2. At the end of lecture, students should be able to:-
īļ Narrate the evolution of anatomy from the stone
age to â
īŧ Ancient anatomy (Egypt, Greece)
īŧ Medieval period/Renaissance (Arab)
īŧ Early modern period
īŧ Modern period
īļ Discuss the contributions of â
īŧ Galen
īŧ Vesalius
īļ
3. īļ History of anatomy extends from the earliest
examinations of sacrificial victims to the sophisticated
analyses of the body in modern age.
īļ Written descriptions of human organs and parts can be
traced back thousands of years to ancient Egyptian
papyri, where attention to the body was necessitated by
their highly elaborate burial practices.
īļ Theoretical considerations of the structure and function
of the human body did not develop until far later, in
Ancient Greece.
īļ Ancient Greek philosophers, like Alcmaeon and
Empedocles, and ancient Greek doctors, like Hipprocrates
and his school, paid attention to the causes of life,
disease, and different functions of the body.
4. īļ Aristotle advocated dissection of animals as part
of his program for understanding the causes of
biological forms.
īļ During the Hellenistic Age, dissection and
vivesection of human beings took place for the
1st time in the work of Herophilos and
Erasistratus.
īļ Anatomical knowledge in antiquity reached its
peak with Galen, who made important
discoveries via medical practice and dissections
of monkeys, oxen and other animals.
5.
6. īļ Ancient skulls from the late Palaeolithic period have
shown evidence of trephining or trepanning (i.e.
making a burr hole in the skull).
īļ Some of those skulls demonstrate evidence of new
bone formation around the holes, indicating that
some of the victims of these primitive rituals
survived the procedure.
īļ Such practices are thought to have been carried out
to release âevil spiritsâ from people suffering from
mental health disorders as well as other physical
symptoms, such as cranial fractures or headaches.
īļ Until recent times, similar practices were still being
performed amongst certain native tribes.
7. īļ The field remained speculative rather than descriptive,
until the achievements of the Alexandrian medical school.
īļ Herophilus (300 BCE) dissected human cadavers and thus
gave anatomy a considerable factual basis for the 1st
time.
īļ Herophilus made many important discoveries and was
followed by his younger contemporary Erasistratus
(regarded as the founder of physiology).
īļ In the 2nd century CE, Greek physician Galen assembled
and arranged all the discoveries of the Greek anatomists,
including with them his own concepts of physiology and
his discoveries in experimental medicine.
īļ The many books Galen wrote became the unquestioned
authority for anatomy and medicine in Europe because
they were the only ancient Greek anatomical texts that
survived the Dark Ages in the form of Arabic (and then
Latin) translations.
8. īļ The practice of Anatomy was part or a feature of
the development in ancient education in different
empires and established human populations
across the world.
īļ Anatomy is an ancient basic medical science, the
oldest scientific discipline of medicine and one of
the cornerstones in medical education.
īļ An early formal anatomical studies was recorded
in Egypt â500 yrs BC.
īļ Some thousand years after the Egyptian medical
papyri were written, medical schools were
established in Croton, Kos, Cnidus & Alexandria.
9. īļ Alcmaeon, Hippocrates, Herophilus, Erasistratus,
Galen and Aretaeus studied at various times.
īļ Alcmaeon was the 1st scientist known to have
practised dissection in his researches.
īļ Theophrastus called dissection âanatomy,â from
anatemnein, meaning âto cut up.â
īļ The first documented scientific dissections on the
human body are carried out as early as the 3rd
century B.C. in Alexandria.
īļ At that time, anatomists explore anatomy through
dissections of animals, primarily pigs and monkeys.
īļ Early in the 3rd century BC two surgeons in
Alexandria, Herophilus and Erasistratus, made the 1st
scientific studies designed to discover the workings
of human anatomy.
10. īļ Human dissections were carried out by the Greek
physicians Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of
Chios in the early part of the 3rd century BC.
īļ Hippocrates is called the Father of Medicine.
īļ Herophilus is called the Father of Anatomy. Most would
argue that he was the greatest anatomist of antiquity
(and perhaps of all times, except for Vesalius - who
worked during the 16th century A. D)
īļ Andreas Vesalius was the founder of modern human
anatomy.
