about cognitive linguistics

1. A contrastive linguistics
Book: A contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic
By Aziz M. Kgalil

2. • This book has nine chapters:
Covers the three major areas of linguistic description: Phonology,
Morphology and Syntax
 it describes and contrasts between Arabic language and English
language
(L1 & L2)
It presents some of learners difficulties

3. Chapter 1 introduction
Chapter 2 Deals with phonetics and phonology ( the study of the articulation
of sounds and the systems of the sound patterns
Chapter 3 deals with morphology, the study of the structure of the words)
 word class
Inflectional morphology
Derivational morphology
 chapter 4 deals with sentences elements and patterns, word order and
sentence types
Chapter 5 deals with syntax and semantics of the verb phrase ( nouns ,
pronouns , determiners )
Chapter 6 deals with the semantics of the verb phrase, (( tenses, aspects,
mood, and modality)
 chapter 7 deals with the syntax of the verb phrase (infinite and nonfinite
verb phrase )

4. • Chapter 8 deals with six syntactic constructions ( passives, relatives,
etc)
• Chapter 9 covers conjunctions
 phonology is ..is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural
languages. Discussion. The phonological system of a language
includes. an inventory of sounds and their features, and. rules
which specify how sounds interact with each other.
1.2 Consonant Consonants are all the non-vowel sounds, or their corresponding letters: A, E,
I, O, U and sometimes Y are not consonants.

5. • English Consonant features
1. Aspiration
• In phonetics, aspiration refers to the puff of air that occur between the
release of the stop and the production of the following vowel (pen, ten,
kin).
• Aspiration is neutralized when the sibilant /s/ precedes the voiceless stop
in syllable position ( step)
2. r-deletion: the consonant /r/ is not pronounced in British English when it
occurs word-finally or in a sequence of two final consonants as the
following examples:
 far /faa/ card / kaad/

6. • Examples of r-dissimilation
 Feb(r)uary
 Qua(r)ter
 Fo(r)lorn
 Fo(r)ward
 Gove(r)no(r)
 Pa(r)ticular
 Su(r)prise
 Northern
 Professo(r)
 corpo(r)ation
 Murray (1986:24) examines / r /-deletion in qua(r)te.He finds that deletion is more common for lower class
speakers and in less formal styles.
 More and More ( How is it pronouinced? ) Final r is pronounced when the next word
begins with a vowel .

7. 3. T converts to D (alveolar flapping)
In (Am English ), /t/ & /d/ change into a flap /d/ when they occur after a stressed vowel as in letter
and ladder
 In some cases, the effect is perceived by some listeners as the replacement of a /t/
sound with a /d/ sound;
butter budder

8. Arabic Consonant
Arabic has twenty-eight consonants
G
PH
U
V
P
A
D
I
LD
L
Q
K
T
B
D
J
‫هـ‬
‫خ‬
‫ش‬
S
‫ذ‬
F
‫ر‬
‫و‬
LABIAL LABIODENTAL INTERDENTAL DENTAL ALVEOLAR PALATAL VELAR UVULAR

9. Among the features specific to the pronunciation of Arabic consonants are:
• Emphatic, vs. non-emphatic, germination, glottal stop, back
consonant, and /r/
 Emphatic, vs. non-emphatic
Arabic has four pairs of consonants that are distinguished by Itbaaq , lidding or tafxiim
‫ت‬
,
‫د‬
,
‫س‬
,
‫ذ‬
‫ط‬
,
‫ض‬
,
‫ص‬
,
‫ظ‬
‫طاب‬
‫ضل‬
‫صيف‬
‫ظل‬
‫تاب‬
‫دل‬
‫سيف‬
‫ذل‬

10. • The production of emphatic consonant is characterized by contraction of the
muscles of the pharynx, raising of the back part of tongue towards palate and
protrusion of the lips.
• Empathic /l/ may occur in a very restricted context. Emphatic /l/ occurs only in
the divine name /allaah/ compare to wallaahu ‫واله‬
• Gemination Tashdid
Consonant occur single or doubled
Kataba he wrote
Kattaba he made someone write

