Pharmaceutics I (Physical Pharmacy) complete notes by Muhammad Muneeb

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Muhammad Muneeb
Muhammad Muneeb
Punjab University College of Pharmacy,
Lahore, Pakistan (Session 2016-2021)
PHARMACEUTICS-I
(PHYSICAL PHARMACY)
Doctor of Pharmacy
1st
Professional

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Table of Contents
Ch. No. Chapter Page No.
01 Pharmacy Orientation 03
02 History and Literature of Pharmacy 20
03
Physicochemical Principles
38
A. Solutions
B. Solubility
C. Adsorption
D. Ionization
E. Hydrolysis
F. Micromeritics
04
Dispersions
104
A. Colloids
B. Emulsions
C. Suspensions
05 Rheology 146
06
Physicochemical Processes
167
A. Precipitation
B. Crystallization
C. Distillation
D. Miscellaneous Processes
07 Extraction Processes 215
08 Rate and Order of Reactions 229
09 Kinetic Principles and Stability Testing 235
Past Papers 246
References 250

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Introduction to the Notes
The purpose of these notes is to compile the syllabus of Pharmaceutics – I (Physical
Pharmacy) in one place. The handouts correspond to the lecture references of university
professors and books. In case of any suggestion, the readers are suggested to contact at
mmuneeb558@gmail.com. These notes are meant for only understanding of the concept and
the preparation of exams and not for uploading on any personal or other webpage or media.
Thankyou!
Good Luck for exams.
Muhammad Muneeb
Pharm. D (Session 2016-2021)
University College of Pharmacy, University of the Punjab,
Lahore, Pakistan.

Chapter 1. Pharmacy Orientation
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Unit 1.
PHARMACY ORIENTATION
Outline:
Introduction and orientation to the Professional of Pharmacy in relation to:
 Hospital Pharmacy
 Retail Pharmacy
 Industrial Pharmacy
 Forensic Pharmacy
 Pharmaceutical Education and research etc.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
PHARMACY – Introduction:
The word “Pharmacy” is derived from the Greek word “Pharmakon” means medicine or drug.
Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing, dispensing, and reviewing drugs and providing additional
clinical services. It is a health profession that links health sciences with pharmaceutical sciences and aims
to ensure the safe, effective, and affordable use of drugs. The professional practice is becoming more clinically
oriented as most of the drugs are now manufactured by pharmaceutical industries.
Definition:
 Pharmacy can be defined as the knowledge of identification, selection, pharmaceutical action,
preservation, combination, analysis and standardization of drugs and medicines.
 Pharmacy is the art and science of preparing, dispensing and proper utilization of drugs and
medicines.
 Pharmacy is the clinical health science that links medical sciences with chemistry and it is charged
with the discovery, production, disposal, safe and effective use, and control of medications and drugs.
Drug:
A substance intended for the use in diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of disease.
(FDA)
The material may be:
 Natural
o Plant
o Animal
o Mineral
 Synthetic (aspirin)
 Semi-synthetic (ampicillins)
Scope:
1. Interpretation of prescription orders

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2. Compounding
3. Labeling
4. Dispensing of drugs and devices
5. Drug product selection and DURs
6. Patient monitoring and interventions
7. Provision of information of medicines and devices
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DRUG AND MEDICINE:
Drug Medicine
Definition Substances which act on the body and
are used for prevention, diagnosis and
treatment
Substances that have definite form and
therapeutic use for treatment
Potency APIs / active potent compound Palatable form of drug
Amount Do not have definite form or dose Has definite form and dose
Compare All drugs are not medicines All medicines are drugs
Dosage form No appropriate dosage form / vehicle Have appropriate dosage form
Effects May have positive / negative effects Usually have positive effects
Connotations Associated with negative connotations Associated with positive connotations
Source Natural, synthetic, semi-synthetic API + excipient
Example PCM Panadol (PCM 500 mg)
Naming of a Drug:
Description Example
Chemical Name Indicate chemical structure of drug N-acetyl-para-aminophenol
Generic Name Given to compound during early investigation Paracetamol
Official Name Given to drug in official monograph Paracetamol (B.P. 1998),
Acetaminophen (USP XXII)
Brand Name Name of drug in market Panadol (GSK), Paramol (Misr)
From Drug Substance to Pharmaceutical Preparation:
 Active drug substance (active pharmaceutical ingredient - API)
 Excipients (inactive pharmaceutical ingredients)
o Technological, biopharmaceutical and / or stability reasons
o Diluents / fillers, binders, lubricants, disintegrant, coatings, preservatives and stabilizers,
colorants and flavorings
o Should always be stated in SPC (important in the case of allergies)
 Pharmaceutical dosage form:
o Determines the physical form of the final pharmaceutical preparation
o Is a drug delivery system which is formed by technological processing (drug formulation)
o Must reflect therapeutic intentions, route of administrations, dosing etc.
 Pharmaceutical Preparation (PP)

