 Building.pptxBasic Civil Engineering first year Notes- Chapter 4 Building.pptx
Basic Civil Engineering first year Notes- Chapter 4 Building.pptxDenish Jangid
 
Micro-Scholarship, What it is, How can it help me.pdf
Micro-Scholarship, What it is, How can it help me.pdfMicro-Scholarship, What it is, How can it help me.pdf
Micro-Scholarship, What it is, How can it help me.pdfPoh-Sun Goh
 
TỔNG ÔN TẬP THI VÀO LỚP 10 MÔN TIẾNG ANH NĂM HỌC 2023 - 2024 CÓ ĐÁP ÁN (NGỮ Â...
TỔNG ÔN TẬP THI VÀO LỚP 10 MÔN TIẾNG ANH NĂM HỌC 2023 - 2024 CÓ ĐÁP ÁN (NGỮ Â...TỔNG ÔN TẬP THI VÀO LỚP 10 MÔN TIẾNG ANH NĂM HỌC 2023 - 2024 CÓ ĐÁP ÁN (NGỮ Â...
TỔNG ÔN TẬP THI VÀO LỚP 10 MÔN TIẾNG ANH NĂM HỌC 2023 - 2024 CÓ ĐÁP ÁN (NGỮ Â...Nguyen Thanh Tu Collection
 
ICT Role in 21st Century Education & its Challenges.pptx
ICT Role in 21st Century Education & its Challenges.pptxICT Role in 21st Century Education & its Challenges.pptx
ICT Role in 21st Century Education & its Challenges.pptxAreebaZafar22
 
Unit-V; Pricing (Pharma Marketing Management).pptx
Unit-V; Pricing (Pharma Marketing Management).pptxUnit-V; Pricing (Pharma Marketing Management).pptx
Unit-V; Pricing (Pharma Marketing Management).pptxVishalSingh1417
 
On National Teacher Day, meet the 2024-25 Kenan Fellows
On National Teacher Day, meet the 2024-25 Kenan FellowsOn National Teacher Day, meet the 2024-25 Kenan Fellows
On National Teacher Day, meet the 2024-25 Kenan FellowsMebane Rash
 
Introduction to Nonprofit Accounting: The Basics
Introduction to Nonprofit Accounting: The BasicsIntroduction to Nonprofit Accounting: The Basics
Introduction to Nonprofit Accounting: The BasicsTechSoup
 
Key note speaker Neum_Admir Softic_ENG.pdf
Key note speaker Neum_Admir Softic_ENG.pdfKey note speaker Neum_Admir Softic_ENG.pdf
Key note speaker Neum_Admir Softic_ENG.pdfAdmir Softic
 
How to Give a Domain for a Field in Odoo 17
How to Give a Domain for a Field in Odoo 17How to Give a Domain for a Field in Odoo 17
How to Give a Domain for a Field in Odoo 17Celine George
 
Unit-IV; Professional Sales Representative (PSR).pptx
Unit-IV; Professional Sales Representative (PSR).pptxUnit-IV; Professional Sales Representative (PSR).pptx
Unit-IV; Professional Sales Representative (PSR).pptxVishalSingh1417
 
Mixin Classes in Odoo 17 How to Extend Models Using Mixin Classes
Mixin Classes in Odoo 17 How to Extend Models Using Mixin ClassesMixin Classes in Odoo 17 How to Extend Models Using Mixin Classes
Mixin Classes in Odoo 17 How to Extend Models Using Mixin ClassesCeline George
 
1029-Danh muc Sach Giao Khoa khoi 6.pdf
1029-Danh muc Sach Giao Khoa khoi 6.pdf1029-Danh muc Sach Giao Khoa khoi 6.pdf
1029-Danh muc Sach Giao Khoa khoi 6.pdfQucHHunhnh
 
Grant Readiness 101 TechSoup and Remy Consulting
Grant Readiness 101 TechSoup and Remy ConsultingGrant Readiness 101 TechSoup and Remy Consulting
Grant Readiness 101 TechSoup and Remy ConsultingTechSoup
 
psychiatric nursing HISTORY COLLECTION .docx
psychiatric nursing HISTORY COLLECTION .docxpsychiatric nursing HISTORY COLLECTION .docx
psychiatric nursing HISTORY COLLECTION .docxPoojaSen20
 
Beyond the EU: DORA and NIS 2 Directive's Global Impact
Beyond the EU: DORA and NIS 2 Directive's Global ImpactBeyond the EU: DORA and NIS 2 Directive's Global Impact
Beyond the EU: DORA and NIS 2 Directive's Global ImpactPECB
 
The basics of sentences session 3pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 3pptx.pptxThe basics of sentences session 3pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 3pptx.pptxheathfieldcps1
 
PROCESS RECORDING FORMAT.docx
PROCESS RECORDING FORMAT.docxPROCESS RECORDING FORMAT.docx
PROCESS RECORDING FORMAT.docxPoojaSen20
 
The basics of sentences session 2pptx copy.pptx
The basics of sentences session 2pptx copy.pptxThe basics of sentences session 2pptx copy.pptx
The basics of sentences session 2pptx copy.pptxheathfieldcps1
 

Recently uploaded (20)

Activity 01 - Artificial Culture (1).pdf
Activity 01 - Artificial Culture (1).pdfActivity 01 - Artificial Culture (1).pdf
Activity 01 - Artificial Culture (1).pdf
 
Basic Civil Engineering first year Notes- Chapter 4 Building.pptx
Basic Civil Engineering first year Notes- Chapter 4 Building.pptxBasic Civil Engineering first year Notes- Chapter 4 Building.pptx
Basic Civil Engineering first year Notes- Chapter 4 Building.pptx
 
Micro-Scholarship, What it is, How can it help me.pdf
Micro-Scholarship, What it is, How can it help me.pdfMicro-Scholarship, What it is, How can it help me.pdf
Micro-Scholarship, What it is, How can it help me.pdf
 
TỔNG ÔN TẬP THI VÀO LỚP 10 MÔN TIẾNG ANH NĂM HỌC 2023 - 2024 CÓ ĐÁP ÁN (NGỮ Â...
TỔNG ÔN TẬP THI VÀO LỚP 10 MÔN TIẾNG ANH NĂM HỌC 2023 - 2024 CÓ ĐÁP ÁN (NGỮ Â...TỔNG ÔN TẬP THI VÀO LỚP 10 MÔN TIẾNG ANH NĂM HỌC 2023 - 2024 CÓ ĐÁP ÁN (NGỮ Â...
TỔNG ÔN TẬP THI VÀO LỚP 10 MÔN TIẾNG ANH NĂM HỌC 2023 - 2024 CÓ ĐÁP ÁN (NGỮ Â...
 
ICT Role in 21st Century Education & its Challenges.pptx
ICT Role in 21st Century Education & its Challenges.pptxICT Role in 21st Century Education & its Challenges.pptx
ICT Role in 21st Century Education & its Challenges.pptx
 
Unit-V; Pricing (Pharma Marketing Management).pptx
Unit-V; Pricing (Pharma Marketing Management).pptxUnit-V; Pricing (Pharma Marketing Management).pptx
Unit-V; Pricing (Pharma Marketing Management).pptx
 
On National Teacher Day, meet the 2024-25 Kenan Fellows
On National Teacher Day, meet the 2024-25 Kenan FellowsOn National Teacher Day, meet the 2024-25 Kenan Fellows
On National Teacher Day, meet the 2024-25 Kenan Fellows
 
Introduction to Nonprofit Accounting: The Basics
Introduction to Nonprofit Accounting: The BasicsIntroduction to Nonprofit Accounting: The Basics
Introduction to Nonprofit Accounting: The Basics
 
Asian American Pacific Islander Month DDSD 2024.pptx
Asian American Pacific Islander Month DDSD 2024.pptxAsian American Pacific Islander Month DDSD 2024.pptx
Asian American Pacific Islander Month DDSD 2024.pptx
 
Key note speaker Neum_Admir Softic_ENG.pdf
Key note speaker Neum_Admir Softic_ENG.pdfKey note speaker Neum_Admir Softic_ENG.pdf
Key note speaker Neum_Admir Softic_ENG.pdf
 
How to Give a Domain for a Field in Odoo 17
How to Give a Domain for a Field in Odoo 17How to Give a Domain for a Field in Odoo 17
How to Give a Domain for a Field in Odoo 17
 
Unit-IV; Professional Sales Representative (PSR).pptx
Unit-IV; Professional Sales Representative (PSR).pptxUnit-IV; Professional Sales Representative (PSR).pptx
Unit-IV; Professional Sales Representative (PSR).pptx
 
Mixin Classes in Odoo 17 How to Extend Models Using Mixin Classes
Mixin Classes in Odoo 17 How to Extend Models Using Mixin ClassesMixin Classes in Odoo 17 How to Extend Models Using Mixin Classes
Mixin Classes in Odoo 17 How to Extend Models Using Mixin Classes
 
1029-Danh muc Sach Giao Khoa khoi 6.pdf
1029-Danh muc Sach Giao Khoa khoi 6.pdf1029-Danh muc Sach Giao Khoa khoi 6.pdf
1029-Danh muc Sach Giao Khoa khoi 6.pdf
 
Grant Readiness 101 TechSoup and Remy Consulting
Grant Readiness 101 TechSoup and Remy ConsultingGrant Readiness 101 TechSoup and Remy Consulting
Grant Readiness 101 TechSoup and Remy Consulting
 
psychiatric nursing HISTORY COLLECTION .docx
psychiatric nursing HISTORY COLLECTION .docxpsychiatric nursing HISTORY COLLECTION .docx
psychiatric nursing HISTORY COLLECTION .docx
 
Beyond the EU: DORA and NIS 2 Directive's Global Impact
Beyond the EU: DORA and NIS 2 Directive's Global ImpactBeyond the EU: DORA and NIS 2 Directive's Global Impact
Beyond the EU: DORA and NIS 2 Directive's Global Impact
 
The basics of sentences session 3pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 3pptx.pptxThe basics of sentences session 3pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 3pptx.pptx
 
PROCESS RECORDING FORMAT.docx
PROCESS RECORDING FORMAT.docxPROCESS RECORDING FORMAT.docx
PROCESS RECORDING FORMAT.docx
 
The basics of sentences session 2pptx copy.pptx
The basics of sentences session 2pptx copy.pptxThe basics of sentences session 2pptx copy.pptx
The basics of sentences session 2pptx copy.pptx
 