11. The glottal stop
• It occurs in initial ( abb ) father, medial ( sa’al) he asked , and final
positions in words like sma’a ( sky)

12. Revision
• Mention three features of consonant in English?
• Compare between aspiration and flapping ?
• Explain the meaning of Arabic Empathic consonant?
•

13. Arabic consonants .
• Emphatic, vs. non-emphatic, gemination, glottal stop, back
consonant,
• Back consonant :
• Arabic has six back consonants, mention them?
They are four fricative and two stops.
1. Velars ( /x, q/
2. Pharyngeals (/h. /
3. Glottals (/h/)

14. • Gemination is a phonetic phenomenon whereby two identical
/sounds/ co-occur in one word or at words boundaries. The co-
occurrence of two identical sounds doesn’t matter, what matters is
their pronunciation. Whether to pronounce them as one sound or
two sounds is a matter treated differently across languages that have
geminate.

15. • Gemination in English
• In English, gemination does not take place initially in a word,
although there are some cases of double consonant letters which
occur initially in some loan words that are used in English (llama,
llano, Lloyd, Llewellyn). There is a group of consonants which are
never doubled in any position in a word, they are /h, j, q, w, x/.
Another important point is that the consonant clusters of any type
are never geminated. Gemination in English is found mainly in total
assimilation, across word boundaries, and in complex and compound
words which are morphologically different from simple words in
having some extra morphemes attached to them, such as (bell-like;
stainless-steel) or (misspell, meanness, roommate). It can be stated
that the main reason that leads some consonants to have the
geminate feature is a morpho-phonological one due to the affixation
that certain types of words might undergone.

16. • Gemination in Arabic
• Gemination in Arabic is symbolized by using a diacritic called (shadda) in
"Arabic writing system" and this symbol is in the form of the letter " " but
smaller, it is placed on the geminated letters in writing to mark gemination
in pronunciation. In Arabic the "shadaa" ( ) is used to indicate gemination.
The reason for the use of shadda is the occurrence of two similar sounds
next to each other. It is held that (tashdeed) gemination is an obligatory
feature in Arabic writing and pronunciation systems since it has a
contrastive feature, it can change the meaning or the grammatical category
of a word (Web 8).
• Hassan (1983: 119) defines gemination ( ‫التضعيف‬
) as "the lengthening of
the continuant sounds and the plosion in stops". He divided gemination
into two groups:

17. • geminate consonants (‫المضعفة‬ ‫)السواكن‬
• Geminate consonants are considered as identical clusters. When
syllable boundaries are identified, the first constituent of the clusters
whether identical or non-identical is the coda of the preceding
syllable, while the second constituent will always be the beginning of
the subsequent syllable, the following two examples are for
illustration:
• -
‫ّد‬‫ب‬‫أ‬
/ =
‫ء‬
-
‫ب‬
–
‫ب‬
–
‫د‬
= /
‫س‬ ‫ح‬ ‫س‬
/
‫س‬ ‫ح‬ ‫س‬
• -
‫ن‬ّ‫ت‬‫م‬
/ =
‫م‬
–
‫ت‬
–
‫ت‬
–
‫ن‬
= /
‫س‬ ‫ح‬ ‫س‬
/
‫س‬ ‫ح‬ ‫س‬

18. • long vowels ( ‫الطويلة‬ ‫الحركات‬
)
• Long vowels are considered as monophthongs and not
diphthongs. In comparison with the identical clusters they have the
same importance in the pronunciation within the syllable. The vowels
which are long could be considered as equivalents to geminate
consonants. An example of illustration is in the following:
• - ‫كاتب‬
(( means writer = kaa tib/ or /ka: tib/ /
• (Hassan 1983: 120).