īļ Renaissance artists were anxious to gain specialized
knowledge of the inner workings of the human body,
which would allow them to paint and sculpt the body in
many different positions.
11. īļ Anatomy was practiced in Persia (an ancient
Asian Empire built around the modern day Iran)
as early as the 6th century BC.
īļ Galen's work gradually became a part of the
traditional medical curriculum in the Middle
Ages, until Renaissance brought a
reconsideration of classical medical texts and
anatomical dissections.
īļ An understanding of the structures and functions
of organs in the body has been an integral part
of medical practice and a source for scientific
investigations ever since.
12. īļ The earliest records indicate that medicine was 1st
recognized as a craft by the ancient Egyptians.
īļ Medical practitioners had superficial knowledge of
anatomy, as demonstrated by their drawings and
sculptures.
īļ Their mummification practices, which required the
evisceration of human bodies. A small incision was
made to remove the viscera for embalming.
īļ The priests who carried out the process were not
interested in studying the extracted organs.
īļ Ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians and
Babylonians appear to have had similar ignorance of
human anatomy.
13. īļ Anatomy is the oldest scientific discipline of medicine.
īļ The study of anatomy began as early as 1600 BC (date of
the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus).
īļ At that time, anatomists explore anatomy through
dissections of animals, primarily pigs and monkeys.
īļ Egyptians seem to have known little about the function of
the kidneys and the brain and made the heart the
meeting point of a number of vessels which carried all
the fluids of the body (blood, tears, urine and semen),
but did not have a theory as to where saliva and sweat
came from.
īļ Claudius Galen (129-199) is the most prominent
physician in Ancient Greece whose conclusions are purely
based on the study of animals.
īļ 1st documented scientific dissections on the human body
were carried out â the 3rd century B.C in Alexandria.
14. īļ Appear to have made the 1st real scientific advances in
the field of anatomy.
īļ Alcmaeon of Croton, who lived in âly 5th century BCE, is
the 1st scientist known to have practised dissection in his
researches. His aim was not anatomical but to find the
whereabout of human intelligence. In the course of his
researches, he made the 1st scientific discoveries in the field of
anatomy.
īļ Hippocrates (430-375BC) born in Island of Cos, Greece,
Gk anatomist, elementary anatomical work dates from
around 400 BCE. A physician regarded as father of
medicine.
īļ Aristotle (384-322BC) contributed much information to
the fields of comparative anatomy and embryology. He
was the 1st of the ancient Greeks to dissect animals in a
systematic way. His anatomical studies led him to the
conclusion that the soul was the life source of the body.
īļ With the fall of the Greek empire, some outposts of
civilisation survived and emerged as centres of learning.
15. īļ In the Hellenistic period, the first recorded school of
anatomy was formed in Alexandria from the late 4th
century to the 2nd century BCE.
īļ Beginning with Ptolemy I Soter, medical officials were
allowed to cut open and examine cadavers for the
purposes of learning how human bodies operated.
īļ The 1st use of human bodies for anatomical research
occurred in the work of Herophilos and Erasistratus, who
gained permission to perform live dissections (or
vivisection) on condemned criminals in Alexandria under
the auspices of the Ptolemaic dynasty.
īļ Some of the anatomists from Alexandria schoolâsuch as
its founder, Herophilus of Chalcedon, and his disciple,
Erasistratus of Chiosâgreatly contributed to existing
knowledge of the nervous system, blood vessels and
lymphatics.
16. īļ Herophilus was the 1st physician to dissect human
bodies and is considered to be the founder of
anatomy. He contradicted Aristotleâs notion that the
heart was the âseat of intelligenceâ, arguing instead
that it was the brain. He developed a library of
anatomical knowledge which was much more
informed regarding the actual structure of the
human body in comparison to previous works. He
was eventually accused by his contemporaries of
dissecting live criminals.
īļ Erasistratus believed that the animal form was
determined by environmental rather than innate
factors, in line with Aristotleâs views. He introduced
the diametric notions of heredity and environment
(e.g. nature versus nurture).