Contents vCauses and Effects Why Did States Emerge and Ex

  • 1. Contents v Causes and Effects: Why Did States Emerge and Expand? 57 Political/Conflict Theories 58 Economic Theories 60 Cultural Theories 61 Diffusion Theories 62 Great Britain, the United Kingdom, or Neither? State and Nation in England and Scotland 65 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Mexico 56 France 59 United Kingdom 62 Nigeria 63 C H A P T E R 4 Political Economy 70 Concepts 72 Inequality 73 Employment and Inflation 75 Types 76 Markets and States in Modern Economies 76 Markets and Economic Performance 77 States and Economic Performance 79
  • 2. Economic Functions of Modern States 82 States and Economic Management 82 Investments in Human Capital: Education and Health 83 Infrastructure and Other Public Goods 85 Welfare State Functions 85 Causes and Effects: W hy Do Welfare States Emerge? 86 Cultural Changes 87 Industrial Capitalism 87 Mobilization and Political Action 89 International Learning Effects 92 Welfare States in the Nordic Countries: What Can We Learn and How? 93 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T United States 72 United Kingdom 77 Japan 84 Germany 87 C H A P T E R 5 Development 96 Concepts 98 Types 98 Poverty 98 Social Outcomes and Human Development 99 Gender Relations and Racial and Ethnic Identities 100 Satisfaction and Happiness 101 Cultural Development 102 Sustainability 103
  • 3. Causes and Effects: Why Does Development Happen? 103 Institutions:The Market-State Debate, Revisited 104 Institutions: Beyond the Market-State Debate 106 Culture and Development 107 Civil Society, Social Capital, and Trust 107 Religion 109 Value Systems 109 Systems and Structures: Domestic and International 110 Domestic Economic Structures and Class Interests 111 International Economic Structures and Class Interests 111 Geography 112 Explaining the Development of North and South Korea 114 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T India 99 Nigeria 101 China 105 Brazil 112 C H A P T E R 6 Democracy and Dem ocratization 119 Concepts 121 Democracy and Democratic Regimes 121 Procedural (Minimal) Definitions of Democracy 122 Substantive Definitions of Democracy 123 Regime Change and Democratization 124
  • 4. Types 125 Types of Democracy 125 Representative Democracy 126 Direct Democracy 128 Types of Democratization 129 Democratic Transitions 129 Democratic Consolidation 129 Causes and Effects: What Causes Democratization? 131 Modernization 132 Culture and Democracy 134 The International System 135 Domestic Institutions 136 Agents and Actors: The Role of Individuals and Groups 137 Combining Arguments and Theories: Multiple Causes 139 l l ! l l ! i m i M U M I i m is American Democracy a Model? 141 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Brazil 130 ■ Contents China 131 India 133 United States 140 C H A P T E R 7
  • 5. A uthoritarian Regimes and Democratic Breakdown 145 Concepts 147 Authoritarianism and Authoritarian Regimes 147 Transitions to Authoritarian Regimes 148 Types 148 Types of Authoritarianism 148 Totalitarian Regimes 148 Theocracies 149 Personalistic Dictatorships 149 Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes 151 Hybrid and Semi-authoritarian Regimes 151 Types of Transition (or Nontransition) to Authoritarianism 152 Authoritarian Persistence 153 Democratic Breakdown 155 Transition to Hybrid or Semi-authoritarian Regime 157 Causes and Effects: What Causes Authoritarian Regimes to Emerge and Persist? 158 Historical Institutionalist Theories 159 Poverty and Inequality 160 State Weakness and Failure 162 Political Culture Theories of Authoritarian Persistence 163 Barriers to Collective Action 164 Special Causal Circumstances Surrounding Hybrid and Semi-Authoritarian Regimes 166 Why Did Zimbabwe Become and Remain Authoritarian? 167
  • 6. C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Iran 150 Russia 153 Mexico 154 Germany 157 France 157 p a r t ill: Institutions of Government C H A P T E R 8 Constitutions and Constitutional Design 171 Concepts 174 Constitutions 174 Constitutional Design 175 Types 176 Flexible and Rigid Constitutions 177 Separation of Powers: Judicial Review and Parliamentary Sovereignty 178 Federalism and Unitarism 180 Federalism 180 Unitarism 182 Authoritarian and Democratic Constitutions 183 Causes and Effects: W hat Are the Effects of Federal Constitutions? 184 Are Federal Constitutions Good for Social Stability? 185 Are Federal Constitutions Good for Democratic Rights? 187 Are Federal Constitutions Good for the Economy? 188 Judicial Review and Democracy 190
  • 7. What Explains the Similarities Between the Brazilian and South African Constitutions? 193 H B a iiB B iflm i United Kingdom 181 Iran 185 Nigeria 187 India 189 United States 192 C H A P T E R 9 Legislatures and Legislative Elections 198 Concepts 200 What Legislatures Are 200 What Legislatures Do 201 Types 202 Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures 202 Electoral Systems 205 District Systems 205 Proportional Representation (PR) 208 Mixed or Hybrid 209 Executive-Legislative Relations 211 Causes and Effects: What Explains Patterns of Representation? 213 Patterns of Representation 213 Electoral Systems and Representation 215 Legislative Decision Making and Representation 218 Executive-Legislative Relations and Representation 220
  • 8. Representation in New Zealand and Beyond 222 ES3Q2SE31 United Kingdom 206 Brazil 209 Japan 210 Germany 212 United States 217 Brief Contents p a r t i : Comparative Political Analysis 1 The Comparative Approach: An Introduction 1 2 Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 23 p a r t II: The State, Development, Democracy, and Authoritarianism 3 The State 46 4 Political Economy 70 5 Development 96 6 Democracy and Democratization 119 7 Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic Breakdown 145 p a r t ill: Institutions of Government
  • 9. 8 Constitutions and Constitutional Design 171 9 Legislatures and Legislative Elections 198 10 Executives 226 11 Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest Groups 252 p a r t IV: Politics, Society, and Culture 12 Revolutions and Contention 277 13 Nationalism and National Identity 304 14 Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 325 15 Ideology and Religion in Modern Politics 348 p a r t V : The Comparative-International Nexus 16 Comparative Politics and International Relations 372 p a r t v i : Country Profiles and Cases Brazil 399 China 412 I I France 427 P B B Germany 441
  • 10. ^ 2 lndia 455 ] Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) 468 | ♦ | Japan 482 a Mexico 496 n Nigeria 510 j j j j Russia (Russian Federation) 525 I H H United Kingdom 539 ■ United States 553 Contents Insights, xiii Preface xv Maps of the World xxvi p a r t i : Comparative Political Analysis C H A P T E R 1 The Comparative Approach: A n Introduction 1 Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Politics 2 Major Questions in Comparative Politics 4 Empirical Arguments Versus Normative Arguments 6 Solving Intellectual Puzzles: A Contemporary Analogy 7 Concepts 9 Features of Good Concepts 9 Conceptualization 10
  • 11. Operationalizing: From Concepts to Measures 11 Empirical Evidence 12 Facts and Evidence 12 Cases and Case Studies 13 The Comparative Method 14 Variables and Comparison 14 Most-Similar-Systems Design 15 Most-Different-Systems Design 18 Comparative Checking 18 Within-Case Comparison 20 Is the Study of Politics a Science? The Limits of the Comparative Method 20 C H A P T E R 2 Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 23 Introduction to Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 24 Theories 25 Flypotheses 25 How Theories Emerge and Are Used 27 Types of Evidence 29 L h Hypothesis Testing 31 Correlation 31 Causation 33 Critiques: Using Theory and Evidence 39 Empirical Critiques: Using Deviant Cases 39 Theoretical Critiques: Improving Theories and Hypotheses 39
  • 12. The Challenges of Measurement: Biases, Errors, and Validity 41 EU SM B B S* Qualities of Good Analysis and Argumentation 42 Step 1: Asking Good Questions: Why? 43 Step 2: Hypothesis Testing: Generating Good Hypotheses and Testing Them Fairly 43 Step 3: Balancing Argumentation: Evidence, Originality, and Meaningfulness 43 p a r t ii: The State, Development, Democracy, and Authoritarianism C H A P T E R 3 The State 46 Concepts 48 The Modern State 48 State Capacity 49 Failed States 50 The State-Society Relationship 50 Types 52 Cha racteristics of Modern States 52 Bureaucracy 52 Impersonality 53 Sovereignty 54 Traditional Functions of States 55 Defense 55 Policing 55
  • 13. Taxation 56 Order, Administration, and “Legibility" 57 ■NSgggf C H A P TE R 10 Executives 226 Concepts 228 Types 229 Executive Structures: Presidential and Parliamentary 230 Formal Powers 232 Partisan Powers 235 Coalitions 235 Informal Powers 240 Causes and Effects: What Explains Executive Stability? 240 Stable and Unstable Regimes: Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, and Democracy 241 Stable and Unstable Executives: Styles of Presidential Rule 243 Stable and Unstable Executives: Patterns of Parliamentary Rule 246 U i lllim i l M M H H m Beyond the American and British Models 247 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T France 231 United States 231
  • 14. Russia 234 China 236 Nigeria 241 C H A P T E R 11 Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest Groups 252 Concepts 255 Political Parties 255 Party Systems 255 Interest Groups 256 Types 257 Political Parties: Elite, Mass, and Catch-All Parties 258 Party Systems: Dominant-Party, Two-Party, and Multiparty Systems 259 Interest Groups: Pluralism and Corporatism 264 Causes and Effects: Why Do Party Systems Emerge, and What Effects Do They Have? 267 Party Systems and Representation 267 What Factors Shape Party Systems? 267 How Do Party Systems Shape Political Outcomes? 269 Interest Groups and Representation 272 Party Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa 275 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T China 260
  • 15. Japan 261 Contents vii Germany 262 Russia 265 Mexico 267 p a r t i v : Politics, Society, and Culture C H A P T E R 12 Revolutions and Contention 277 Concepts 279 What Is "Contention"? 279 Revolutionary and Non-Revolutionary Contention 279 Types 280 Social Movements 280 Revolutions 284 Insurgencies and Civil Wars 287 Terrorism 287 “Everyday Resistance" 289 Thinking About Contention: Summary 290 Causes and Effects: W hy Do Revolutions Happen? 291 Relative Deprivation 291 Resource Mobilization and Political Opportunities 292 Rational Choice 294 Culture or "Framing" Explanations 296 Q ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Q ^ ^ T h e "Arab Spring" of 2011 298 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Brazil 282
  • 16. France 285 Russia 292 China 293 Iran 297 C H A P T E R 13 Nationalism and National Identity 304 Concepts 306 Identity 306 Nationalism and the Nation 306 Types 307 Primordialist Approaches 307 Perennialist Approaches 308 Modernist Approaches 308 Types of Nationalism 311 Causes and Effects: W hat Causes Ethno-National Conflict? 313 Primordial Bonds 316 Cultural Boundaries 317 viii Contents Material Interests 318 Rational Calculation 318 Social Psychology 320 Ending Ethnic and National Violence 321 United Kingdom 308
  • 17. Mexico 309 Japan 310 Germany 312 Nigeria 316 C H A P T E R 14 Race, Ethnicity, and G ender 325 Concepts 327 Race and Ethnicity 327 Gender 328 Sexual Orientation 329 Types 329 Disentangling Race and Ethnicity 329 Discrimination Based on Race and Ethnicity 332 Gender Discrimination 333 Empowerment of Women and Minority Groups 334 Causes and Effects: What Factors Influence the Political Representation of Women and Minority Groups? 337 Social Movement Mobilization 337 Political Parties Based on Gender or Ethnicity 339 Institutions for Promoting Women's and Minority Group Representation 341 WOmmwMEfr Indicators of Gender Empowerment 344 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T Iran 334 Japan 335
  • 18. Brazil 336 Mexico 340 India 341 C H A P T E R 15 Ideology and Religion in M odern Politics 348 Concepts 350 Modernity and Modernization 350 Ideology 351 Religion 351 Secularization, Religion, and Modern Politics 352 Religious Conflict 353 Types 354 Modern Ideologies 354 Liberalism 354 Fascism 355 Socialism 356 Modern Forms of Religion in Politics 357 Lay and Religious States 358 Denominationalism 359 Causes and Effects: W hy Do Religion and Ideology Remain Prevalent in Modern Politics? 360 Why (and How) Does Modernization Alter Religion's Role in Politics? 360 Modernization Theory and Secularization 361 The ‘Religious Economies"Approach 362 Institutional Theories 363
  • 19. Why Didn't Ideology (and History) End? 364 JBBBSMMESk Two Lefts in Latin America? 367 C A S E S IN C O N T E X T United Kingdom 355 Russia 357 France 359 Iran 360 Nigeria 361 p a r t V : The Comparative-International Nexus C H A P T E R 16 Comparative Politics and International Relations 372 Concepts 375 Issues 376 Globalization and Trade 376 International Institutions and Integration 380 Immigration 382 Environment and Sustainability 384 Transnational Networks 387 Nuclear Threats and Terrorism 388 Causes and Effects: What Are the Main Causes in International Relations? 390 Realism 390 Liberalism 393 Constructivism 394 Marxism 395
  • 20. Contents ix The EU and Levels of Analysis 395 C A S E S IN C O N T EX T United States 381 France 383 Japan 387 Iran 389 India 389 • Qom I R A N Esfahan » • Dezful ® Y a z d p a r t vi: Country Profiles and Cases m Brazil 399 399 Introduction 399 Historical Development 401 Regime and Political Institutions 404 Political Culture 405 Political Economy 406 407 Does the Global Economy Help or Hurt Developing Nations? (Chapter 5) 407 Democratic Consolidation in Brazil (Chapter 6) 408