19. • In Arabic, gemination can change the meaning of the word as in the
following examples:
• َ‫م‬َّ‫ل‬َ‫ع‬ َ‫م‬ِ‫ل‬َ‫ع‬
• (with gemination, it is a verb: he taught …) (without gemination, it is a
verb: he knew...)
•
• ‫حمام‬
‫ام‬ّ‫م‬‫ح‬
• )with gemination means bathroom) (without gemination means
pigeons)

20. • What is the meaning of velar consonants:
Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum)
against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth (known also as the
velum). ‫غد‬
‫غالي‬
‫خد‬
‫خالي‬

21. Pharyngeal Fricatives
• ( h. ‫ح‬/)
• The voiceless pharyngeal fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken
languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this
sound is an h-bar, ⟨ħ⟩. In the transcription of Arabic and other scripts, it is often written
⟨Ḥ⟩, ⟨ḥ⟩.

22. ḥ
‘
‫حدد‬
‫عدد‬

23. Glottal fricative
• the/ h / is a voiceless glottal fricative consonant
• Examples
• 1. hatef / hatif / telephone
• 2. habat / habat / come down
• 3. hijra / hijra / emigration
• 4. harab / harab / escape
• 5. hazam / hazam / defeat
• Qahr
• miyaah
•
Describe the production of /h/
 Glottal articulation occurs in the larynx

24. / R/
• This sound is produced by tapping the tip of the tongue against the
alveoli.
• Ra’s :head
• Bard: cold
• Do a Comparison between English consonant and Arabic

25. • Which Sounds that exist in Arabic only? Mention six of them
 Arabic restricted
Consonant
1. ‫ط‬
2. ‫ق‬
3. ‫أ‬
4. ‫ض‬
5. ‫خ‬
6. ‫ح‬
7. ‫ظ‬
8. ‫غ‬
9. ‫ع‬

26. • There are consonants that exist in English, but not in Arabic. We
may call them English-restricted consonants: Mention six of them?
1. /p/ pen
2. /g / good
3. /'tʃeə/ chair
4. /ʒ/ meʒə

27. Homework
Compare between English P and Arabic /b/

28. Consonant Cluster
• In linguistics, a consonant cluster or consonant sequence is a group of
consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example,
the groups /spl/ and /ts/ are consonant clusters in the word splits.
1. Initial consonant clusters (plead – please – pleasant – plenty – plan
– plastic – platter – plaza – plot – plural – plume – plug – pluck )
2. [tr], [dr]
• tree – treat – trim – trip – trick – trend – tread
3. [kl], [kr], [gl], [gr]
• clean – clear – click – cling – clever – cleft – clan – class – clasp
4. [sl], [sm], [sn]
• sleep – sleet – sleeve – sleazy – sling – slick – slim

29. • Final consonant clusters
[ft], [kt]
drift – gift – lift – sift – left – draft
[lk], [lp], [lb]
• milk – silk – elk – bulk – hulk – sulk; palp – pulp – bulb
[vd], [ðd], [zd]
• lived – received – saved – bathed – breathed – clothed – seized –
raised – closed;

30. Write three example On the following consonant
cluster?
• [st], [sht], [cht] end
• [pt], [kt], [ft] end
• [mz], [nz], [ŋz], [lz] end
• [mz], [nz], [ŋz], [lz] end
• [sk], [sp], [st] end
• [ŋk] end
• [lch], [lj], [lm], [ls] end

31. Arabic Consonant clusters
• No initial cluster in Arabic but allows middle and final clusters.
• Contrast between Arabic clusters and English cluster? .
• Therefore AlsE will have some difficulty with the
pronunciation of English clusters, especially initial clusters
and final ones consisting of three of four clusters by
inserting an anaptyctic (the insertion of a short vowel between consonants in
order to make a word more easily pronounceable
Asked / walked

32. • /sɪblæʃ/ ‘splash’
• 2. /sɪblɪ:n/ ‘spleen’
• 3. /sɪkrɪ:n/ ‘screen’
• 4. /sɪbraɪt/ ‘sprite’
• 5. /sɪtreɪn/ ‘strain’
• 6. /sɪkræp/ ‘scrap’
• 7. /sɪtreɪt/ ‘straight’
• 8. /sɪpreɪ/ ‘spray’