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o Particular pharmaceutical product containing active and inactive pharmaceutical ingredients
formulated into the particular dosage form.
o Packed and labelled appropriately
o Two major types of PP according the origin:
 Manufactured in large scales by pharmaceutical industry (original and generic preparations)
 Compounded individually in compounding pharmacies
Pharmacist:
A Pharmacist holds a Graduation in Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D). Pharmacist is a person who
is Expert in medicines and a sole custodian of Medicines, right from manufacturing, testing, Clinical
administration & dispensing it safely to the patients. A Pharmacist cherish roles of different kinds, from
working in clinical pharmacy with direct interaction with patients alongside other medical staff to serving in
community pharmacy, he supervises Manufacturing units or Laboratories. A Drug expert aka Pharmacist can
review prescriptions and can suggest necessary dosage for the patients. In some developed countries, only a
pharmacist is at liberty to write prescriptions. Right man for the right job, obviously.
Pharmacist might persue specialization in almost every major disease management, like Cardiac
Pharmacist, Oncology Pharmacist, Pediatric, Ambulatory Care Pharmacist, Neuro Pharmacist, Pain
management, Diabetes, Hypertension or simply can work as a hospital Pharmacist to keep check on smooth
flow of Right medicines in Hospital.
Pharmacist provides counselling about Drug -Drug interactions, Drug-Food interactions, Drug-Body
interactions, he can work best to reduce possible side effects of medicines.
PHARMACIST - IMPORTANT PILLAR OF HEALTHCARE:
One may ask why presence of Qualified Pharmacist is so important? According to WHO & research
concluded by John Hopkins university, there are recorded average 2,50,000 Deaths only in USA annually due
to medication errors or due to misuse of Medicines. And God knows how many are sacrificing their lives in
developing countries like Pakistan due to Medication errors. As I said earlier, Pharmacist is a sole custodian
of Medicines and only he can overcome these errors with his expertise. The role of a pharmacist in health care
system must be taken into consideration and implemented strongly. At the end of the day we all in healthcare
sector works for the betterment of our patients.
Pharmacy Education:
There are two types of courses studied in pharmacy. The courses include:
1. Pre-requisite courses – Courses other than professional courses (Important for background
knowledge for professional pharmacy courses)
I. Physical sciences
II. Biological sciences
III. Mathematics, statistics, computer sciences etc.
2. Professional courses
I. Pharmaceutics
i. Physical Pharmacy
ii. Dosage Form Science
iii. Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Immunology

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iv. Industrial Pharmacy
v. Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics
vi. Pharmaceutical Quality Control
vii. Pharmaceutical Technology
II. Pharmaceutical Chemistry
i. Organic Chemistry
ii. Biochemistry
iii. Analytical Chemistry
iv. Medicinal Chemistry
III. Pharmacognosy
IV. Pharmacology and Toxicology
V. Microbiology and Public Health
VI. Pharmacy Practice
i. Mathematics and Biostatistics
ii. Community, Social and Administrative Pharmacy
iii. Dispensing Pharmacy
iv. Computer and Its Applications in Pharmacy
v. Hospital Pharmacy
vi. Clinical Pharmacy
vii. Forensic Pharmacy
viii. Pharmaceutical Marketing and Management
VII. Physiology, Anatomy and Histology, Pathology
TYPES OF EDUCATION NECESSARY FOR A PHARMACIST:
 Basic sciences
Pharmacy
Profession
Patient Services
Direct Activities
Hospital Pharmcy
Clinical Pharmacy
community Pharmacy
Biochemical Analysis
Microbiological Analysis
Immunological Analysis
Indirect Activities
Drug Promotion
Family Planning
National Screening
Prevention Measures
Drug Services
Safety Analysis
Formulation Development
IPQC, Production,
Distribution

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 Clinical studies
 Technical studies
 Drug information and scientific knowledge
 Economic knowledge
 Psychological and sociological understanding
AIMS OF MODERN PHARMACEUTICAL EDUCATION:
 Provide scientific background
 Provide professional skills and knowledge
 Provide business training
 Provide broad general education
Code of Ethics:
 Pharmacists are health professional who assist individuals in making the best use of medications
 This code states the principles fundamental roles and responsibilities of pharmacists
 The principles are:
o Pharmacists respect relationship between the patient and pharmacist and this occur by:
 Pharmacist has to maintain knowledge
 Pharmacist asks for the consultation of colleagues
o Pharmacist promotes the good of every patient in a confidential manner by considering:
 Needs stated by the patient
 Needs defined by the health science
o Pharmacist respect autonomy and dignity of each patient
 Autonomy: A pharmacist promotes the rights of self-determination by encouraging
patient to participate in decisions about their health
 Dignity: The pharmacist respects personal and cultural differences among patients.
Some Definitions:
 Pharmaceutics is the discipline of pharmacy that deals with all facets of the process of turning a new
chemical entity (NCE) into a safe and effective medication. Pharmaceutics is the science of dosage
form design. Pharmaceutics deals with the formulation of a pure drug substance into a dosage form.
 Pharmaceutical formulation, in pharmaceutics, is the process in which different chemical
substances, including the active drug, are combined to produce a final medicinal product. The word
formulation is often used in a way that includes dosage form.
 Pharmaceutical manufacturing is the process of industrial-scale synthesis of pharmaceutical
drugs as part of the pharmaceutical industry. The process of drug manufacturing can be broken down
into a series of unit operations, such as milling, granulation, coating, tablet pressing, and others.
 Physical Pharmacy: This subject deals with application of physical chemical principles to problems
in the pharmaceutical sciences. Physical pharmacy is a fundamental course that leads to proper
understanding of subsequent courses in Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology.
o ‘Physicochemical principles of pharmacy’ (physical pharmacy or pharmaceutics) comprises
the study of drug formulations and their design, manufacture, and delivery to the body. The
definition now extends to the targeting of drugs and delivery systems to specific sites in the
body, the fabrication of nanoparticles and the design of delivery devices.