  • 21. Electoral Rules and Party (In)Discipline in Brazil's Legislature (Chapter 9) 409 Brazil's Landless Movement (Chapter 12) 410 Gender and Political Representation in Brazil: Where Has Progress Come From? (Chapter 14) 410 HI C hina 412 412 Introduction 412 Historical Development 414 Regime and Political Institutions 417 Political Culture 418 Political Economy 419 420 How Did China Become an Economic Power? (Chapter 5) 420 Is China Destined for Democracy? (Chapter 6) 421 Who Governs China? (Chapter 10) 423 The Chinese Party System (Chapter 11) 424 The Chinese Revolution (Chapter 12) 425 1 1 France 427 427 Introduction 427 C A S E S T U D IE S C A S E S T U D IE S Historical Development 429 Regime and Political Institutions 431 Political Culture 432
  • 22. Political Economy 433 434 The State in France (Chapter 3) 434 Authoritarian Persistence in Nineteenth-Century France (Chapter 7) 435 Electing the French President: What Do Runoffs Do? (Chapter 10) 436 The French Revolution (Chapter 12) 437 Religion and Secularism in France (Chapter 15) 438 Globalization and Culture in France (Chapter 16) 439 G erm any 441 2 ^ 441 Introduction 441 Historical Development 443 Regime and Political Institutions 446 Political Culture 447 Political Economy 448 u s m a m i 449 The German State: Unification and Welfare (Chapter 4) 449 Democracy and Authoritarianism in Germany (Chapter 7) 450 Institutional Design: Germany's Bundestag and Bundesrat (Chapter 9) 451 Consensus-Based Politics in Germany (Chapter 11) 452 Ethnic Boundaries of the German Nation? (Chapter 13) 453 India 455 455 Introduction 455 Historical Development 457
  • 23. Regime and Political Institutions 460 Political Culture 461 Political Economy 462 463 What Explain India's Recent Growth? (Chapter 5) 463 Democracy's Success in India: What Can We Learn from a Deviant Case? (Chapter 6) 464 Federalism and Differences in Development in India (Chapter 8) 464 Ethnicity and Political Parties in India (Chapter 14) 465 India in the Twenty-First Century: Domestic Politics, Identity, and Security (Chapter 16) 466 C 2 Iran (Islamic Republic o f Iran) 468 2 ^ 468 Introduction 468 Historical Development 470 Regime and Political Institutions 473 C A S E S T U D IE S C A S E S T U D IE S X Contents Political Culture 474 Political Economy 474 B E E uE H E I 475 Democratic Features of Authoritarian Systems? The Case of
  • 24. Iran (Chapter 7) 475 Constitutional Design: Theocracy in Iran (Chapter 8) 476 Iran's Islamic Revolution and "Green Revolution"? (Chapter 12) 478 Gender in Post-Revolutionary Iranian Politics (Chapter 14) 479 Religion and Politics in Iran (Chapter 15) 479 Iran and the Politics of Nuclear Proliferation (Chapter 16) 480 Japan 482 ^ 482 Introduction 482 Historical Development 484 Regime and Political Institutions 487 Political Culture 488 Political Economy 488 C A S E S T U D IE S 490 State-Led Development in Japan (Chapter 4) 490 The Hybrid Electoral System of the Japanese Diet (Chapter 9) 491 How Did Japan's Dominant Party Win for So Long? (Chapter 11) 491 Importing National Identity in Japan? (Chapter 13) 493 Gender Empowerment in Japan? (Chapter 14) 493 Resource Management in Japan (Chapter 16) 494 I I Mexico 496 496 Introduction 496 Historical Development 498 Regime and Political Institutions 501
  • 25. Political Culture 502 Political Economy 503 E S 2 2 S 3 504 The Mexican State and Rule of Law (Chapter 3) 504 Mexico's "Perfect Dictatorship" and Its End (Chapter 7) 505 The PRI and Corporatism in Mexico (Chapter 11) 506 Industrialization, Modernity, and National Identity in Mexico (Chapter 13) 507 Why Aren't There Major Ethnic Parties in Mexico? (Chapter 14) 508 I I Nig-eria 510 510 Introduction 510 Historical Development 512 Regime and Political Institutions Political Culture 515 Political Economy 516 515 C A S E S T U D IE S 517 What Is a Weak State, and Can It Be Changed? The Case of Nigeria (Chapter 3) 517 Why Are Natural Resources Sometimes a Curse? The Nigerian Case (Chapter 5) 518 Federalism and the States in Nigeria: Holding Together or Tearing Apart? (Chapter 8) 519
  • 26. The Presidency in Nigeria: Powers and Limitations (Chapter 10) 521 The Nigerian Civil War or Biafran War: Nationalism and Ethno- National Conflict in a Post-Colonial Society (Chapter 13) 522 Religious Difference and Conflict in Nigeria: Disentangling Ethnicity and Religion? (Chapter 15) 523 Russia (Russian Federation) 525 525 Introduction 525 Historical Development 527 Regime and Political Institutions 531 Political Culture 532 Political Economy 532 m m 533 Oligarchy, Democracy, and Authoritarianism in Russia (Chapter 7) 533 Executives in Russia: Formal and Informal Powers (Chapter 10) 534 Personalism and the Party System in Russia (Chapter 11) 535 The Russian Revolution (Chapter 12) 536 Communist Ideology in Practice— Russia and the Soviet Union (Chapter 15) 537 IH H U nited Kingdom 539 539 Introduction 539
  • 27. Historical Development 541 Regime and Political Institutions 544 Political Culture 545 Political Economy 545 I4M 4-W H.IIH 546 The State in the United Kingdom (Chapter 3) 546 Political Economy of Britain (Chapter 4) 547 No Constitution? No Supreme Court? Constitutionality in the United Kingdom (Chapter 8) 548 The Mother of Parliaments: The United Kingdom and the Westminster Model (Chapter 9) 549 National Identity in the United Kingdom (Chapter 13) 550 Liberal Ideology in the United Kingdom (Chapter 15) 552 Contents United States 553 553 Introduction 553 Historical Development 555 Regime and Political Institutions 558 Political Culture 559 Political Economy 560 I 2 2 J2 I3I3 561 Did Free Markets Help the United States Get Rich? Will They in the Future? (Chapter 4) 561 Is American Democracy in Trouble?
  • 28. (Chapter 6) 562 Is Judicial Activism in the United States a Problem? (Chapter 8) 563 The United States Congress: Dysfunctional or Functioning by Design? (Chapter 9) 564 "The Most Powerful Person in the World”? Checks on American Presidents (Chapter 10) 566 The United States and the World: A Love-Hate Relationship? (Chapter 16) 567 Notes 569 Glossary 581 References and Further Reading 591 Credits 617 Index 618 r Insights C H A P TER 3 C H A P TER 4 C H A P T E R S C H A P TER 6
  • 29. C H A P TER 7 C H A PTER 8 Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States 60 Douglass North, John Wallis, and Barry Weingast, Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History 61 Philip Gorski, The Disciplinary Revolution: Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modem Europe 62 Hendrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors 64 John Meyer, John Boli, George M. Thomas, and Francisco Ramirez, World Society and the Nation-State 65 Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom 79 Peter Evans, Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation 80 Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy 89 Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time 90 Gasta Esping-Andersen, Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism 91 Atul Kohli, State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery 107 Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development 108 Francis Fukuyama, Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity 109 Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System 113 Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human
  • 30. Societies 114 Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics and Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy ’ 132 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America 135 Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century 137 Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule 139 Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel, Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence 140 Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in theMaking of the Modem World 161 Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy 162 Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations 164 Timur Kuran, Now Out of Never: The Element of Surprise in the East European Revolution of 1989 165 Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War 166 William Riker, Federalism:Origin, Operation, Significance 186 Alfred Stepan, Federalism and Democracy: Beyond the U.S.
  • 31. Model 186 Wallace Oates, Fiscal Federalism 189 Jonathan Rodden and Erik Wibbels, Beyond the Fiction of Federalism: Economic Management in Multi-Tiered Systems 190 Ran Hirschl, Toward Juristocracy: The Origins and Consequences of the New Constitutionalism 193 Insights CH A P TE R 9 C H A P TER 10 CH A P TER 11 CH A P TER 12 CH A P TER 13 C H A P TER 14 C H A P TER 15 C H A P TE R 16 Scott Morgenstern and Benito Nacif, Legislative Politics in Latin America 213 Hannah Pitkin, The Concept of Representation 214 Gary Cox and Matthew McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan: Party Government in the House 219 Morris Fiorina, Divided Government 221 Michael Mezey, Comparative Legislatures 222
  • 32. Juan Linz, The Perils ofPresidentialism and The Virtues of Parliamentarism 242 Scott Mainwaring and Matthew Shugart.duan Linz, Presidentialism, and Democracy: A Critical Appraisal 243 Guillermo O'Donnell, DelegativeDemocracy 244 Kenneth Roberts, Neoliberalism and the Transformation of Populism in Latin America: the Peruvian Case 245 Arend Lijphart, Consociational Democracy 247 Robert Dahl, Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City 266 Maurice Duverger, Les Partis Politiques [Political Parties] 268 Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis 269 Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy 271 Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups and The Rise and Decline of Nations: Economic Growth, Stagflation, and Social Rigidities 273 Mark Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks 289 Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, and Ted Gurr, Why Men Rebel 292 Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China 294 Marc Lichbach, The Rebel's Dilemma 296 John Foran, Taking Power: On the Origins of Third World Revolutions 298 Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism 309 Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity 310
  • 33. David Laitin, Nations, States, and Violence 319 Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict 320 Joane Nagel, American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Red Power and the Resurgence of Identity and Culture 338 Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity 338 Donna Lee Van Cott, From Movements to Parties in Latin America 340 Mala Htun, Is Gender Like Ethnicity? The Political Representation of Identity Groups 342 Mona Lena Krook, Quotas for Women in Politics: Gender and Candidate Selection Reform Worldwide 344 Jose Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World 358 Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide 361 Anthony Gill, The Political Origins of Religious Liberty 362 Ahmet Kuru, Secularism and State Policies Toward Religion: The United States, France, and Turkey 364 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man 365 Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order 366 Shmuel N. Eisenstadt. Multiple Modernities 366 Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons 386 Moises Naim, The Five Wars of Globalization 388 Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics 392 Michael Doyle, Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs 393 Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics 394 The field of comparative politics is changing, not only in how it’s studied but in how it’s taught. We set out to write this textbook because we saw the need for a new approach—one that is truly comparative, that goes
  • 34. beyond a litany of facts or abstract ideas. In the process, we had to rethink what a book for this course should look like. We started with a central aim: to get students to think like comparativists. Toward that end, we have integrated theories and methods with a range of country case applications to address the big questions in com- parative politics today. Many undergraduates take a course in comparative politics because they are broadly interested in world affairs. They want to understand issues such as democ- racy and democratization, economic and social development, transnational social movements, and the relationship between world religions and conflict around the globe, just as we did as students (and still do!). This book focuses squarely on these big issues and offers a framework for understanding through comparison. Our job is to teach students how to think critically, how to analyze the world around them. We want our students to do more than just memorize facts and theo- ries. Ultimately, we want them to learn how to do comparative politics. This course is successful if students can use the comparative method to seek out their own an- swers. We are successful as educators if we give them the analytical skills to do so. What's New in This Edition?
  • 35. We have thoroughly updated this edition of Comparative Politics to reflect feed- back we received from numerous readers, instructors, and students, not to men- tion our own experiences of teaching with the book. We are truly grateful to those who have shared their perspectives with us. Whereas the first edition covered the state, political economy, and develop- ment across two chapters, the second edition expands this coverage into three: • Chapter 3 now focuses on describing and defining the state, emphasizing its organizational form, its order-generating characteristics, and its linkages to both domestic and international conflict. This chapter retains a focus on explaining the rise of modern states in the “Thinking Comparatively” section and includes an expanded discussion of civil society and society- state relations. • Chapter 4 is now devoted entirely to political economy, including considerable discussion of welfare states and efforts to explain variation in their form and extent. • Chapter 5 picks up the thread from the political economy discussion and focuses on development issues.