17. īļ As the dissection of human bodies was forbidden, AR
anatomists had to rely on animal dissections to further their
knowledge.
īļ AR physicians gained much of their anatomical knowledge of
the human body by treating wounded gladiators.
īļGALEN
īļ The final major anatomist of ancient times.
īļ Active in the 2nd century CE.
īļ Born in the ancient Greek city of Pergamon (now in
Turkey).
īļ Instructed in all major philosophical schools (Platonism,
Aristotelianism, Stoicism and Epicureanism).
īļ Traveled widely searching for the best doctors in Smyrna,
Corinth, and finally Alexandria.
īļ Became a successful practicing physician.
īļ Known for anatomical observations & experimental
approaches, emphasising the interrelationships between
function & form.
18. īļ Compiled much of the knowledge obtained by his
predecessors.
īļ Performed dissections and vivisections on Barbary apes, oxen,
pigs, and other animals (due to a lack of readily available
human specimens).
īļ In 158 CE, Galen served as chief physician to the gladiators in
his native Pergamon.
īļ He was able to study all kinds of wounds without performing
any actual human dissection, and viewed much of the
abdominal cavity. His study on pigs and apes, gave him more
detailed information about the organs and provided the basis
for his medical works.
īļ Around 100 of these works survivedâthe most for any ancient
Greek authorâand fill 22 volumes of modern text.
īļ Anatomy was a major source of interest throughout his life.
īļ He wrote two great anatomical works â âAnatomical procedureâ
& âThe uses of the parts of the body of manâ.
19. īŊ Nearly 100 of Galen's tracts survived, and became the
basis of his great reputation in medieval medicine;
unchallenged until the anatomical work of Vesalius.
īŊ He overturned many long-held beliefs, such as the
theory (1st proposed by the Hippocratic school in about
400 BC, and maintained even by the physicians of
Alexandria) that the arteries contain air - carrying it to
all parts of the body from the heart and the lungs
(based on empty appearance of arteries of dead
animals).
īŊ Demonstrated that living arteries contain blood (His
error, which became the established medical orthodoxy
for centuries, was to assume that blood goes back and
forth from the heart in an ebb-and-flow motion). This
theory held sway in medical circles until the time of
Harvey.
īŊ Great credit is owed to Galen for explaining many of
the mysteries of the human body during that period,
as his beliefs were to last for a long time.
20.
21. īļ While Europe was in the midst of the Dark Ages,
Arabia was a beacon of medical knowledge.
īļ Baghdad was a noted haven for scholars who had
scattered after the fall of Constantinople.
īļ During this era, many Muslim scholars made
discoveries which provided greater anatomical
insight.
īļ Muhammad Al-Razi (862â930 CE) neuroanatomy.
īļ Ibn Al-Haytham (965â1040 CE) provided new insight
into optics.
īļ Avicenna or Abu ibn Sina (980â1037 CE) wrote the
Canon of Medicine.
īļ Ibn Al-Nafis (1210â1288 CE) explained pulmonary
circulation; paving the way for William Harvey (1578â
1657 CE), many centuries later.
22. īļ In âly 1000 CE, educational revival began in Europe with
the foundation of the medical school Schola Medica
Salernitana in Salerno.
īļ This southern Italian port became the main hub of
medical knowledge in Europe, after having imported
important translations of medical knowledge from Arab
and Muslim scholars.
īļ 2 centuries later, the University of Bologna, which was
initially a law school, incorporated medicine and other
disciplines into its curriculum. It is believed that post-
mortems were carried out here, possibly for medico-legal
reasons, potentially leading to a revived interest in
anatomical dissections to increase knowledge.
īļ At that time, Thaddeus Alderoti (c. 1206â1295 CE) was
the most active anatomist in this field.
īļ The 1st human dissection manual ever written, the
Anathomia corporis humani, was produced by one of
Alderotiâs students, Mondino de Luzzi (also known as
Mundinus), in âly 1316 CE.
23. īļ Throughout the Middle Ages, human anatomy was mainly
learned through books and animal dissection.