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o Physical pharmacy integrates knowledge of mathematics, physics and chemistry and applies
them to the pharmaceutical dosage form development.
o It focuses on the theories behind the phenomena needed for dosage form design.
o Enable the pharmacist to make rational decisions on scientific basis concerning the art and
technology of solutions, suspensions, emulsions, etc.
o Physical pharmacy provides the basis for understanding the chemical and physical phenomena
that govern the in vivo and in vitro actions of pharmaceutical products.
Dosage Form:
Dosage forms are the means by which drug molecules are delivered into site of action within the body.
The need for dosage forms:
1. Accurate dose
2. Protection e.g. coated tablets, sealed ampules
3. Protection from gastric juice
4. Masking taste and odor
5. Placement of drugs within body tissues
6. Sustained release medication
7. Controlled release medication
8. Optimal drug action
9. Insertion of drugs into body cavities (rectal, vaginal)
10. Use of desired vehicle for insoluble drugs
BRANCHES OF PHARMACY:

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 Industrial Pharmacy
 Drug Wholesales
 Journalism
 Marketing
 Nuclear Pharmacy
 Medical Communications
 Retail Pharmacy
 Drug Sales and Marketing
 Hospital Pharmacy
 Clinical Pharmacy
 Forensic Pharmacy
 Government Services
 Community Pharmacy
 Other Services
1. INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY:
Introduction:
 The pharmaceutical industry is responsible for the production of drugs, ensuring that they are safe,
effective and of high quality.
 Pharmacist applies all the scientific knowledge & skill during production, storage and distribution
operations.
 Services provided by the pharmacist in different departments of the industry are research, medical
information & monitoring products safety, regularity affairs, medical script writing, manufacturing &
quality control, supplies, management and many other departments.
Definition:
 The branch of pharmacy, which deals with formulation, manufacturers, analysis, storage and control
of pharmaceutical dosage forms, is called industrial pharmacy.
 In brief industrial pharmacy can be defined as, “It is the processing of drugs from the source up-to the
finished product and to provide quality assure product to the professionals as well as the consumer”.
Operations Include:

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It includes basic unit operation like mixing, milling, drying, lyophilization. Filtration & compression,
which leads to the preparation of liquid, solid, semi-solid dosage form and also injectable.
Industrial Pharmacist:
Pharmacist who is related to industry is called industrial pharmacist. He has various jobs in industry,
some are executive i.e.:
1. Production Incharge
2. Factory Incharge
3. Production Manager
4. Sales Manager
And some junior executive is also working there i.e.
1. Production Pharmacist
2. Analyst (QC)
3. Assistant Pharmacist
4. Documentary Pharmacist
5. Research Pharmacist
Research & Development (R & D):
 Formulation
 Reformulation
 Drug-excipient Compatibility
 Testing
 Determine proper route of administration of drug
 Product’s stability including the proper packaging material
 Innovations
Production:
 Conversion of raw materials to finished products
 Supervises the operation, GMP must be observed, involved in planning production.
𝑅𝑎𝑤 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑒 → 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
 With manufacturing facilities, engaged in production operations
Quality Control:
 Qualitative / quantitative checks of RM, intermediate and finished products
Sale
Storage /
Distribution
Labelling
Packing /
Repacking
Filling
Finishing
Compounding
Propagation &
Processing

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 Tests are performed on products
 Assay – determine the % purity of active ingredient
2. HOSPITAL PHARMACY:
Introduction:
The function of a hospital is to provide health care to the patient. In its organizational structure, it
consists of many departments which are coordinated in their work and their common task is to provide health
care facilities to the patient. In these departments, one is Hospital Pharmacy.
Hospital pharmacy can be defined in two ways on the basis of its services i.e. Departmental Services
and Professional Services.
A department or service in hospital under the direction of competent pharmacist. Pharmacists work
with physicians, nurses, patient and other hospital personnel. From hospital pharmacy all medications are
supplied to nursing units. Pharmacist is an important part of the health care team.
Professional Services:
1. Participation in educational programs for patient, nurse & medical staff
2. Poison control center activities
3. Drug information centre
4. Preparation of patient drug use profile
5. Parenteral nutrition program
6. Communicating new drug information to hospital personnel
7. Dispensing and research of radiopharmaceuticals
Activities / Responsibilities:
 Compounding, provides stock medication, performs moderate scale manufacturing (dermatological,
TPN)
 Responsibility to inspect the pharmaceutical supply
 The filling and labeling of all drug containers used in various wards
 Responsible for Drug control system in hospital
 Responsible for the professional care of the patient regarding drug use
 Manager of hospital pharmacy
 Part of PTC, managing Drug Information Service
 Monitoring of drug therapy
Knowledge Required:
 Hospital pharmacist must be knowledgeable on:
o Drugs and their action
o Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Program
o Control procedure regarding
 QC (prep of TPN / admixtures)
 Drug distribution throughout the hospital
o Research activities both medical and pharmaceutical
o Teaching Techniques (in-service training programs)