  • 36. In addition to these changes in several key chapters, we have made the follow- ing revisions throughout the book: • Streamlined the chapter on nationalism and national identity, and in the process highlighted its focus on intergroup conflict. • Substantially revised several of the “Thinking Comparatively” features that close the chapters, showing how comparativists work with models as a crucial step in their method. • Emphasized the case studies that readers found most useful, while elimi- nating some that were less so. • Updated the entire set of country materials and the broader text. An Integrative Approach One of the distinctive features of this book is the way we have integrated theories, methods, and cases. Rather than focusing on either country information or themes Democracy's Success in India: What Can We Learn from a Deviant Case? India is a major anomaly for modernization theories of develop- ment. In essence, the relationship between its political and eco- nomic development has been the inverse of what modernization theory would predict. India is the world's second largest society and its largest democracy— consider, therefore, the share that
  • 37. Indian citizens hold in the world's broader democratic popula- tion. This anomaly has potentially serious implications and makes the puzzle of Indian democratization all the more intriguing. For more on the case of democratization in India, see the case study in Part VI, p. 464. As you read it, keep in mind the following questions: 1. What, if anything, does Indian anti-colonial resistance have to do with the country's democratization? 2. What, if anything, does Indian about the importance of and institutional design? 3. Can you think of a way to the face of the case of India? suggest leadership, theory in Indian voters, 2012. India is the world's largest democracy. Democracy's Success in India: What Can We Learn from a Deviant Case? CHAPTER 6, PAGE 133 How does modernization theory account for low-income democracies such as India? As discussed in chapter 6, modern- ization theory predicts that economic de- velopment will lead to democratization and democratic consolidation. Indeed, this relationship generally holds. More
  • 38. often than not, increasing economic de- velopment increases the probability that any given society will have democratic decide that this anomaly disproves or re- futes modernization theory, and turn to some other theory of democratization. For example, we could turn to institu- tional theories of democratization as an alternative. Perhaps something about the parliamentary form of government rather than presidential government contrib- uted to India's rather successful democ- racy (as is discussed in chapter 10); one economic development fa c ilita te s democ- ratization and democratic consolidation? Why would this be different? Because the theory would now say that it is u n lik e ly t h a t India could successfully democratize with- out first achieving a higher level of eco- nomic development, but not that it is im p o s s ib le . A more flexible theory of mod- ernization might be compatible with in- cluding insights from other theories. For of comparative politics, we have combined these approaches while emphasizing application and analysis. By providing students with the tools to begin doing their own analyses, we hope to show them how exciting this kind of work can be. These tools include theories (presented in an accessible way), the basics of the comparative
  • 39. method, and manageable case materials for practice, all in the context of the big questions. We thus take an integrative approach to the relationship between big themes and country case studies. This text is a hybrid containing sixteen thematic chapters plus linked materials for twelve countries of significant interest to comparativists. The country materials following the thematic chapters include both basic country information and a series of case studies dealing with spe- cific thematic issues. We link the country cases to the thematic chapters via short “call out” boxes— " C a s e s in C o n t e x t " — at relevant points in the chapters. For example, a “Case in Context” box in a discussion of theory in chapter 6, “Democracy and Democra­ tization,” points students to a full c a s e s t u d y on democratization in India, in- cluded at the back of the text. Another “Case in Context” box in chapter 6 invites students to consider whether democratization in China is inevitable. Other boxes in that chapter focus on issues of democracy and democratization in Brazil and the United States. Using these short “linking” boxes has enabled us to integrate a complete set of case materials without interrupting the narrative flow of the
  • 40. chapters. The kind of reading we suggest with the structure of this text is similar to following hy- perlinks in online text—something students do easily. This flexible design fea- ture also caters to the diversity of teaching styles in today’s political science. Instructors can choose to have students follow these links to case studies as they go, using all or just some of them, or they can choose to teach thematic chapters and country materials separately. The text integrates theories, methods, and cases in other ways as well. " I n s ig h t s " boxes make connections by briefly summarizing important scholarly works repre- sentative of the major schools of thought. INSIGH TS Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity bvlM>c,h<$0feld • ' Greenfeld argues that nationalism is fundamentally c u lt u r a l and needs to be understood as an imaginative response to social conditions. To understand nationalism's emergence and growth, we must understand why the idea spread that humanity is divided into distinct "peoples" who are "sovereign" and "equal." For Greenfeld, the key preconditions for the development of na- tional identity are problems in s t r a tific a tio n system s through which societies hierarchically divide themselves, such as the class structure. Elite s ta tu s -in c o n s is te n c y — a condition present when
  • 41. the stratification system breaks down and elites are no longer sure of their status— leads some groups to seek to transform identity, and national identity often seems to such groups to serve their interests well. Greenfeld hypothesis against a number of cases (includingî ^ ^ K . F rance, Russia, Germany, and Japan), finding pronounced status-inconsistency in each case in the key groups that are most central in redefining their societies as nations. At the same time, Greenfeld acknowl- edges the importance of institutions like the state prior to na- tional identity's emergence in helping to shape the type that develops in any given case. Scholars working with this theory also note that political institutions play an important role in spreading and preserving national identity. Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992. W h y Did Z i m b a b w e B e c o m e a n d R e m a in A u t h o ri ta r ia n ? Au th o rita ria n regim es com e in m any varieties, a n d th e y com e from m any d ifferent origins. W e have em phasized th a t th e re is no single th in g called “authoritarianism” th a t one theory can explain. Rather, authoritarian regimes have distin ct features an d exhibit m any different types o f transitions (and nontransi- tions). Scholars have developed a n um ber o f explanatory m odels to account for these. Some o f th e m ain general factors in m ost cases, though, include (1) histori- cal relationships betw een contending groups, (2) th e stren g th
  • 42. and form o f exist- in g institutions, (3) a country’s level o f econom ic developm ent, (4) p o litic al-cu ltu ral tra d itio n s a n d te n d en cie s, a n d (5) th e strateg ic situ a tio n s a n d choices o f key actors. O f course, as w e have seen in o th e r ch a p te rs , it is n o t en o u g h to merely lis t such c o n trib u tin g factors; w e m u s t figure o u t ho w su ch factors in te ra c t an d w h ich are m ost im p o rtan t. W h a t do you th in k ? A n d how could we te st your ideas empirically? A s we noted at the outset o f the chapter, m odern-day Zim babw e is an authori- tarian regime th a t is characterized by many o f the features w e have discussed. I t is a “personalist” regime, the population o f which is subject to many o f the vagaries o f au- thoritarianism. It is characterized by repression, a lack o f secure political rights, seem- ingly arbitrary rule, and so on. N o t everyw here in A frica is like this, and Zim babw e itse lf has n o t always been like th is, so o u r research question m ig h t be “W h y is Z im babw e authoritarian? W h y did it becom e so, and w hy has it rem ained so?” W e should expect theories o f au th orita rian rule to be able to account for an au th orita rian regim e like R o b ert M u g ab e’s Z im babw e. L o o king at th e various causal theories o f au thoritarianism w e can consider how each m ig h t propose an explanation for th e em ergence a n d /o r persistence o f th e regim e. I n th e section on
  • 43. TfTTT i W i KEY M E T H O D O L O G IC A L T O O L Evidence and Empirical Critiques One reason that many theories con- tinue to endure in different areas of comparative politics is that most of the major theories have some empiri- cal support. This makes it challenging to determine which theory is the most accurate. In reality, most theo- ries will not be accurate under all circumstances, but rather each will explain some outcomapiiacter than others. So how do yo i| making "laundry lists'! tier) and saying, "Every In preparing to make thee arguments, it is of course ifl for any particular question 1 how the empirical evidenc® with the theoretical predicw the specific hypotheses y o p offer. One very useful tool J evidence that allows you jb critique a particular argument. In aiming to build arguments. Each chapter after the introduction closes with a " T h i n k i n g C o m p a r a t i v e l y "
  • 44. feature, which focuses on a case or set of cases to illustrate how students can apply the theories discussed in the chapter. In these features we highlight important methodological tools or strategies, such as the use of deviant cases and the most-similar-systems (MSS) design. We then model for students how to use these analytical tools in practice. Organization The sixteen thematic chapters of this book are divided into five parts: • Part I (chapters 1 and 2) focuses on basic methods in comparative politics, covering conceptualization, hypothesis testing, the formation of theories, and the use of evidence. The goal in these first two chapters is not to focus on the details of methodology, which can be taught in more specialized courses, but on the overarching logic of comparative inquiry. • Part II (chapters 3 through 7) focuses on the state (chapter 3), political economy (chapter 4), development (chapter 5), democracy and democrati- zation (chapter 6), and the various forms of authoritarian regimes (chapter 7). • Part III (chapters 8 through 11) focuses on the analysis of political institu- tions, giving students the tools to analyze institutional design in constitutional
  • 45. structures and judiciaries (chapter 8), legislatures and elections (chapter 9), executives (chapter 10), and political parties and interest groups (chapter 11). • Part IV (chapters 12 through 15) focuses on issues that link comparative politics to political sociology, such as the study of revolution and other forms of contention (chapter 12), national identities and nationalism (chapter 13), race, gender, and ethnicity (chapter 14), and religion and ideology (chapter 15). ' Preface xix Part V consists of a single chapter, 16, which links comparative politics to international relations, emphasizing how global politics has produced new sets of problems that both comparativists and international relations scholars must analyze. As such, the book points to another kind of integration, pushing students to see connections between comparative politics and other courses in political science. After chapter 2, the thematic chapters follow a common format. They are di- vided into three main sections:
  • 46. • Concepts: covers basic definitions and develops a working vocabulary. • Types: discusses useful typologies, such as the major types of dramatic social change that interest political scientists. • Causes and Effects: walks students through the major theories that aim to explain causes and effects, ending with the “Thinking Comparatively” feature to model analysis. The final part of the book, Part VI, comprises country " p r o f i l e s " and in- depth " c a s e s t u d i e s . " We selected twelve countries after surveying more Preface than 150 instructors of comparative politics to see which they considered most crucial for inclusion. The cases are Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Iran, Japan, Mexico, Nigeria, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. This selection offers broad coverage of every major world region, dem- ocratic and authoritarian polities, every major religious tradition, highly vary- ing levels of economic and social development, and quite different institutional designs.