īļ For many decades human dissection was thought unnecessary
when all the knowledge about a human body could be read
about from early authors such as Galen.
īļ In the 12th century, as universities were being established in
Italy, Emperor Frederick II made it mandatory for students of
medicine to take courses on human anatomy and surgery.
īļ Students who had the opportunity to watch Vesalius in
dissection at times had the opportunity to interact with the
animal corpse.
īļ In the universities the lectern would sit elevated before the
audience and instruct someone else in the dissection of the
body, but in his early years Mondino de Luzzi performed the
dissection himself making him one of the 1st and few to use a
hands on approach to teaching human anatomy.
24. Mondino de Luzzi "Mundinus" (1276 â 1326)
īļ Credited with having "performed the 1st human dissection
recorded for Western Europe in 1315.
īļ Presented many lectures on human anatomy at Bologna
university btw 1314-1324.
īļ Wrote a book called "Anathomia" in 1316, which consisted of
detailed dissections that he had performed.
īļ The book was used in universities for 250 years.
īļ Carried out the 1st systematic human dissections since
Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos 1500 years
earlier.
īļ The 1st major development in anatomy in Christian Europe
since the fall of Rome occurred at Bologna, where anatomists
dissected cadavers and contributed to the accurate description
of organs and the identification of their functions.
īļ Following de Liuzzi's early studies, 15th century anatomists
included Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni.
25. īļ During this period, various anatomical sketches of the
human body were made by artists like Leonardo Da Vinci
and, to a lesser extent, Michelangelo di Buonarroti,
Rembrandt van Rijn, Albrecht DÃŧrer and Raphael da
Urbino.
īļ These sketches contributed to anatomical knowledge, but
were later replaced with newer updated anatomical
drawings.
īļ Artists were keen to gain accurate knowledge of the inner
workings of the human body, which would allow them to
paint and sculpt the body in many different positions.
īļ Even though it was banned by the Catholic church, many
artists and scientists performed dissections (using bodies
of executed criminals) to better understand the human
body.
īļ During these dissection sessions, a professor would read
aloud from Galenâs works, while a demonstrator
attempted to isolate or point to the various body parts
mentioned.
26. īŊ In medieval times, the body was seen as the frail
housing of the soul.
īŊ During the Renaissance, the human body was
exalted for its beauty, and becomes the primary
source of inspiration for artists of this epoch.
īŊ For the sake of art, many Renaissance artists
began studying the human body.
īŊ Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo did not only
attend dissections performed by their medically
trained friends, but rather pick up the scalpel
themselves.
27. īļ Designates the period between the downfall of classical
civilization and the revival of learning in the 15th century.
īļ Impossible to fix with accuracy, the fall of Rome to the
Goths in 476 and the fall of Constantinople to the Turks
are often cited as marking the beginning and the end of
the Middle Ages.
īļ Some historians set the end of the Middle Ages in about
1450, when Johnannes Gutenberg (c1398â1468) in
Strasbourg introduced metal movable type for printing.
īļ During the Middle Ages the attenuation of Greek
originality, its amalgamation with deism of Christianity
and the fatalism of the Orient led to stagnation of
anatomical studies.
28. īļ Despite the fact that several sentinel events in the
evolution of anatomy took place during the Middle Ages,
the writings of Galen of Pergamum (129ââ215 or 216)
were largely accepted as the authority of anatomical
knowledge in the Muslim East as well as in the Christian
West.
īļ Galenâs dogmatic and didactic style remained
unchallenged for 1500 years until the 16th century, when
Vesalius (1514â1564) shook the foundation of authority
based on experimentation and observation of the human
body.
īļ The precise knowledge of anatomy was lacking during
the Middle Ages, and the drawings were schematic.
29. īļ Owing to church prohibitions of cadaver dissection,
European medicine in the Middle Ages relied upon
Galenâs mixture of fact and fancy.
īļ In the early 16th century, the artist Leonardo da Vinci
undertook his own dissections, and his beautiful and
accurate anatomical drawings cleared the way for Flemish
physician Andreas Vesalius to ârestoreâ the science of
anatomy with his monumental De humani corporis
fabrica libri septem (1543; âThe Seven Books on the
Structure of the Human Bodyâ), which was the first
comprehensive and illustrated textbook of anatomy.