33. /tɪksɪt/ ‘text’
2. /mʌnθɪs/ ‘months’
3. /hændɪz/ ‘hands
’ 4. /lændɪz/ ‘lands
• /stʊbɪd/ ‘stopped’
• 2. /dɪvɪlʊbɪd/ ‘developed’
• 3. /lɑ:fɪd/ ‘laughed’
• 4. /ɑ:skɪd/ ‘asked’
• 5. /wɔ:kɪd/ ‘walked’
• 6. /gru:bɪz/ ‘groups’

34. P vs. ‫ب‬
• /P/ exists in English as a phoneme. It does not exist in Arabic as a
distinct phoneme. Nevertheless, /p/ exists in Arabic as an allophone
of /b/ conditioned by the phonetic environment, e.g /labs/ ‫لبس‬
. Here /b/ shows itself as /p/ if followed by a voiceless sound; /b/ is
devoiced into the voiceless /p/. Thus, the differences between /b/ and
/p/ is phonemic in English, significant or functional, because it affects,
but the differences in Arabic is phonetic, non-phonemic, non-functional
because does not affect the meaning.

35. VOWELS:
• In any vocalized language vowels plays important role, it is the most prominent
and central sound of a syllable. The vowels helps us to join letter so a full
sound can be achieved.
in English a,e,i,o and u
(also y ) are the vowels
which are clearly spelled
out in a text
in Arabic they are not. There are no
exact correspondences between English
and Arabic vowels; they may differ in
quality, and they may behave differently
under certain circumstances
There are 29
srettel
stebahpla cibarA ni
lla hcihw
tub stnanosnoc era
aY dna waw ,fila rettel (
)
are used as long vowels or diphthongs and also play a role as weak
consonants

36. The vowels sings such as srettel cibarA fo trap ton era )scitircaid ro skram laitnenised(
,
In non-religious writing such as journals, newspapers etc. vowel signs often omitted and
similar words may have to be interpreted from the context, vowels sign are only indicated
when there is possibility of confusion. As far as Qur'an concern these vowels signs are
absolutely necessary in this age in order to pronounced religious text for those who are
not well versed in classical Arabic language.
In English there are five (5) vowels letters ie. (a,e,i,o.u) whereas in Arabic there are two kind
of vowels Those who are well versed in Arabic language also preferred the read the the Holy
Qur'an with the vowels and other signs so not to make any mistake in reciting the Holy
Qur'an.

38. • To compare Vowel in Arabic and English we need to use thee
parameters:
1. Vertical tongue position (high, mid, low)
2. Horizontal tongue position ( front, central, back)
3. Lips shape (spread, neutral, and rounded)
 Diphthong: is a sound made by combining two vowels, specifically
when it starts as one vowel sound and goes to another, like
the oy sound in oil.

39. English has 20 vowel phonemes ( page 19.)
Length of Vowels
Beat Vs Bead
Which vowel is longer?
Vowel is longer when it is followed by a voiced
consonant than by voiceless one
Vowels are nasalized before nasal consonant ( seen,
soon, sing)

40. English has 8 diphthongs
All are very common, and many people simply think of them as
single vowels in some contexts. For example, in the English word
ride the i would be transcribed phonetically as ai. Although it
appears as a single letter in our writing, it actually consists
of two vowels
how contains the diphthong aw at the end
contains the diphthong oy.
boy

41. Arabic vowels and Diphthongs
Three pairs of short and long vowel phonemes

‫سين‬
/
‫سن‬
I –ii /
/

‫كتب‬
–
‫كاتب‬
/
a, aa
/

‫عود‬
–
‫عد‬
/
uu, u
/
Madd ( ‫المد‬ ‫حروف‬
What are they ?
 ‫ا‬
,
‫و‬
,
‫ي‬
Prolongation

42. Allophonic variants
• Vowel exhibit phonetic harmony, conditioned by the surrounding
consonants (21)
Any of the various phonetic realizations of a phoneme in a language, which do
not contribute to distinctions of meaning. For example, in English an aspirated p
(as in pin) and unaspirated p (as in spin) are allophones of p
predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme. For example, the aspirated t .
of top, the unaspirated t ofstop, and the tt (pronounced as a flap) of batter
are allophones of the English phoneme /t/.