  • 47. For each country, we first provide a “profile”: an introduction with a table of key features, a map, and pie charts of demographics; a timeline and historical overview; and brief descriptions of political institutions, political culture, and political economy. Following each profile is a set of case studies (five or six for each country) that we reference in the thematic chapters as described earlier (via the " C a s e in C o n t e x t " boxes). The case sets end with research prompts to help students get started as comparativists. Flexibility in Instruction: Ways of Using This Text T he chapters are arranged in a logical order yet w ritten in such a way that instructors might easily rearrange them to custom-fit a course. Some in- structors, for example, may wish to pair chapter 3 (on the state) with chapter 13 (on nationalism and national identity). Others might wish to assign chapter 15 (on religion and ideology) alongside chapters 6 and 7 (on demo- cratic and authoritarian regimes). We have w ritten the book w ith the flexi- bility to facilitate such pairings. Indeed, while we strongly suggest beginning w ith chapters 1 and 2, students will be able to follow the text even without
  • 48. reading them first. Similarly, the book’s structure supports a range of options for using the coun- try materials. Some instructors may wish to teach selected country materials at or near the beginning of a course. Some may wish to make reference to country materials as the course proceeds, assigning students to read them as they are clearly and visibly “called out” in the text. One approach could require all stu- dents in a course to familiarize themselves with only a subset of the countries detailed here, rather than all twelve. Another might require each student to select three or four countries, following rules or categories of countries as laid out by the instructor. The book also works with or without supplemental materials chosen by the instructor. The “Insights” boxes throughout the text provide indications of excel- lent options for further readings. Many other choice readings are noted in the “References and Further Reading” section at the back of the text, organized by chapter. A companion book of classic and contemporary readings is available (see Packaging Options, p. xxii). In short, instructors can use this text alone or link it seamlessly to other readings.
  • 49. Summary of Features We have built a number of useful features into the text, some of which we have already mentioned: • " C a s e in C o n t e x t " boxes tie in to the narrative of the main chapters, pointing students to full case studies in the book’s final part. • " i n s i g h t s " boxes illustrate causal theories by describing the work of key authors in the field, making this work accessible to introductory students. • "T h in k in g C o m p a r a t i v e l y " sections at the end of every chapter (after chapter 1) model the application of theories and the testing of hypotheses. Each “Thinking Comparatively” section includes a " K e y M e t h o d o l o g i c a l To o ls " feature, which introduces key skills and strategies for doing compar- ative political analysis and reinforces lessons learned in the first two chapters. • "T h in k in g It T h r o u g h " questions close every chapter. These help students test their ability to apply comparative politics theories to cases. • Every section of case studies offers a series of "R e s e a r c h P r o m p t s " that can be used to develop comparative projects and papers, applying what students have learned as they start to do comparative analysis. • Every chapter ends with a " C h a p t e r S u m m a r y , "
  • 50. enabling students and instructors to review the main points at a glance. • At the back of the text, we include " R e f e r e n c e s a n d Fu r th er R e a d i n g " by chapter that students can use to dig deeper into the issues raised or as they begin their own research. • A runni ng g l o s s a r y in the margin of the text highlights the meaning of key terms as they appear and serves as a quick study reference. Supplements Oxford University Press offers instructors and students a comprehensive ancil- lary package for qualified adopters of Comparative Politics: Integrating Theories, Methods, and Cases. Ancillary Resource Center The Ancillary Resource Center (ARC) at www.oup-arc.com is a convenient, instructor-focused single destination for resources to accompany this book. Accessed online through individual user accounts, the ARC provides instructors with up-to-date ancillaries while guaranteeing the security of grade-significant resources. In addition, it allows OUP to keep instructors informed when new content becomes available. The ARC for Comparative Politics contains a variety of materials to aid in teaching:
  • 51. • Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Item File—The Instructor’s Resource Manual includes chapter objectives, detailed chapter outlines, lecture suggestions and activities, discussion questions, video resources, http://www.oup-arc.com and Web resources. The Test Item File includes more than eight hundred test questions selected and approved by the authors, including multiple- choice, short-answer, and essay questions. • Computerized Test Bank—Using the test authoring and management tool Diploma, the computerized test bank that accompanies this text is designed for both novice and advanced users. Diploma enables instructors to create and edit questions, create randomized quizzes and tests with an easy-to-use drag-and-drop tool, publish quizzes and tests to online courses, and print quizzes and tests for paper-based assessments. • PowerPoint-Based Slides—Each chapter’s slide set includes a succinct chapter outline and incorporates relevant chapter graphics. • CN N Videos—Offering recent clips on timely topics, this collection includes fifteen films tied to the chapter topics. Each clip is
  • 52. approximately 5-10 minutes, providing a great way to launch your lectures. Course Cartridges For qualified adopters, OUP will supply the teaching resources in a course car- tridges designed to work with your preferred Online Learning Platform. Please contact your Oxford University Press sales representative at (800) 280-0280. E-Book This text is also available as a CourseSmart eBook (978-0-19- 027102-2) at www .coursesmart.com. CourseSmart’s eTextbooks can be read on any browser-enabled computer or mobile device and come with the ability to transfer individual chapters or the entire book offline. Furthermore, CourseSmart was the first to introduce free eTextbook apps for the Android and Apple devices for an even better reading experience. Companion Website Comparative Politics is also accompanied by an extensive companion website at www.oup.com/us/dickovick. This open-access website includes a number of learning tools to help students study and review key concepts presented in the text. For each chapter, you will find learning objectives, key- concept summaries, quizzes, essay questions, web activities, and web links. Packaging Options
  • 53. Adopters of Comparative Politics: Integrating Theories, Methods, and Cases can pack- age A N Y Oxford University Press book with the text for a 20% savings off the total package price. See our many trade and scholarly offerings at www.oup.com, then contact your OUP sales representative at (800) 280-0280 to request a pack- age ISBN. In addition, the following items can be packaged with the text for free: • Oxford Pocket World Atlas, Sixth Edition—This full-color atlas is a handy reference for political science students. Please use package ISBN 978-0-19-046231-4. xxii Preface http://www.oup.com/us/dickovick http://www.oup.com • Very Short Introduction Series—-These very brief texts offer succinct intro- ductions to a variety of topics. Titles include Nationalism, Citizenship, Global Economic History, Fascism, and Democracy, to name just a few. • The Student Research and Writing Guide fo r Political Science—This brief guide provides students with the information and tools necessary to conduct research and write a research paper. The guide explains how to get started writing a research paper, describes the parts of a research paper,
  • 54. and presents the citation formats found in academic writing. Please use package ISBN 978-0-19-046160-7 to order. Acknowledgments We are very grateful to a number of individuals who have been helpful to us as we worked on this project. At Washington and Lee University, we thank our respective provosts, deans, and department chairs who have supported our work. This includes June Aprille, Bob Strong, Daniel Wubah, Larry Peppers, Rob Straughan, Hank Dobin, Suzanne Keen, M ark Rush, Lucas Morel, David Novack, and Krzysztof Jasiewicz. We are very grateful to the many friends and colleagues, both at Washington and Lee and elsewhere, who read and com- mented on chapters or country profiles, including Francoise Fregnac-Clave, Rachel Beatty Riedl, Tim Lubin, Dan Kramer, Christian Jennings, Robin Leblanc, Ay§e Zarakol, Rich Bidlack, David Bello, Ken W hite, and Alessandra Del Conte Dickovick. We also thank Hardin Marion for his excellent close reading of the first edition and the comments he generously shared with us. We have many other colleagues and friends who have given us intellectual and moral support for which we are grateful. Numerous students have been extraor- dinarily helpful as well. We are particularly grateful to Miranda Galvin and Ali
  • 55. Greenberg. Other students to whom we wish to express our appreciation in- clude, but are not limited to, Samara Francisco, Morten Wendelbo, Maya Reimi Wendelbo, Linnea Bond, Natasha Lerner, Amy Dawson, Justine Griffin- Churchill, David Razum, John Twomey, Grant Russell, Lauren Howard, and Kate LeMasters. We are also thankful to students in numerous iterations of Politics 105 (Global Politics), many of whom offered insightful questions on a “prototype” of this text (in early years) and on the first edition (more recently), as well as students who read the book in Eastwood’s International Comparative Sociology course. We owe thanks to Washington and Lee for support for the work of some of the students mentioned previously through the Summer Re- search Scholar Program, and our own work through the Lenfest Sabbatical Grant, and the Glenn Grant, Lenfest Grant, and Hess Scholars programs for summer research. Our families have been characteristically supportive and gracious throughout the several years that we worked on this project. Their collective patience has been extraordinary. We owe eternal gratitude to our spouses, Maria Emilia Nava and Alessandra Del Conte Dickovick. We are also grateful to (and for) our won- derful children: Gabriela Eastwood, Carolina Dickovick, Gabriela Dickovick,
  • 56. Samuel Eastwood, and Alexander Eastwood. We owe much gratitude to our parents and extended families as well, of course. xxiv Preface Diane Bulpett Northeastern University Ivy Hamerly Baylor University Katherine H. Keyser Drew University Eric Langenbacher Georgetown University We are grateful as well to the fine editorial staff at Oxford University Press. We particularly appreciate the excellent ideas and efforts of Jennifer Carpenter, Lauren Mine, and Thom Holmes. All of them improved this text substantially with their insights and hard work over several years. We have also benefited from the work of Jane Lee, Barbara Mathieu, David Bradley, Maegan Sherlock, and Brianna Provenzano, among others. We owe gratitude as well to those who developed our passion for (and under- standing of) comparative politics. W ith the standard caveat that any errors of
  • 57. fact or interpretation in this text are solely our own, we want to thank first our earliest teachers of comparative politics. Above, all, we wish to thank Kent Eaton and Liah Greenfeld. We also owe great thanks to Jeffrey Herbst, Deborah Yashar, Chuck Lindholm, Scott Palmer, John Stone, and Evan Lieberman, as well as Nancy Bermeo, Atul Kohli, Lynn White, and Claudio Veliz, among others. Finally, we thank the external evaluators of this edition, who gave generously of their time and expertise: Cheryl Van Den Handel Northeastern State University Adryan Wallace University of Hartford. Jeffrey Lewis Cleveland State University Vanja Petricevic Florida Gulf Coast University Laura Roselle Elon University Hootan Shambayati Florida Gulf Coast University We also thank the many reviewers of the first edition, whose insights helped
  • 58. shape the book: Dauda Abubakar Ohio University Despina Alexiadou University of Pittsburgh Michelle Allendoerfer George Washington University Jason Ross Arnold Virginia Commonwealth University Andrew Appleton Washington State University Tanya Bagashka University of Houston Karolyn Benger Georgia Institute o f Technology Anna Brigevich The University o f North Carolina at Chapel Hill Joel R. Carbonell Kent State University at Stark Ryan Carlin Georgia State University Luis F. Clemente Ohio University
  • 59. Howard Cody University of Maine Jeffrey Conroy-Krutz Michigan State University William Crowther The University o f North Carolina at Greensboro Ian Down University o f Tennessee—Knoxville Glen Duerr Cedarville University M atthew Fails Oakland University Ronald A. Francisco University of Kansas Preface Nathan W. Freeman University o f Georgia Joseph J. Foy University of Wisconsin-Parkside John D. Granger University of Central Florida
  • 60. Ivy Hamerly Baylor University Keisha Haywood Ramapo College of New Jersey Tobias Hofmann National University of Singapore Jennifer Horan The University of North Carolina at Wilmington John Hulsey James Madison University Eunsookjung Fairfield University Peggy Kahn University of Michigan—Flint Stephen Juan King Georgetown University Natalie A. Kistner James Madison University Lada V. Kochtcheeva North Carolina State University Galiya Lahav Stonybrook University Ricardo Rene Laremont Binghamton University
  • 61. Jeffrey Lewis Cleveland State University Rahsaan Maxwell University of Massachusetts Amherst Mary M. McCarthy Drake University Gregory J. Moore Eckerd College Katarina Moyon Winthrop University Anna Ohanyan Stonehill College Sanghamitra Padhy Davidson College Juris Pupcenoks Washington College Dietmar Schirmer University of Florida James Seroka Auburn University Oxana Shevel Tufts University Tracy H. Slagter