īļ As a professor at the University of Padua, Vesalius
encouraged younger scientists to accept traditional
anatomy only after verifying it themselves, and this more
critical and questioning attitude broke Galenâs authority
and placed anatomy on a firm foundation of observed
fact and demonstration.
30. īļ The mid-15th-century invention of the printing
press and the rise of a new spirit of critical inquiry
associated with the Renaissance, inspired
anatomists began to dissect in order to investigate
the structure of the body, and produced texts
illustrated with images based on their dissections.
īļ In the early modern era (1450-1750), the boundary
between art and science was ill-defined.
Anatomists and their artist collaborators made use
of familiar modes of representation
īļ Artists tried to create illustrations that were
accurate, but also amazing, beautiful and
entertaining.
31. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
īļ Most well-known Renaissance artist and scientist, performs
many anatomical dissections of human corpses that form the
basis for his famous, highly detailed anatomical sketches.
īļ Was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio.
īļ In 1489 he began a series of anatomical drawings depicting
the ideal human form. That lasted for over two decades.
īļ In 1510 demonstrated the homology of muscular structures in
humans and animals.
īļ He made many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles, and
organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.
īļ Leonardo dissected abt 30 human specimens.
īļ Created more than 750 anatomical drawings that were never
published.
īļ He was the 1st to develop drawing techniques in anatomy.
īļ Leonardo's notebooks were not published during his lifetime.
But those found centuries after his death were published.
32. īļ âAs an artist-anatomist, Leonardo made many important
discoveries, and had intended to publish a
comprehensive treatise on human anatomy.
īļ He produced the 1st accurate depiction of the human
spine, and documented the earliest known description of
cirrhosis of the liver and arteriosclerosis.
īļ This period marked the ârebirthâ of an empirical study of
anatomy.
īļ The Reformation freed physicians in Protestant countries
from the authority of the Catholic Church, and in 1565,
London's Royal College of Physicians was given the
authority to dissect of human cadavers
īļ The idea of âanatomy theatreâ arose. Allowed for the
observation of dissection performed in âtheatresâ by
everyone regardless of their gender and class in society.
However dissection was not allowed to be performed by
women.
33. Andreas Vesalius
īļ Born and educated in Belgium, contributed the most to human
anatomy.
īļ The actual science of anatomy is founded during the
Renaissance with the work of anatomist and surgeon, Andreas
Vesalius.
īļ The Galenic doctrine in Europe was 1st seriously challenged in
the 16th century, The Galenic doctrine in Europe was 1st
seriously challenged in the 16th century.
īļ The 1st to publish a treatise, De Humani Corporis Fabrica, that
challenged Galen's anatomical teachings, arguing that they are
based on observations of other mammals, not human bodies.
īļ The book included a detailed series of explanations and vivid
drawings of the anatomical parts of human bodies.
īļ Vesalius traveled all the way from Leuven to Padua for
permission to dissect victims from the gallows without fear of
persecution.
īļ His superbly executed drawings are triumphant descriptions of
the differences between dogs and humans, but it took a
century for Galen's influence to fade.
34. īļ Vesalius' work marked a new era in the study of anatomy and
its relation to medicine.
īļ Under Vesalius, anatomy became an actual discipline.
īļ In 1540, Vesalius gave a public demonstration of the
inaccuracies of Galen's anatomical theories.
īļ His evident skill led to his appointment as professor of surgery
and anatomy at the University of Padua.
īļ A succession of researchers proceeded to refine the body of
anatomical knowledge, giving their names to a number of
anatomical structures along the way.
īļ The 16th and 17th centuries also witnessed significant
advances in the understanding of the circulatory system, as
the purpose of valves in veins was identified, the left-to-right
ventricle flow of blood through the circulatory system was
described, and the hepatic veins were identified as a separate
portion of the circulatory system. The lymphatic system was
also identified as a separate system at this time.
35.
36. īļ In the late 16th century, anatomists began exploring.