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o Pharmacy administration in hospital
ROUTINE SERVICES SPECIAL SERVICES
Stocking of drugs and allied substances Participation in education, poison control activity, drug
information center, research activity
Dispensing to in- and out- Patients on prescription Preparation of parenteral nutrition and
radiopharmaceuticals
Supply of the drugs to nursing station Dispensing of parenteral nutrition and
radiopharmaceuticals
Bulk manufacturing / compounding Preparation of patient drug use profiles
3. CLINICAL PHARMACY:
 Recent innovation in Pharmacy Practice (1970)
 Patient – oriented profession
Definition:
The branch of pharmacy which deals with patient care with particular emphasis (special practice) on
drug therapy is called clinical pharmacy.
It is also called “Patient-oriented Pharmacy”, so it includes not only the dispensing or administration of
required medications but also advice the patient on the proper use of all medications. Clinical pharmacy can
also be practiced in community as well as in hospital.
Activities:
 Makes rounds with doctor, maintains patient histories, monitors drug therapy, advises patient on drug
use, side effects, and drug interactions, ADR’s
 Direct patient involvement (conducting admissions, discharge, interviews)
 Drug Utilization Reviews, education to improve drug’s use
 US: Doctors write Rx; pharmacists prescribe the medicine
 Important that clinical Pharmacist is familiar with different lab tests and interpretation of results
 Associated with decreased hospital mortality rates, decreased drug cost, decreased length of stay of
patient
 Pharmaceutical care – optimal use of medications to achieve specific outcomes that improve a patient’s
quality of life
 Counseling and Guidance to Patient
 Drug Monitoring Evaluation
Patient-Oriented Pharmacist Considers:
 Knowledge of Drugs
 Drug Information skills
 Communication Skills
Previously: 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑛
𝑅𝑥
→ 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ⟷ 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑡

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Now: 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑛
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
↔
𝑅𝑥
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑡 (𝐷𝑈𝑅)
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
→ 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
Barriers to Clinical Pharmacy Practice:
 Lack of interest of top management
 Higher costs
 Other professionals are unhappy
 Lack of incentive for pharmacist
 Lack of training / specializing areas to develop expertise
4. DRUG SALES AND MARKETING:
Marketing:
 Product managers
 Set policies / targets for the sales team
Sales:
 Contact prescribers regarding company’s products
 Explain products in detail
Drug Establishment:
 Manufactures, imports, repacks, distributes pharmaceuticals
Drug Trader:
 Registered owner of drug product
 Procures the RM and packaging components
 Provides production monograph, QC standard, procedures

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 Subcontracts a manufacturing lab
Drug Distributor / Importer:
 Imports RM, active ingredients, finished product for its own use or for wholesale distribution
Drug Distributor / Exporter:
 Exports RM, active ingredients, finished product to other countries
Drug Distributor / Wholesale:
 Procures RM, active ingredients, finished product from local establishment for local distribution on
whole sale basis
 Important part of distributive scheme, provides mechanism to obtain various products manufactured
by different labs from single agency
 Less hazards in stock handling, record keeping and bill paying for the retailer
5. PHARMACY EDUCATION:
 Most important segment of pharmacy
 Represented by colleges of pharmacy
 Responsible for the nature and quality of pharmaceutical education
 Knowledge of different physical, biological sciences qualifies a pharmacist to teach
 Masteral / Doctoral degree
Research & Development:
 Discovery / isolation of new drugs for treating diseases
 The development of better drugs through chemical modification
 Examples:
o Amoxicillin → Co-amoxiclav
o Diuretics → K sparing diuretics
6. PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNALISM:
 Gifted with writing and editing talents
 Magazines, brochures, newsletter about different drugs for marketing purposes
7. ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT:
 Pharmacist can work as manager in different departments of Industry, Hospital, Pharmacy and many
other Govt. or Private institutions.
 Pharmacists are working as officers of different recognized associations
 Pharmacist can organize different workshops and seminars to keep pharmacists abreast with latest
information in drug treatment and technology
8. GOVERNMENT SERVICES:
Drug Manufacturers Wholesaler Retailer