  • 62. University o f Wisconsin Oshkosh Marcus Stadelmann University o f Texas at Tyler Jeffrey K. Staton Emory University Emmanuel Teitelbaum George Washington University Anca Turcu University of Central Florida Rollin F. Tusalem Arkansas State University Meredith Weiss University at Albany-SUNY Aubrey Westfall Virginia Wesleyan College Jennifer J. W hite University of Georgia Fiona Yap University of Kansas Gamze Cavdar Yasar Colorado State University Jiangnan Zhu University ofNevada-Reno The field of comparative politics is always changing, and a
  • 63. book of this sort covers a huge array of research areas. As such, we anticipate a need to update this text in the future. We are very eager for suggestions, corrections, and other com- ments that instructors or students might make. We have established an e-mail address specifically for these inquiries, and all comments will go to and be read by the authors. The address is c o m p a r a t i v e . p o l i t i c s @ o u p . c o m . So if you have any suggestions for future issues, or find any errors or omissions, please let us know. We hope you enjoy the book. mailto:[email protected] r G R E E N L A N D (K A L A A L L IT N U N A A T ) G u l f o f UNITED KINGDOM' Dakar ‘ ' 0**‘- VENEZUEIA- ;o tS 7 * COLOMBIA
  • 64. G u lf o f Guinea ? B 0 L I V IA Pa* U O D E JA N E I R O 9 0 ° W Projection: Winkel III Norilsk 15 000- S e a o f O k h o t s k A l e u t i a nYekaterinburg .Krasnoyarsk MOSCOW Changchun SHENYANG .Baku Tl;n .-, . W kan o b e i j i .v g , Taiyuan® .AFGHANISTAN ; V ' LAHORE- ,* i J* K 1 SsT A N ISHANGIGHDAO
  • 65. a KONG Naypy^- Bay of Rangoon, Bengal 11 Omdurman f f KHARTOUM"! | vJC SOUTH .-<r IK U - SUDAN 1 THAILANt BANGAIJ (B en gali •PINES1 CHENNAI(Madras) MARSHALL IS- FED. STATES OF MICRONESIA A LS A Y S ‘C‘>"So Kisangani,, fc 0 N G O EM. REE K O I T H , r - 1' KENYA ‘New Ireland .TANZANIA Lusaka*
  • 66. MAiutrniis AFRKV Adelaide S e a .. . . . NEW ZEALAND : 12 000- 3 0 °W ® T h e t i m e a t t h i s lo n g itu d e w h e n it is 12 .0 0 ( n o o n ) a t G r e e n w i c h ( v MALTA M O R q i CA IRO B El FaiyOm ©?“ - .R IY A D H )M e d in a A R A B I A -Mpyldhibou St-Louis k ' N S *
  • 67. D a k a r^ SENEGAL GAMBI p j Abeche B U R K IN A ® O u a g ; ■ FA SO 5ulasso ■- El O b e i d l B O irri Qiibouti ( un.ikrvj Freetowi E T H I O P I A SOMALILAND C E N T R A L . A F R I C A N R E P . .Ibadan Monrovia C A M E R O O N S e k o n d i- L l Takoradi B ig h t o f B e n in H a r c o u r t # Rey. EQUATORIA
  • 68. Y ao u n d e Guinea SAO TOME & PRINCIPE ! Libreville 2 Mbandaka An nobon (&}. Guinea) N a ir o b i (DEM. RER OF THE) I N D I A N SEYCHELLES® O C E A N jKananga S alaam-M buji- M a'iL u a n d aA s c e n s io n I. * (U.K.) Aldabra Is.(Seychelles) C. Deigado A COMOROS Moroni© * * Mamoudzou i K o h y e z i Malav.'i luambo Ndola ® >-■ Z, A M B I( iEsaka*Namibe St. H elena
  • 69. (U.K.) ® H a r a r e N, I l v c J ■- ~Z i m b a b w e ! BulawayoA M I B I * W |n dh o i k -Mauritius ‘ St-D enis Port $ K ̂ nion B O T S W A N ' J o h a n n e s b u r g § ® " • M ̂ aseru -" LESOTHO ® D u rb a n TH AFRICA' la p u to C a p e Tow n C. of G o o d H o p e ta b e th COPYRIGHT PHILIPSProjection: Azimuthal Equidistant DO HI a ® D a k a r C a p ita l C itie s 1:35 0 0 0 0 0 0 ^SKATCHfiVVAN ffimpeg
  • 70. P p c n v e r Topeka X A S m , s s o U R ! ® P(i, J ’; ' A w w lo r r e o n M E X I C O , .Acapulco S .n S a l P roje ction: Bonne 120 [ 7 ] ■ M e x i c o C a p ita l C itie s [8 ] H a v a n a / S a n to D o m in g o PUERTO RICO (US, A.) JA M A IC A Kingston Guak>-mair%@ S a n S a l v a d o r ' E L SA LV A DO R | | ^ > e o T A ' Oi.OMB I Zayenre
  • 71. RO RAIMA (£coo*d .BeicnV G . o f G u a y a q u il Iquitos Porto R Q N P 0 N 1A A l l ) G R O S S ® C o ia n ia ® f )|<’S an ta ubrajs MATO GROSSO P A R A G 1 D£'antosJANfifto San Ambrosio (CMe) WO GRA,®Sf~ __0OSUL_y Vina del Mar ( Valparaiso < SANTIAG ’ R U G - 0 A yrR o sa rio j F e r n i n d e z B U EN O S A I ^ E S m
  • 72. La Plata Valdivia P uerto Mor fom od oro Rivadavia G u lf o f S an Jorge, W est Falkland FAt^ ND rs Falkland Projection: Lambert's Azimuthal Equal Area COPYRIGHT PHILIP'S H l i m a C a p ita l C itie s 60W est from Greenwich 50rEi CHAPTER 1 The Comparative Approach: An Introduction • Germany's Angela Merkel and Russia's Vladimir Putin converse at the World Cup in Brazil, July 2014.
  • 73. op quiz. Fill in the blank in the following sentence: I n _____________________, Columbus sailed the ocean blue. IN THIS C H A P T E R A skin g Why: Research Questions in Com parative Politics 2 Major Questions in Comparative Politics 4 Empirical Arguments Versus Normative Arguments 6 Solving Intellectual Puzzles: A Contemporary Analogy 7 Concepts 9 Features of Good Concepts 9 Conceptualization 10 Operationalizing: From Concepts to Measures 11 Em pirical Evidence 12 Facts and Evidence 12 Cases and Case Studies 13 The Com parative Method 14 Variables and Comparison 14 Most-Similar-Systems Design 15 Most-Different-Systems Design 18 Comparative Checking 18 Within-Case Comparison 20 Is the Study of Politics a Science? The Limits of the Com parative Method 20
  • 74. A large proportion of American students who have completed elementary school will be able to answer correctly: fourteen hundred ninety-two. This recollection from childhood illustrates the ways we first begin to learn about societies and their histories. We learn important events and the dates, names, and places associated with them. We learn simple facts: that Columbus set sail in 1492 and discovered the New World. For many of our formative years, this is what we think learning means in our courses on social studies, history, world affairs, or current events. Scholarship is not defined, however, by knowledge of facts alone, and the learning we do as adults must be differ- ent: It must be based on more than just description and recall. The task now, at the collegiate level, is to develop analytical skills. In this book, we examine the similarities and differ- ences in politics within and between countries around the world, using comparisons and contrasts as our central tools. We cover more than just facts about the politics of China, or India, or France. W e analyze politics comparatively. Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Politics To illustrate the type of learning this book promotes, we turn to another mnemonic device from primary school: List the “Five W ’s” used to ask questions. You may easily recall the answer (or be able to reconstruct it):
  • 75. Who, What, Where, When, and Why. (And to this list we often add “How”.) Now ask yourself about the relative merits of these “Five W ’s.” W hich of these questions are the most profound and lead us to learn the most? Are we likely to gain a deep understanding of the social and political world from questions of the general form “W ho did this?” or “Where did this happen?” or “W hen did this happen?” For the most part, these relatively simple questions lead us to answers Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Politics 3 based on simple facts, such as prominent historical figures (Who), or places (Where), or dates (When). Consider how most of the “Five W ’s” are answered in the sentence In fourteen hundred ninety-two, Columbus sailed the ocean blue. W ho is the subject? Columbus. Where did this event occur? The ocean blue. W hen did it happen? 1492. W hat did the subject do (or how did the event happen)? He sailed. W ithin one easily remembered rhyme, we have answers to a host of basic questions. And, of course, the same is true for more contemporary politics. For instance, saying, “In 2012, Franpois Hollande was elected president of France” also provides answers to who, where, what, and when questions.
  • 76. Even if we don’t know certain facts, we can often find them easily in modern life, and we do not need rhymes, other mnemonics, or even reference books. Online search engines (e.g., Google) provide virtually free access to basic facts (though they can also provide access to inaccurate information). Smart phones, laptops, and other devices make basic information accessible almost anywhere. Try typing some basic questions using the “Five W ’s” into a search engine. W ho is the president of Brazil? Where (or what) is the capital of Estonia? W hen did Tanzania become a free and independent nation? For these questions, the correct and complete answer is available almost instantly. Some knowledge of basic facts is obviously important, but this is not the type of question that interests us in this text. We will not focus simply on descriptions of who did what and when, nor on where things happened. Now try searching for “Why did Columbus sail the ocean blue?” or “Why did Tanzania gain independence from its colonizer?” or “Why was Fran5ois Hollande elected president of France?” Your search will probably lead to an essay full of reasoning and argumentation, as well as facts. O f course, the essay may or may not be reliable, and more comprehensive searching—using scholarly articles and book chapters—could provide you with other essays that offer contrary perspectives. These
  • 77. why questions lend themselves to richer discussions and debates than who/what/ when/where questions. We cannot answer many why questions in one or two sen- tences. Answering why correctly requires more research, more reasoning, and more debate than the preliminary factual questions about who did what, where, and when. We can debate the correct answer to why questions. You may think you have a simple answer to why Columbus set sail: He was an explorer by nature, intellectu- ally curious and seeking adventure. But a classmate may offer an equally compel- ling answer: The exploration westward across the Atlantic was promoted and financed by the Spanish crown (King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella), who were forced by geopolitical rivalries and strategic concerns to extend and expand their territories. W ho is correct? In your answer, you focus on Columbus himself, while your classmate makes reference to impersonal factors (such as geopolitical strategy) that push individuals toward certain actions. Both of you include facts in defending your answers, such as the relevant actors (who), the period in which this took place (when), and the country from which Columbus set sail (where). But the debate is not easily resolved, even with these basic facts. We can respectfully disagree on the primary cause of why something happened. We construct arguments by supplying evidence in a logical form in support of positions or claims, and
  • 78. the relative merit of our arguments depends on who has the better supporting evidence. Generally, we do not debate at great length about when an explorer set sail, who he was, or where he left from and where he went.1 We either know these facts argument The placement of evidence in logical form in support of a position or claim. 4 Chapter 1: The Comparative Approach: An Introduction comparative politics The subfield of political science that aims to analyze multiple cases using the comparative method. or don’t. Anyone who has watched Jeopardy! or played trivia games will notice that such games almost never ask why something happened. The answers would surely be too long and almost certainly too debatable. Basic factual knowledge may earn you points on a game board, but it alone cannot be the route to a deeper understanding of the social and political world. Questions that begin with that little word— why— are often answered not with a simple fact; rather, the answers begin with another deceptively powerful
  • 79. word: because. Note that the root of the word because is cause. Why questions give rise to answers that talk about the causes of events, and they turn basic facts (who, what, where, when, and how) into evidence supporting a claim about cause and effect.2 This is the core pursuit of comparative politics: We seek to develop strong claims about cause and effect, testing various hypotheses (that is, possible answers to our questions) using factual evidence, and developing larger theories about why the world operates the way it does. Through most of this book, we will provide some basic information necessary to speak the language of comparative scholars, but our emphasis is on asking and trying to answer why questions. We do not ignore factual information when we ask questions. Indeed, some knowledge of a particular case usually makes us interested in a topic and moti- vates the questions we want to ask. We find some set of facts that does not fit with our intuition, and we pursue it further. We are intrigued by facts that pre- sent us with puzzles. The number of such puzzles is virtually infinite, but certain major questions take center stage in comparative politics. Many are easy to ask but challenging to answer. As we note later, some may be phrased as how ques- tions, but the logic behind them is the same: We seek to understand causes and effects to comprehend the world around us.
  • 80. Few political phenomena are monocausal', or caused by just one thing. Often many factors combine to produce an outcome. Explaining something does not amount to simply naming one or another of these factors. Rather, we try to ex- plain by identifying not just the necessary conditions to produce an effect, but those that are sufficient to produce it. For example, the fact that a given commu- nity is divided into different groups might be a necessary factor of civil war. But since most such divided countries are not engaged in civil war most of the time, the condition of being divided is clearly not sufficient to produce this effect by itself, and thus probably cannot be said to be the main cause of war.3 Major Q uestions in Com parative Politics Comparative politics focuses on certain key questions that researchers have de- bated for years. Some important questions that we examine in this book are listed in Table 1.1. All of these are about causes and effects and can be answered, at least partly, by comparing and contrasting the politics of different countries. Some such questions, like the last two in the table, may also imply research on relations between countries as well as politics within countries. The questions in the table are very general, and we would likely begin research by asking a more specific version of such questions about one