īļ Anatomical theatres became a popular form for
anatomical teaching in the early 16th century.
īļ The University of Padua was the first and most widely
known theatre, founded in 1594.
īļ As a result, Italy became the centre for human dissection.
īļ People came from all over to watch as professors taught
lectures on the human physiology and anatomy, as
anyone was welcome to witness the spectacle.
Participants "were fascinated by corporeal display, by the
body undergoing dissectionâ.
īļ Most professors did not do the dissections themselves.
Instead, they sat in seats above the bodies while hired
hands did the cutting. Students and observers would be
placed around the table in a circular, stadium-like arena
and listen as professors explained the various anatomical
parts.
37. īļ As anatomy theatres gained popularity throughout the
16th century.
īļ Demonstrations were structured into dissections and
lectures.
īļ Dissections focused on the skill of autopsy/ vivisection
while the lectures would center on the philosophical
questions of anatomy.
īļ This is exemplary of how anatomy was viewed not only as
the study of structures but also the study of the "body as
an extension of the soul".
īļ The 19th century eventually saw a move from anatomical
theatres to classrooms, reducing "the number of people
who could benefit from each cadaver"
39. 17th century
īļ At the beginning of the 17th century, the use of
dissecting human cadavers influenced anatomy, leading
to a spike in the study of anatomy.
īļ The advent of the printing press facilitated the exchange
of ideas. Because the study of anatomy concerned
observation and drawings, the popularity of the
anatomist was equal to the quality of his drawing talents,
and one need not be an expert in Latin to take part.
īļ Many famous artists studied anatomy, attended
dissections, and published drawings for money, from
Michelangelo to Rembrandt.
īļ For the first time, prominent universities could teach
something about anatomy through drawings, rather than
relying on knowledge of Latin.
40. 17th century
īļ Only certified anatomists were allowed to perform dissections,
and sometimes then only yearly.
īļ These dissections were sponsored by the city councilors and
often charged an admission fee, rather like a circus act for
scholars.
īļ Many European cities, such as Amsterdam, London,
Copenhagen, Padua, and Paris, all had Royal anatomists (or
some such office) tied to local government.
īļ The supply of printed anatomy books from Italy and France led
to an increased demand for human cadavers for dissections.
īļ Since few bodies were voluntarily donated for dissection, royal
charters were established which allowed prominent
universities to use the bodies of hanged criminals for
dissections.
īļ There was still a shortage of bodies that could not
accommodate for the high demand of bodies.
41. 17TH CENTURY
īŊ Artistic passion inspires the anatomists of the
Renaissance, and interest in anatomy grows among the
masses. More and more, physicians, as well as the
general public, want to see the human body with their
own eyes. The word âautopsyâ hails from the Greek
phrase, âTo see with oneâs own eyesâ.
īŊ Anatomical theaters are built in many cities. Rich and
poor alike would flock to the public dissection
presentations.
42. īļ Until the middle of the 18th century, there was a quota of ten
cadavers for each the Royal College of Physicians and the
Company of Barber Surgeons, the only two groups permitted
to perform dissections.
īļ During the 1st half of the 18th century, William Cheselden
challenged the Company of Barber Surgeon's exclusive rights
on dissections. He was the first to hold regular anatomy
lectures and demonstrations. He also wrote The Anatomy of
the Humane Body, a student handbook of anatomy.
īļ In 1752, the rapid growth of medical schools in England and
the pressing demand for cadavers led to the passage of the
Murder Act.
īļ This allowed medical schools in England to legally dissect
bodies of executed murderers for anatomical education and
research and also aimed to prevent murder.
īļ To further increase the supply of cadavers, the government
increased the number of crimes in which hanging was a
punishment.
īļ Although the number of cadavers increased, it was still not
enough to meet the demand of anatomical and medical
training.
43. īļ 'Body snatching' was the act of sneaking into a graveyard, digging up
a corpse and using it for study. Men known as 'resurrectionists'
emerged as outside parties, who would steal corpses for a living and
sell the bodies to anatomy schools.
īļ During the 17th and 18th centuries, the perception of dissections
had evolved into a form of capital punishment.