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 Officer in Army, Navy, Air force
 Hospital pharmacist
 Ministry of Health (licensing, inspection, registration)
 Drug Regulatory Authority and drug registration
 Drug testing laboratory (analyst, microbiologist)
 Consultant (mental health, family planning, pollution, poisons, self-medication, immunization)
9. FORENSIC PHARMACY:
Definition:
The branch of pharmacy that is responsible to frame rules & regulations about formulation,
manufacturing, sale and distribution of drugs is said to be as forensic pharmacy.
OR
It is the branch of pharmacy that concerns with the laws and acts related to profession of pharmacy.
Explanation:
All these rules & regulations are provided in a book called “Manual of Drug Laws”. The profession of
pharmacy is controlled & protected by the “Pharmacy Act 1967”. Following authorities are responsible to
regulate the regulations of drug act:
1. Divisional Drug Inspector
2. Drug Inspector
Ministry of Health is also responsible to issue license for launching of pharmaceutical industry &
process of manufacturing.
Drug controller, Deputy Drug Controller & assistant drug controller are the responsible authorities
in Ministry of Health.
There is a Quality Control Court (QCC) work in coordination with Ministry of Health and is
responsible to maintain the quality of drugs. There is a Drug Court in each province of the country and is
responsible to deal matter related to drug.
Types of Pharmacy Council:
 Central Pharmacy Council – It regulates the pharmacy education courses. The central council
arranges the committees e.g. pharmacopoeia committee, education committee.
 Provincial Pharmacy Council – Its function is to register the pharmacists.
Other Perspective:
It is related to the pharmacist’s skills used to help the medico legal problems such as DNA test, Semen
test or legal emergencies.
10. NUCLEAR PHARMACY:
 Nuclear pharmacy focuses on preparing radioactive isotopes for diagnostic tests & for treating certain
diseases.

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 Nuclear pharmacists undergo additional training specifically to handle the radioactive isotopes, unlike
in community & hospital pharmacies.
11. MEDICAL COMMUNICATION:
 Newest / rapidly developing field
 Computer handling of medical data
12. COMMUNITY / RETAIL PHARMACY:
Introduction:
Retail pharmacy is the branch of pharmacy which deals with the sales and distribution of medicines
and other products to the customer according to the prescription of physician, dentist and veteran. It is the
most familiar branch of pharmacy, its main task is the distribution, dispensing of medicines and related
products. Retail pharmacy can be sub-divided into two groups.
1. Community pharmacy
2. Whole sale pharmacy
Other Names:
Community pharmacy was also named as:
 Apothecary
 Druggist
 Chemist
 Pharmaceutical Chemist
 Retail Pharmacist
 Community Pharmacist (1993)
Definition:
 Community pharmacy symbolizes the adoption of a new degree of professionalism by street
pharmacist.
 This will arouse community expectations which demand care, commitment and excellence.
 It is not just a title acquired by passing the exam; it demands dedication and highest degree of
professionalism.
Introduction:
 Community pharmacist is the professional who would be in direct access to the public and whose
duties are widely sought after by the public and patients
 A community / retail pharmacist works according to legal and ethical guidelines to ensure the correct
and safe supply of medical products to the general public
 As we are the person who will be in direct contact with the public we have to play an important role
in decreasing the mortality and morbidity in the public.
Type of Pharmacy:
 CHAIN - E.g. GUARDIAN, WATSON, CLINIX, FAZAL DIN & SONS

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 INDEPENDENT - E.g. Green Pharmacy, Decent Pharmacy etc.
 NATURE OF BUSINESS
o RETAIL
 Sell direct to end user / customer
 Pharmacy license from Ministry of Health
o WHOLESALE
 Supply to other retailers, General Practitioners (Clinics), Hospitals etc.
 Wholesale License from Ministry of Health
Layout of the Community Pharmacy:
 Prescription Counter & Consulting Area
o The prescription processing area → Pharmacist use to prepare prescriptions
o Consultation area → Strictly for the pharmacist’s use
 Front Area – e.g. OTC Area
o OTC drugs like Panadol, Zentel.
o Cosmetics, toiletries, rehabilitation products & other merchandises
o Vitamins and supplements
 Controlled Substances
o Kept in a locked storage cabinet
 Under supervision of pharmacist
o Psychotropic Drugs
 Require prescriptions and must record
 Repeated checking of the products, labeling, packaging
o Cough Mixture
 Contain Dextromethorphan
 Store
o To keep the excess stocks
o General store or Drug store (must lock)
o Dry, cool place
 Refrigeration
o A refrigerator to store drugs
o Required to be kept at temp between 2 & 8o
C
o Exclusively for medications
o No food or beverages
 Computer systems – Point-Of-Sale, Inventory, Accounting etc.
o Familiar with computer hardware & software
o Hardware - Monitor, CPU, keyboard, mouse, scanner, modem, printer
o Software - Point of Sales, Accounting, Inventory e.g. UNIX
o Most chain pharmacies are linked together - Facilitate the sharing of information between
pharmacies
 Equipment-display
 Purchasing & Inventory Control
o Must complete a purchase order (PO)
 Product name
 Amount & price