  • 81. or two countries. Rather than “W hy do countries go to war?” we might ask, “W hy did France opt not to support the Iraq War in 2003?” This question is more specific but also open- ended enough to have many possible answers. In scientific terms, this question can t a b l e i.i Prom inent Q uestions in Com parative Politics Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Politics Why are some countries democratic and others not? Why are some countries rich and others not? Why do countries have different institutions and forms of government? Why do countries have different policies in a variety of areas? Why do some social revolutions succeed and endure while others fail? Why do some countries develop strong senses of statehood and nationhood and others not? Why do countries go to war or establish peace? Why are some societies subjected to terrorism and others not? have several competing hypotheses we can test out using evidence, as we discuss later in this chapter and in the next. Possible answers may be
  • 82. based on France’s strategic interests and calculations, its position in global affairs, French attitudes or culture with respect to war, and/or other possibilities. Contrast this question with a more leading one, such as “How did French defeat in World War II lead to France’s decision not to support the Iraq War?” In this version, the questioner presumes he/she knows the answer to why France decided not to support the war. The researcher is entering the research expecting to confirm one particular answer. Given our own human biases, this researcher may well choose evidence selec- tively, neglecting that which does not fit his/her assumptions and preconceptions. It is highly unlikely that someone asking this leading question will answer with “France’s defeat in World War II had no effect.” This type of question can there- fore lead to a biased argument. Forming questions with why is a good rule of thumb, but good questions may also begin with other words, such as how. The questions in Table 1.2 also lead to debates about cause and effect. The first question asks about “consequences,” which is just another way of asking about the effects of certain causes (in this case, the causes would be institutions). The question is also open-ended; that is, no hunch or expected answer is built into it, so the researcher
  • 83. can remain open to what the evidence reveals. The second question is just a bit more specific, identi- fying a certain consequence and a certain institution, but it is also open-ended. As we get more specific, we must take care not to commit the error of building the answer into the question, or assume that what we are researching is the only answer. In this case, we would not want to assume that a presidential versus a parliamentary system of government is the main factor that shapes education policy.4 The next question asks “under what conditions” democracies form, which is just another way of asking about the causes of democracy, if we compare and contrast where and when and how it happens. So too does the final question ask about cause and effect, as shown by the verb affect. These are all valid research questions, even if they don’t begin with why. open-ended question A ques- tion that, in principle, is open to numerous possible answers. 6 Chapter 1: The Comparative Approach: An Introduction empirical Drawn from observa- tions of the world. Students in Paris, France, protest the Iraq War in 200S. Why did France opt not to support the
  • 84. Iraq War? t a b l e 1.2 A dditional Research Q uestions A bout Cause and Effect What are the consequences of different kinds of instituti ons for policy? What are the consequences of presidential versus parliamentary systems of government for education policy? Under what conditions will democracies emerge and consolidate? How do major social revolutions affect subsequent political developments in their respective countries? Some questions that begin with why may be poor questions, or at least they may be ill suited to cause-and-effect research. Contrast the following two questions, where the how question is a more open-ended and better question than the why. • Why did the United States foolishly invade Iraq in 2003 for no good reason? • How did the decision to initiate military action against Iraq come about? It is perfectly legitimate to ask “why the United States invaded Iraq” as an open-ended social science question, but the tone of the why question here sug- gests that it is focused more on the issue of right and wrong
  • 85. than on cause and effect. The key is keeping our minds open to the possibility that any of several hypotheses may have the power to explain what we want to explain. Em pirical A rgum en ts Versus Norm ative Argum ents The issue of right and wrong relates to the issue of causal or empirical arguments versus normative arguments. In this text, we mainly address empirical arguments: Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative Politics 7 arguments that link cause and effect, uncovering answers to why the political world operates as it does. Normative arguments, by contrast, emphasize the way things should be. 1116 following pair of questions highlights the distinction: • W hy are some countries democratic and others authoritarian? (causal/ empirical) • Why is democracy preferable to authoritarianism? (normative) Comparativists answer questions like the first more often than the second, though we care about the answers to both types of questions. We are not primar- ily concerned in this book with resolving normative arguments about what is right and wrong. This is not because comparativists are
  • 86. indifferent to moral con- cerns. To the contrary, most social scientists hold strong convictions, indeed probably stronger normative views about politics than the average citizen, given their choice of career. Comparativists would overwhelmingly express a prefer- ence for democracy over authoritarianism if asked, though some might note the limitations of democracy and/or argue that authoritarian rule has sometimes led to economic growth. Yet, as comparativists, we do not usually spend our intellec- tual energy coming up with new arguments for why democracy is morally super- ior to authoritarianism. Rather, we spend this energy trying to solve the puzzle of why democracy and authoritarianism arise in the first place. So the point of analyzing politics comparatively is not to come up with good arguments in favor of democracy, or grearer wealth, or peace. Rather, our job is to find what causes these things, and we can assume that a commitment to uncover- ing the causes comes from some interest in the outcome. Comparativists are like doctors diagnosing social problems: Instead of explaining why it is better to be healthy, we focus on explaining how we can be healthy as a political society. Com- parative political scientists often have an ethical or moral passion that drives re- search, as we may wish to make government and society more effective, efficient, equitable, just, responsive, and accountable. Yet our principal
  • 87. role in that process is to describe what is and explain why, rather than proclaim what ought to be. So lving Intellectual Puzzles: A C ontem porary A n a lo gy Social science is a process of problem solving. By way of analogy, we can glimpse the sort of intellectual puzzles we solve through the mirror of pop culture. Among the most successful TV shows in the world today (apart from reality shows) are those in which researchers, academics, and scientists are presented with a puzzle that they must solve, usually within a short period. Medical dramas, legal dramas, and crime dramas all fit this mold. The researchers may be doctors trying to diagnose a potentially fatal disease, detectives trying to solve a murder using forensic evidence, or attorneys trying to prosecute a case against a pre- sumed perpetrator. Examples are legion: NCIS, The Mentalist, Sherlock (or the Sherlock Holmes adaptation Elementary), and the long-running CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, among others. W hat these shows have in common is the basic approach to puzzle solving used by the experts. The protagonist will typically be presented with a puzzle early in the episode and will then begin gathering evidence and formulating hypotheses. Usually, some of these hypotheses will be inconsistent with the
  • 88. normative Concerned with speci- fying which sort of practice or institution is morally or ethically justified. Chapter 1: The Comparative Approach: An Introduction evidence, or new evidence will emerge that contradicts a hypothesis. In such shows, this development is deliberate, of course, in order to build suspense and mislead the viewer. We may find, for example, that the person we were supposed to think was the killer had an alibi and was somewhere else on the night of the murder. By the latter part of the show, the protagonist usually comes across some piece of evidence that pulls the case together and gives it a logical interpretation. The episode typically concludes when a hypothesis is confirmed, sometimes sig- nified by a criminal’s confession or maybe by a medical treatment that succeeds. Social scientists operate in a similar fashion to these puzzle- solving profes- sionals, but comparativists face some additional constraints. (If we really want to solve our puzzles, we have to be even more clever than the people on TV.) The most obvious constraint is the lack of laboratories in comparative politics.5 Whereas physicians, forensicologists, and prosecutors often have recourse to
  • 89. physical evidence such as blood samples or DNA or cell phone records, social scientists rely on social facts and evidence of a more qualitative and historical nature. The evidence used by social scientists is often subject to interpretation. For example, one political scientist may deem Mexico a democratic success story since 2000, because an opposition party won a presidential election, and multiple parties now compete successfully for power. Another may argue that Mexico is not a democratic success story, because the country still suffers from high levels of social and economic inequality and from unequal political participation.6 Many academics and other professionals rely on evidence and logic and reason to make persuasive arguments, even in the absence of absolute proof. Returning to our pop culture analogy, the detective Sherlock Holmes often rules out many options by process of elimination, gathers evidence that is consistent with a cer- tain interpretation of the facts, and builds a hypothesis. Sometimes, Sherlock will have a particular hypothesis that is shown to be wrong by some new bit of evidence. In those instances, he must generate a new hypothesis to solve the case. Typically, at the end of a detective story, proof comes with a confession that re- veals the full story. In courtroom dramas, to use another example, there may not be “prooF’ that someone committed a crime, but the jury may be
  • 90. convinced “beyond a reasonable doubt” that the accused is guilty. Again, in some instances, there may eventually be a confession by the perpetrator that does lead to “proof,” once the hypothesis is backed by substantial evidence and the perpetrator is in- formed of the strength of the prosecution’s case. Medical dramas are similar in that the doctors must diagnose complicated cases using the evidence available to them. The solution usually takes the form of a treatment that cures or saves the patient. In all of these cases, the common theme is the need to solve a puzzle using a combination of evidence, logical reasoning, and educated guesses. Unfortunately for social scientists, the world never confesses its secrets like some TV criminal, and we cannot typically administer some pharmaceutical in controlled fashion to cure a body politic. The best social scientists can do is work with a standard that requires scholars to make the strongest and most persuasive case possible by using and interpreting the available evidence. Many social scien- tists who use statistical methods—including sociologists, political scientists, and most economists—even formalize standards for what is a persuasive finding. Some use 95 percent certainty as a crucial benchmark in testing and trying to
  • 91. Concepts 9 confirm hypotheses (however arbitrary that 95 percent threshold may be, and even this threshold only relates to their confidence that they can reject the “null hypothesis” that the factor in question has absolutely no eifect). Good scholarship seeks evidence, tests hypotheses, makes arguments, and contributes to theoretical debates. We address theories and hypotheses in greater detail in chapter 2. First, however, we turn to the ideas of concepts, variables, and causal relationships. Concepts Social science works with concepts, abstract ideas that we usually attempt to define as we ask and answer our questions. Examples of concepts are numerous and include freedom, democracy (as well as liberal democracy, electoral democ- racy, delegative democracy, and many other subtypes), justice, nationalism, con- stitutionalism, federalism, identity, gender relations, special interests, and social movements, among many others. Working with concepts helps us think about the social world, which is too complex to analyze without them. We must be very careful in defining them, because bad concepts make for bad analysis. Most concepts are categories. In some areas, such as physical and natural sci-