43. Morphological
• Morphological is ?
• The study of the structure of words
Two types of Morphology :
 Inflectional morphology  derivational morphology
 Grammatical process as pluralization
 Word-formation processes
English Word Classes
Closed Open word
Nouns-verbs,
adjectives,
advs.
Pronouns
Determiners
Pre
Conjunctions

44. • What is the differences between open and closed word classes ?
First is extendable and flexible
 The properties of English words What are they?
1. Multiple membership (words may belong to more than one class e.g. round )
Arabic word class
Ar having three word classes: What are they?
Ism- Fi’l harf
Adjective Numerals
Demonstrative
Relative and interrogative pronouns,
participles and verbal nouns .
• Are inflected for number, case ,
gender and definiteness
• Are inflected for persons, number,
gender, tense
• Are uninflected and it
has different types:
• Advs, Pre, Con,
interrogative,
interjections

45. 1. English has eight inflectional suffixes.
2. They never change the grammatical category (boy- boys
3. They always come final in a word.
4. The eight inflectional suffixes are:
Inflectional morphology

46. VERB INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES
• 1. The suffix –s functions in the Present Simple as the third person marking of the
verb : to work – he work-s
• 2. The suffix –ed functions in the past simple as the past tense marker in regular
verbs: to love – lov-ed
• 3. The suffixes –ed (regular verbs) and –en (for some regular verbs) function in
the marking of the past partciple and, in general, in the marking of the perfect
aspect:
To study studied studied / To eat ate eaten
• 4. The suffix –ing functions in the marking of the present participle, the gerund
and in the marking of the continuous aspect: To eat – eating / To study - studying

47. NOUN INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES
•
5. The suffix –s functions in the marking of the plural of nouns: dog –
dogs
•
6. The suffix –s functions as a possessive marker (saxon genitive):
Laura – Laura’s book.

48. ADJECTIVE INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES
7. The suffix –er functions as comparative marker: quick – quicker
8. The suffix –est functions as superlative marker: quick - quickest

49. Inflectional morphology in Arabic

50. Nominal categories
• Number in English
En has Sg and Pl.
En plural –s suffix realized phonemically as s/z/iz
En has irregular plurals

57. Nominal category in Arabic
• Singular
• Dual
• Plural

64. Why Do we call it as plural

67. Grammatical gender
• Grammatical gender is a system of noun classification. A common
gender classification includes masculine and feminine categories.
Masculine nouns are words for men, boys and male animals.
Feminine nouns are words for women, girls and female animals.

73. All nouns and adjectives in Arabic must indicate gender (feminine or
masculine) whether they refer to animate or inanimate objects. There is
no suffix that signals masculine, but feminine is indicated by the suffix at
the end of the word. Remember that the shape of the suffix depends on
the preceding letter. Look at the following examples of masculine and
feminine nouns.
Gender in Arabic
The grammatical gender of nouns is one of two: a noun may be masculine or it
may be feminine, and there is no neutral option. Moreover, masculinity is the
default grammatical gender and a word does not have to have anything special
in order to reflect this. Femininity, on the other hand, is not default and a noun
would have to have something special to reflect this gender .

74. A noun is masculine by default. It must have one of four signs in order for it
to be considered feminine. Which nouns receive one of these four signs
(and are therefore feminine) and which do not receive any of these signs
(and are therefore left masculine) is entirely coincidental. There is no rule
that dictates whether a noun will be masculine or feminine; it is entirely

79. What Is Case in Grammar? Grammatical case pertains to nouns and pronouns. A noun's or
a pronoun's case shows its relationship with the other words in
a sentence.
• The Possessive Case (or Genitive Case)
• The main cases you will encounter in English are: The Subjective Case (or
Nominative Case)
• The Objective Case (or Accusative Case or Dative Case)
• The Vocative Case
What Is the Possessive Case?
The possessive case is predominantly used for showing possession (i.e.,
ownership). The possessive case applies to nouns, pronouns, and adjectives.