īļ Dissections were considered a dishonor. The corpse was mutilated
and not suitable for a funeral.
īļ By the end of the 18th century, many European countries had passed
legislation similar to the Murder Act in England to meet the demand
of fresh cadavers and to reduce crime.
īļ Countries allowed institutions to use unclaimed bodies of paupers,
prison inmates, and people in psychiatric and charitable hospitals for
dissection.
īļ Lack of bodies available for dissection and the controversial air that
surrounded anatomy in the late 17th century & early 18th century
caused a halt in progress that is evident by the lack of updates made
to anatomical texts of the time between editions.
īļ Most of the investigations into anatomy were aimed at developing
the knowledge of physiology and surgery.
44. īļ Paris Medicine was notorious for its influence on medical thought
and its contributions to medical knowledge.
īļ The British Parliament passed the Anatomy Act 1832, which finally
provided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses by
allowing legal dissection of executed murderers.
īļ Having one's body dissected was seen as a punishment worse than
death, "if you stole a pig, you were hung. If you killed a man, you
were hung and then dissected.
īļ High demand made some anatomists resort to dissecting their family
members as well as robbing bodies from their graves.
īļ Many Europeans interested in the study of anatomy traveled to Italy,
then the centre of anatomy.
īļ Only in Italy could certain important research methods be used, such
as dissections on women.
īļ Realdo Colombo (aka Realdus Columbus) and Gabriele Falloppio were
pupils of Vesalius.
īļ Columbus, as Vesalius's immediate successor in Padua, and
afterwards professor at Rome, distinguished himself by describing
the shape and cavities of the heart, the structure of the pulmonary
artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing the course of the blood
from the right to the left side of the heart.
45. īļ In 1628, English physician William Harvey observed circulating
blood through dissections of his father's and sister's bodies.
He published De moto cordis et sanguinis.
īļ In Tuscany and Florence, Marcello Malpighi founded
microscopic anatomy.
īļ Nils Steensen studied the anatomy of lymph nodes and salivary
glands.
īļ By the end of the 17th century, Gaetano Zumbo developed
anatomical wax modeling techniques.
īļ Antonio Valsalva, a student of Malpighi and a professor of
anatomy at University of Bologna, was one of the greatest
anatomists of the time. He is known by many as the founder of
anatomy and physiology of the ear.
īļ In the 18th century, Giovanni Batista Morgagni related pre-
mortem symptoms with post-mortem pathological findings
using pathological anatomy in his book De Sedibus (leading to
the rise of morbid anatomy in France and Europe).
46. īļ Along with the popularity of anatomy and dissection
came an increasing interest in the preservation of
dissected specimens.
īļ In the 17th century, many of the anatomical specimens
were dried and stored in cabinets.
īļ In the Netherlands, there were attempts to replicate
Egyptian mummies by preserving soft tissue. This
became known as Balsaming.
īļ In the 1660s the Dutch were also attempting to preserve
organs by injecting wax to keep the organ's shape. Dyes
and mercury were added to the wax to better
differentiate and see various anatomical structures for
academic and research anatomy.
īļ By the late 18th century, Thomas Pole published The
Anatomic Instructor, which detailed how to dry and
preserve specimens and soft tissue.
47. 18TH CENTURY
īļ Some anatomists use their dissection skills in a
traditionally artistic way and rendered their specimens
into lasting works of art.
īļ HonorÊ Fragonard rendered his anatomical specimens
into lasting pieces of art. He injected them with colored
wax that hardens inside the blood vessels. The remaining
tissues dried up and treated with varnish. His works are
still on display at the Ecole Nationale VÊtÊrinaire dâAlfort
near Paris, France.
īļ In the 18th century, anatomical artists create the first
whole-body specimens, which are dried and varnished.
īļ Some specimens from that time contain metal alloys
which are melted and injected into the arteries while still
hot.
48. 19th century anatomy
īļ Anatomical research was extended with histology and
developmental biology of both humans and animals.
īļ Women, who were not allowed to attend medical school,
could attend the anatomy theatres.
īļ From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons forced
unregulated schools to close.