  • 92. ence, certain categories are relatively clear.7 The elements of the periodic table are an example. Concepts like “helium” and “oxygen” describe things in the real world that have certain numbers of electrons and protons. Yet there are few such clear-cut categories in social and political life. Concepts like “democracy” and “revolution” do not define phenomena the same way that “hydrogen” refers to an atom composed of a single proton and a single electron. Social and political con- cepts like democracy and revolution shade into each other by degree. Definitions do not capture exact boundaries between social and political phenomena in the real world, but we use them so that we can get a handle on that world. Reasonable concepts and categories help us make sense of all the events that take place. Features of Good Concepts W hat makes a concept worthwhile? Good concepts have several features, including clarity, coherence, consistency, and usefulness. The concept of “democratization” when used correctly is an example of a concept that is worthwhile on all these counts. First, concepts must be clear and coherent.8 Maybe you begin a research proj- ect because you are troubled by differences in levels of democratization across different countries. At the beginning, you have a common-sense understanding of democratization. To do good comparative work, however,
  • 93. you must make the meaning of the term explicit and clear. W hat do you mean by democratization? W hat is it you are studying? You cannot say “democratization consists of all the positive things that happen when a society changes.” This is neither clear nor co- herent. A clearer and more coherent statement would be “democratization is the process by which civil liberties and political rights are extended to all adult citi- zens in a nation.” We begin with common-sense concerns about specific prob- lems, but we need to define our key concepts precisely. Second, concepts must be logically consistent, both internally and from one to another. For example, one cannot conceptualize democratization in terms of “expansion of liberty and equality” without addressing the likelihood that increasing concept An idea comparativists use to think about the processes we study. 10 Chapter 1: The Comparative Approach: An Introduction conceptualization The deliberate process through which we create and select social-scientific concepts. Sartori's ladder of abstraction
  • 94. The idea that we can organize concepts on the basis of their specificity or generality. liberty will likely lead to some degree of inequality. The issue here is whether our concept of democratization is internally consistent. Likewise, one cannot concep- tualize democracy as being about a “set of institutional arrangements,” such as elections, while viewing democratization as being about a “sort of political cul- ture or set of values and norms.” This is an issue of logical consistency between the concepts of democracy and democratization, which we presume are related, but which seem to point in different directions here. Third, concepts should be useful. They must be specific enough that they allow you to draw distinctions in analyzing examples. The concept of democrati- zation can be useful because we can meaningfully distinguish between countries that have democratized and those that have not. Our use of concepts is prag- matic, because we identify concepts based on how they help us answer research questions.9 For comparative analysis, concepts must allow us to identify varia- tions between places, which the concept of democratization does: It allows us to differentiate and examine the variations between places that have undergone the process and those that have not. To be useful, concepts must also allow us to
  • 95. measure variables, which we examine further later. Conceptualization Using concepts may be creative, because social scientists need to develop their own in many cases. The process of making up and defining concepts is called conceptualization. It is often necessary to come up with new ideas and defini- tions, though we must be self-conscious and thoughtful in how we conceptual- ize. In comparative politics, a good practice is to look to how scholars have already conceptualized major ideas in books (including textbooks) and articles. We should not coin a new phrase just for the sake of it, and we do not want to end up with a thousand different definitions of a concept like “democracy” when there are already several good and accepted definitions available. Too much cre- ation of concepts could generate confusion and make discussion more difficult. Nonetheless, no concept is perfect, and you may need to conceptualize in novel ways on your own, depending on your specific projects.10 Doing so can be part of an intellectual contribution, so long as your concepts are clear, consistent, and useful.11 Some concepts are very general, while others are very specific. To take “na­ tionalism” and “national identity” as an example, we might see the concept of collective identity (an individual’s sense of belonging to a
  • 96. group) as being quite general, though sometimes we ask questions that don’t require more specific concepts.12 Greater specificity comes with adding more attributes to the con- cept, maybe by specifying that we are interested in those collective identities that are political. More specific still, one can divide political identities into more specific subtypes, for example, political identities that say that everybody in your country is like you and that they are all equal. Some questions require more general concepts, and others more specific concepts. This issue is sometimes referred to as “Sartori’s ladder of abstraction.”13 The ladder ranges from gen- eral concepts at the top to very specific concepts at the bottom, and the rung one stands on depends on the specific questions being asked and the cases being examined. Concepts 11 The Concept of Freedom I n societies such as the United States, freedom is seen as a core lvalue. Virtually everyone is a supporter and defender of freedom, and popular images present the American nation as the "land of the free." Yet what it means to be free is not so clear, and the term has multiple, distinct, and perhaps even contradictory
  • 97. meanings.14 Some view freedom in "negative" terms: One is free to the extent that nobody impinges on his or her ability to act in accordance with his or her will. Others view freedom in "positive" terms: One is free to the extent that one can engage in particular sorts of acts or ways of life. Others may view freedom in mystical terms, suggesting that one is free to the extent that one experiences transcendence through service to others, through participation in collective action, or through spiritual contemplation. There are also Marxist- inspired interpretations of freedom holding that one is free to the extent that one is not alienated from others, from one's work, and from a sense of purpose or meaning. (And, last but not least, Janis Joplin sang that "Freedom's just another word for nothing left to lose") All of these understandings take freedom to be a quality of an individual. Yet many also speak of the collective freedoms of groups. For instance, many societies, in seeking independence from colonial powers, produce authoritarian regimes that do not promote individual freedoms. Often, the members of these soci- eties nevertheless celebrate them as distinctively free. Note that all of these meanings of the term (and we could list many more) resonate with millions of people in the world today.15 Libyan women celebrate liberation from Qaddafi's rule. Tripoli, September 2011. O perationalizing: From C oncepts to Measures
  • 98. Once we have a clear notion of a concept, we need to be able to measure it; that is, we need to operationalize our concept. To operationalize a concept is to make operationalization The process it workable, mainly by making it measurable. W hen a concept is operational— through which we make a concept or we have an operational definition—we can begin to explain what we are study- measurable, ing. We can start to explain cause and effect only when we have clarified what we are talking about and can measure it. There may be many ways to operationalize a certain concept, as shown by the example of democratization in Table 1.3. All of these may be valid ways to t a b l e 1 . 3 Possible Operational Definitions of D em ocratization A case of democratization occurs when... • a country holds a free and fair multiparty election • two turnovers of government at the ballot box have occurred, in which the ruling party loses an election and peacefully steps down from power • free and fair elections are held, and a constitutional law is in place guaranteeing the rights of freedom of speech, press, assembly, and religion to all citizens • there is no verifiable suppression of political participation and expression • more than two-thirds of citizens in a survey express values that reject authoritarian rule
  • 99. 12 Chapter 1: The Comparative Approach: An Introduction evidence A set of facts or obser- vations used to support a proposi- tion or hypothesis. operationalize democratization, so long as the operational definition matches up with the concept. I f we conceptualize democratization in terms of elections, we should measure it in terms of elections (not, for example, by values people hold). As we begin to measure our concepts, we move more toward the “real,” or empir­ ical, world we observe. Empirical Evidence Questions demand answers. Social scientists do not ask questions just to ask them, but to attempt to answer them. So how do social scientists answer their questions? In short, they couple empirical evidence with theory. In comparative politics, em- pirical means those observations we can make from looking at the real world rather than using abstract theories or speculation. We look at how theory and evidence interact in chapter 2. For the moment, we only highlight the forms of evidence most often used in comparative politics, since this is necessary for understanding the method. A key is the distinction between facts and evidence. Facts and Evidence Facts—understood here as simple statements about what is or is
  • 100. not the case— are abundant, but evidence is more precious. As noted previously, online sources such as Wikipedia and Google provide almost costless access to a massive set of facts (though a lot of information found online is inaccurate or incorrect). Evidence consists of facts used in support of a proposition or hypothesis. Notice something built into these definitions: evidence is indeed based on facts. So a point of view or an opinion, whether your own or someone else’s, is not evidence. The fact that someone else believes something does not mean there is evidence for it, even if that opinion has been published by a prominent scholar or public figure. Evi- dence should be available for the reader to gather as well, and not be simply based on hearsay, though research sometimes requires anonymity of sources. Wherever possible, research should be replicable by someone else. To use a simple example of varying qualities of evidence, say we ask two stu- dents to make a simple claim about whether Saudi Arabia is a democracy and to back this claim with evidence. In the two examples in Table 1.4, the difference t a b l e 1.4 Exam ples of Strong and W eak Use of Evidence Student 1 Student 2 Claim: Saudi Arabia is not democratic. Claim: Saudi Arabia is not democratic.
  • 101. Evidence: Saudi Arabia has not held free and Evidence: Saudi Arabia is an Islamic country fair elections for its national government. whose economy is based on exporting oil. It is Women do not have the same political and a long-time ally of the United States and is led social rights as men. by King Salman and a large royal family. Claim: strong Claim: strong Facts: correct Facts: correct Evidence: strong Evidence: weak Empirical Evidence 13 between the two students is not the correctness of the claim, which is the same. Nor is it the facts, which are true on both sides. Rather, the difference is in how well evidence is used to back the claim. Successful comparativists are known not for the correctness of their assertions but for the ways they empirically support their claims. Strong evidence has several characteristics. Most obviously, it must be rele- vant to the issue at hand. I f you are arguing about Saudi Arabia’s democracy, the fact that the country is Muslim, or an oil exporter, is not an indicator of democ- racy. We may debate whether these factors help came democracy or a lack of democracy, but they are not measures of democracy itself the
  • 102. way free and fair elections and civil rights are. The evidence should also be at the same level o f analysis as the claim you are making—that is, at the individual, organizational, or societal level, for example. We can ask good research questions at many levels of analysis: individuals, groups within a country, whole countries and societies, regions of the world, and the world as a whole. But we need to be careful that our evidence reflects our level of analysis. Countries are made up of individuals, but individuals are not countries, and there are important differences between individuals, groups, and societies at large. So if you are seeking evidence about gender attitudes in Saudi Arabia, it is insufficient to note what a certain small group of men in the capital city thinks, unless you can show that these men happen to be representative of the country at large. The same is true the other way around: I f you are talking about an individ- ual or a small group, you cannot assume you know everything about them just because of what country they come from; this is essentially stereotyping. Ana- lysts risk committing logical fallacies if they do not pay attention to levels of analysis. Cases and Case Studies Cases are the basic units of analysis in comparative politics. In many instances,