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o Order transmitted directly to the manufacturer
o During receiving
o Carefully check the product against the PO
o Damaged products must be reported without delay & returned to the manufacturers
o Must check all products for expiration dates
Community Pharmacist Must Show:
 Good communication skills
o Be able to listen carefully to what patients says Be able to explain complex and sometimes
sensitive information to the general public & other healthcare professionals
 Concern for the welfare of the general public
 An understanding of business principles
 A professional and confident manner
 The ability to inspire the trust of others
 A willingness to take on a high level of responsibility
Roles of Community Pharmacist:
 RETAILER - Makes goods and services available
 MANAGER - Uses limited resources efficiently and effectively
 PROFESSIONAL
o Provide valued services through trust, commitment and competence
o Pharmacies are required to have a pharmacist on duty all the time
o Most pharmacies have experienced support staff who work under the personal supervision of
the pharmacist
o Therefore, community pharmacists, by far the largest segment of the profession, require
scientific, administrative, supervisory, counseling and pharmaceutical skills of a very high
standard
 Dispensing prescription medicines to the public on a prescription or without prescription– check
dosage, ensure the medicine are correct and safe and label it
 Liaising with doctors about prescriptions
 Supervising the preparation of any medicines (not all are supplied as ready made-up by the
manufacturer)
 Keeping a register of controlled drugs for legal and stock control purposes selling over-the-counter
medicines
 Counseling and advising the public on the treatment of minor ailments and any adverse side-effects of
medicines or potential interactions with other medicines / treatments
o Providing specialist health check services, such as monitoring blood pressure and cholesterol
levels, diabetes screening and pregnancy testing
o Preparing dosette and cassette boxes, usually or the elderly but also for those with memory/
learning difficulties, where tablets are placed in compartments for specified days of the week
o Overseeing the ordering and safe storage of medical products and, in some cases, arranging the
delivery of prescription medicines to patients
o Keeping up-to-date with current pharmacy practice, new drugs and their uses
o Maintaining computerized records
o Managing, supervising and training pharmacy support staff

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Muhammad Muneeb
o Budgeting and financial management
o Promoting sales and developing the business
o Selling healthcare and other products, such as toiletries, cosmetics and rehabilitations product
e.g. wheel chair.
13. OTHER IMPORTANT ROLES
 Rationale use of drugs
 Nutritional counseling
 Alcohol, drug abuse and smoking cessation
 Individualization of drug therapy
 Family planning
 Poisoning prevention
 Control of communicable diseases
 Pregnancy and infant care
 Sexually transmitted diseases
 Health promotion
 Environmental hazards
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 2. History and Literature of Pharmacy
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Unit 2.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PHARMACY
Outline:
 A survey of the history of pharmacy through ancient, Greek and Arab periods with special reference
to contribution of Muslim scientists to pharmacy and allied sciences.
 An introduction of various official books.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Disease is not an old as life itself as evidence exist that it can be traced back to around 350 million –
280 million years (Carboniferous Period). It has been desire of mankind since times immemorial to be healthy
and cure sickness and disease. The quest for health has paved way for stimulating the element of search for
cure. Pharmacy is the art of healing and treatment exists from the time illness was recognized.
Before The Dawn of History:
 From beginnings as remote and simple as these came the proud profession of pharmacy. It’s
development parallels that of man.
 Among the several characteristics unique to Homo Sapiens is our propensity to treat ailments, physical
and mental with medicines.
 Ancient man learned from instinct, from observation of birds and beasts. Cool water, a leaf, dirt or
mud was his first soothing application.
 By trial, he learned which served him best. Eventually he applied his knowledge for the benefit of
others.
Pharmacy Roots:
 The study of pharmacy can be tracked back to 700 years.
 It was evolved between stone age and down of history (Proto History) systems existed that were later
discovered by Archeologists.
 Peasant civilizations (5000 B.C.) – excavations in Tigris and Euphrates valley.
 Around 2000 B.C. some documents of Assyrio were revealed.
 This art has evolved over centuries. It passes through religion, magic, incantation and now it is evolved
highly special profession of Pharmacy.
Pre-Historic Pharmacy:
 Since humanities earliest past, Pharmacy has been a part of everyday life. Some of mankind’s oldest
settlements such as Shanidar support the contention that pre-historic people gathered plants for
medicinal purposes. By trial and error, the knowledge of the healing properties of certain natural
substances grew.
 When healers at shanidar or other prehistoric settlements approached disease, they placed it within
the context of their general understanding of the world around them, which was alive with good and
evil spirits. The magical portions for curing were part of the duty of the Shaman (usually incharge of
all or most things supernatural in tribe).

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 The Shaman diagnosed and treated most serious illnesses. He compounded the remedies needed to
keep away the influences of evil spells or spirits.
Eras in History of Pharmacy:
I. Ancient Era - Beginning of time to 1600 A.D.
II. Empiric Era - 1600 to 1940 A.D.
III. Industrialization Era - 1940 to 1970 A.D.
IV. Patient Care Era - 1970 to Present
V. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
I. ANCIENT ERA:
 It started from beginning of time to 1600 A.D.
 Early man used material in his surroundings; leaves, mud and cool water were used to stop bleeding
and heal wounds.
 Dry clay was used to splint broken bones.
 They copied animal behavior.
 The signs of pre-historic and primitive times diseases exist as it is evident from:
o Skeleton with deformed joints
o Tumors in dinosaurs
o Exhumed bones indicated performance of operation after injury
DOCUMENTATION:
 At some point man began to document healing practices on clay tablets 2600 B.C.
 One of the earliest known records written around 1500 B.C. was the Ebers Papyrus named by George
Ebers.
EGYPTIAN TIMES:
 When organized settlements aroused in the great fertile valley of Nile and the Indus River, changes
occurred that gradually influenced the concepts of disease and healing.
BABYLONIANS:
They were 5th
millennium BC peasants and they were the civilization of Western Asia. Excavations of
Tigris and Euphrates valleys revealed Medical tablets originating from 3000 B.C. to 2000 B.C. Babylonians
had a detailed medical system and used a pharmacopoeia containing 250 plants, sulphur, animal products like
cow or goat milk, honey, wax, lion fat, castor oil etc. For the Babylonians, medical care was provided by two
classes of practioners:
 The asipu (magical healer)
o The asipu relied more heavily on spells and magical stones far more than plant materials.
 The asu (empirical healer)
o The asu drew upon a large collection of drugs and manipulated them into several dosage forms
that are still basic today such as suppositories, pills and ointments.
The asipu and asu were not in direct competition and sometimes cooperated on difficult cases.