īļ Medical museums provided examples in comparative
anatomy, and were often used in teaching.
49. Current Research
īļ Anatomical research in the past hundred years has taken
advantage of technological developments to create a
thorough understanding of the body's organs and
structures.
īļ Medical devices have enabled researchers study organs,
living or dead, in unprecedented detail.
īļ Progress today in anatomy is centered on the
development, evolution, and function of anatomical
features.
īļ Non-human anatomy is particularly active as researchers
use techniques ranging from finite element analysis to
molecular biology.
50. Current Research
īļ Some medical schools have adopted prosection, where a
demonstrator dissects and explains to an audience, in
place of dissection by students.
īļ Improvements in colour images and photography
īļ Plastic anatomical models are regularly used in anatomy
teaching.
īļ Use of living models for anatomy demonstration is once
again becoming popular within teaching of anatomy.
īļ Surface landmarks that can be palpated .
īļ Donations of bodies have declined with public confidence
in the medical profession.
51. 19TH/20TH CENTURY
īļ The principles of human macroscopic anatomy
established the study of dissected organs.
īļ As the field of anatomy becomes more specialized,
microscopic anatomical realm opened up to anatomical
scholarship.
īļ It is not until the 19th century, when anatomy becomes a
science, that the public is excluded from witnessing
dissections.
īŊ The BODY WORLDS exhibitions succeed in reviving a
culture of public anatomy, inspiring millions of people to
take an interest in anatomy.
52. īļ In the 20th century anatomists tended to scrutinize tinier
and tinier units of structure as new technologies enabled
them to discern details far beyond the limits of resolution
of light microscopes.
īļ These advances were made possible by the electron
microscope, which stimulated an enormous amount of
research on subcellular structures beginning in the 1950s
and became the prime tool of anatomical research.
īļ About the same time, the use of X-ray diffraction for
studying the structures of many types of molecules
present in living things gave rise to the new subspecialty
of molecular anatomy.
53.
54.
55.
56. īļ Until the recent past, there was mass hostility towards
anyone who carried out dissection, coupled with difficulty
securing cadavers for this purpose.
īļ With the increasing number of medical schools, came an
escalating demand for bodies.
īļ While there are many methodologies for anatomy
teaching, the consensus seems to be that the optimal
teaching method for anatomy education is to use
prosected cadaveric material with other adjunct facilities.
This necessitates a continuous supply of cadaveric
material.
īļ In certain cultures, bequeathal programmes have been
founded to regulate body donations to medical schools.
īļ Full bodies, body parts and specific organs are
maintained using preservation techniques including
plastination and advanced digital imagery, all of which
aim to ensure an adequate provision of material for
medical students
57. īļ Anatomy in its current form has several fields.
īļ It has witnessed radical evolution in context and content.
īļ Whereas Anatomy started as what is currently called
Gross or Basic Anatomy, the study of tangible
morphology, other primary fields including Embryology,
Histology, Genetics and Histochemistry among others
have evolved particularly due to the advancements and
sophistications in methods of studying the body towards
better understanding of form, functions and disorders.
58. īļ Currently, teachers and students of anatomy have
the necessary illustrations and information they need
to conduct anatomical research.
īļ Modern technology ensures that this information is
readily available and of the utmost clarity.
īļ The past eminent scholars who discovered and
developed the various tenants of todayâs anatomical
knowledge should be remembered for the mental,
physical and social challenges they faced in the
course of their research, which sometimes cost them
their lives.
59. īļ Anatomy was first taught as a subject for the medical
degree programme in 1930.
īļ Anatomy education in Nigeria began in 1963 at the
University of Ibadan.
īļ Since 1933, the Nigerian Anatomical act has been a part
of the Nigerian Federal Laws. It is obsolete because it has
never been amended.
īļ Currently, many Nigerian universities offer programs
leading to the award of bachelorâs degrees in Anatomy.
īļ Anatomy is fundamental to understanding the bodyâs
functions and how both structure and function are
modified by disease processes.
īļ Modern Anatomy now considers the study of the human
body from its gross form to molecular level, including its
development.