80. The possessive case is predominantly used for showing possession (i.e., ownership).
The possessive case applies to nouns, pronouns, and adjectives.
What Are Possessive Nouns?
A possessive noun is a noun indicating ownership (or possession).
1. a dog's bone
2. a man's jacket
3. a lion's mane
The examples above are obviously about possession (i.e., ownership). They refer to
the bone of the dog, the jacket of the man, and the mane of the lion

81. However, possessive nouns are not always so obviously about possession. Look at
these examples of possessive nouns:
1. a book's pages
2. a day's pay
3. a week's worth
4. the stone's throw
Sometimes, possessive nouns are clearly not about possession. Look at these examples:
• The Children's Minister
(This is a minister for children's affairs. The minister does not belong to the children.)
• Rembrandt's paintings
(These are paintings by Rembrandt. He does not own them.)

82. Using Apostrophes to Form Possessive Nouns

83. So, with one possessor, the apostrophe goes before the s.
For example:
• Take the girl's hand and place it on the cushion.
• (hand belonging to one girl)
• I had to remove Peter's label and replace it.
• (label belonging to Peter, i.e., one person)
• Wagner's music is better than it sounds. (Mark Twain)
• A foolish woman knows a foolish man's faults.
• A friend's eye is a good mirror.
• A guest should be blind in another man's house.

84. Mistakes with apostrophes to show possession are very common. One reason for
this is the number of exceptions to the rules above. For example, plural words
which do not end in the letter s (e.g., men, people, children) take the apostrophe
before the s when showing possession.
Examples:
• He is the people's poet.
• All television is children's television.
• Richard P. Adler)
• Zeus does not bring all men's plans to fulfilment.
• My watch was stolen from the men's changing room.

85. Exception to the Rule (Singular Nouns Ending s)
Singular words which end in s (e.g., Charles, Wales, Paris, Dickens) can end
in ' (i.e., just an apostrophe) or 's when showing possession.
Examples:
• It is Charles' birthday. It is Charles's birthday.
(both correct)
• I have not seen Wales' new stadium.
• I have not seen Wales's new stadium.
• (Both of these are acceptable.)

86. Exception to the Rule (Compound Nouns)
Which one is correct ?
sister-in-law's pond sister's-in-law pond sister-in-law’ pond
sisters-in-law's husbands
Sisters’-in-law husbands sisters-in-law’ husbands
Some compound nouns (e.g., sister-in-law) do not form their plurals by adding s to the
end. The s is appended to the principal word (i.e., the plural is sisters-in-law). With a
noun like this, the possessive form is created by adding 's to the end, regardless of
whether it is singular or plural.

87. Apostrophes with Joint Ownership
Andrew and Jacob’ factory
• Andrew and Jacob's factory
(Note: only the last part is possessive)
• Andrew’s and Jacob's factory
Andrew and Jacob's factories Andrew and Jacob’ factories
Andrew's and Jacob's factories
(individual ownership)

88. India and Pakistan’ problems India and Pakistan's problems
India’s and Pakistan's problems
(common to both)
India's and Pakistan's problems India and Pakistan' problems
India and Pakistan's problems
(separate problems)

89. Possessive Nouns with Inanimate Objects
A book's pages The pages of a book
•A car door (best version)
•A door of a car (possible but awkward)
•A car's door (possible but still awkward)
Possessive Nouns in Time Expressions
•A day's salary
•Two days' salary
•Three years' insurance
•Three years' insurance
Possessive nouns are common in time expressions (or
temporal expressions as they're also known).

90. • The –’s genitive suffix added to singular and the plural nouns
• The of- genitive form
The boy’s book
The price of the book