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DAYS OF PAPYRUS EBERS:
 Though Egyptian medicine dates from about 2900 B.C, best known and most important
Pharmaceutical record is the “Papyrus Ebers” (1600 B.C), a collection of 800 prescriptions
mentioning 700 drugs. The drugs are chiefly botanical although mineral and animal drugs are also
noted.
 Such botanical substances as acacia, castor bean and fennel are mentioned along with apparent
references to such minerals as iron oxide, sodium carbonate, sodium chloride and sulfur.
GREEK CIVILIZATION:
 During the millennium that followed the roots of modern medical profession in the west arouse from
Greek civilization.
 Around 600 B.C. the Greeks integrated science into mythological thinking.
 They began thinking logically about disease rather than believing spiritual explanation.
 The Romans conquered the Greeks and the medical and pharmaceutical cultures mixed, it is known as
Greco-Roman Era.
GREECE AND ROMAN ERA:
 The poems of Homer (Great poet of ancient Greece – 8th
century B.C.) and mythological tales provide
information on the existence of the art of pharmacy.
o Bitter root powder used to treat heal wounds.
o Use of sulphur as disinfectant.
 Peony is attributed to Paion, doctor to the Gods.
 Hyoscyamus albus or Heraklion are medical plants, named after Hercules.
 Chiron organized the cultivation of plants.
 Around 5th
century B.C. – Asclepius, the king of Thessaly and God of medicine, treated patients with
herbs. In this temple, medicine was practiced by priests.
 More than 40 medical books exist in the name of Hippocrates (460 B.C.) who is considered father of
medicines. He used simple remedies consisting of barley, honey, vinegar, anethole, corrdiander,
colocynth, fennel etc.
 Diocles, son of Archidamos wrote an herbalist manual “Rhizotomikon” which contains prescriptions
made from plants like fenugreek, linseed and honey.
 Existence of plants in Greek therapeutics is documented in:
o De Historia Plantanum and Dr Causis Plamtanum by Theophrastus (340 B.C.). He wrote 200
books, from which 20 are available 9 on history of plants and 6 on their growth.
o De Materia Media of Dioscorides (78 A.D.) which contains 500 medicinal plants.
o Natural history by Pliny (60 A.D.), a compilation of 1000 plants from the Roman times.
Roman Pharmacy Titles:
 PHARMACOPOEIA - Maker of remedies
 PHARMACOTRITAE - Drug grinder
 UNGUENTARI - Maker of ointments
 PIGMENTARI - Maker of cosmetics
 PHARMACOPOLAE - Seller of drugs

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 AROMATARII - Dealers of spices
ASKLEPIOUS (GOD OF HEALING):
 Beginning in the 7th century BC, the wise and kind Asklepios gradually superseded Apollo as the
greatest of the healing gods.
 At the touch of his hands or of the tongue of his sacred serpent, miraculous things happened.
 The staff of Asklepios entwined by a Sacred serpent gradually emerged as the official symbol of
medicine around the world.
 On the right hand of Asklepious stood Hygeia, one of his daughter.
 Her arm entwined by a serpent and holding a bowl thought to have contained a healing poison.
 And in the earliest records one finds a similar mixed concept of drug or Pharmakon, a Greek word that
meant “magic spells’’ or “poison”.
HIPPOCRATES:
 From another period in Greek history the greatest name That is still with us today is that of Physician
Hippocrates known as the “father of medicine”.
 He is one of the most important name in the development of Pharmacy as a profession based on
scientific knowledge rather than a mixture of medicine and spiritual acts.
 During this period the word Pharmakon came to mean “a purifying remedy”.
 He mentioned around 200 – 400 drugs as well as methods of carrying out various Pharmaceutical
processes.
DIOSCORIDES:
 He was a Greek Physician and botanist (first century A.D). He was the first scientist to deal botany as
an applied science of Pharmacy.
 His work “De Materia Medica”, is considered a milestone in the development of Pharmaceutical
botany and in the study of naturally occurring medicinal materials. This area of study is today known
as “Pharmacognosy”.
 He explained methods of preparing crude drugs from opium and many other botanical drugs. He
developed the art of identification, collection, purification and proper storage of botanical drugs.
CLAUDIUS GALEN:
 He was a renowned Greek Pharmacist and Physician. He practiced and taught both medicine and
pharmacy in Rome, his Principles of Preparing and compounding medicines ruled in the western world
for 1500 years.
 He aimed to create a perfect system of Physiology, Pathology and treatment of illness.
 He wrote 500 books on medicine including numerous drugs of natural origin, formulae and methods
of compounding.
 It was his tremendous work in the field of crude natural origin drugs that still today his name is
associated with that class of pharmaceuticals compounded by mechanical means – “Galenical
Preparations”.
 The most famous of his formulas is one for a cold cream called Galen’s cerate, essentially similar to
that known today.

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PERSIA:
 Persia, at crossroads between East and West, was the cradle of very old and brilliant civilization.
 Their knowledge of plants and phototherapy still reflects in the Greco-Arab therapeutics.
 Ancient Iranian therapeutics available in their holybook, “Avesta” (700 B.C.) is based on medicinal
plants, surgery and magic.
 Avesta’s 9th
century compilation the “Denkart” contains a chapter on 4333 diseases caused by evil
spirit. Cure is 70 categories of remedies, all from plants.
II. MIDDLE AGES:
With the advent of Christianity, the healing temples of Asklepios eventually fell into disease. During
the medieval millennium, however, religious medicines within Christian concepts gave the healing power of
faith and divine intervention new scope.
LATIN ERA:
As a guide to preparing compound drugs, two traditional types of Latin compilations, which evolved
into modern counterparts, were “Receptaria” (more modest formularies) and the “Antidotria” (similar to
dispensatories). It was a particular literature for both medicine and pharmacy, copied by scribes who added,
omitted and revised to suit local needs.
ARABIAN INFLUENCE:
For pharmacy, the Arabic influence was important also because we can discern the rise of the qualified
pharmacist (al-Saidalani) as a separate functionary, beginning around Baghdad (729 A.D.) They also had
different drug forms which are now used such as syrups, conserves, confections and juleps. Hospitals,
however, were being secularized under municipal authority by the 13th
century.
THE RENAISSANCE:
 It lasts from 1350 to 1650 A.D.
 It is the end of ancient era and middle ages.
 Pharmacy became separated from medicine.
 Pharmacy regulations was begun.
 University education for pharmacists was now required.
 More and new drugs were imported from orient.
 New chemicals were introduced.
 Pharmacy achieved professional status.
 Guilds were formed for the profession of pharmacy.
SAINTS COSMAS AND DAMIAN:
 Twinship of health professions, Pharmacy and medicine is nowhere more strikingly portrayed than by:
o Damian, the apothecary and
o Cosmas, the Physician
 They were the twin brothers of Arabian descent. Their twin careers were cut short in the year 303 by
martyrdom.
 They were the pattern saints of Pharmacy and medicine and many miracles are attributed to them

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FREDERICK-II - SEPARATION OF PHARMACY AND MEDICINE:
 In European countries exposed to Arabian Influence, public pharmacies began to Appear in the 17th
century.
 However, it was not until about 1240 A.D. That, in southern Italy, Pharmacy was separated from
Medicine.
 Frederick II, was Emperor of Germany. At his palace, he presented subject Pharmacists with the first
European edict completely separating their responsibilities from those of Medicine, and prescribing
regulations for their professional practice
PARACELSUS - BORNBASTUS VON HOHENHEIM (1493-1541):
Perhaps no person in history exercised such a revolutionary influence on Pharmacy and Medicine as
did Aureolus Theophrastus. Bornbastus Von Hohenheim (1493-1541), A Swiss Physician and chemist who
called himself Paracelsus. He influenced the transformation of Pharmacy from a profession based primarily
on botanical science to one based on chemical science.
EDWARD JENNER:
Remarkable advance in medicine and Pharmacy took place in the year 1796 when Edward Jenner
performed the first vaccination on a human patient.
FRIEDRICK SERTURNER:
He was a German Pharmacist and isolated Morphine from opium.
JOSEPH PELLETIER & JOSEPH CAVENTOU:
They were French and isolated several alkaloids like strychnine and brucine from Nux vomica and
quinine and cinchonine from cinchona. Pelletier together with Pierre Robiquet isolated caffeine and Robiquet
independently separated codeine from opium.
MODERN EUROPE:
 A movement in Western Europe that aimed at reforming some doctrines and practices of the Roman
Catholic Church that resulted in the establishment of the Protestant Churches.
 Medicine, like art before 1600, was essentially integrated into religion.
 At the beginning of 17th
century, medical practice was divided into three phases.
o The Physician
o The Surgeons
o The Apothecaries (Drug sellers)
 A medical reform movement was started in Europe as a reaction against heroic medicine.
 Pharmacopoeias were used to protect public health.
 Roots, barks, herbs, flowers etc. were used and controlled by government.
 The questioned the toxological effects on human body.
 In 1751, Benjamin Franklin started the FIRST HOSPITAL.
 The first hospital pharmacist to work in that hospital was Jonathan Roberts.
 William Proctor was the father of American Pharmacy who spent most of his life to the advancement
of pharmacy.

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 Science grew in the 17th
and 18th
centuries. Many new drugs and chemicals were identified e.g.
nitrogen, atropine, quinine, caffeine, morphine, codeine and testosterone etc.
AMERICAN PHARMACY:
 As soon as Columbus started his explorations of the Americas in the late 15th century, some European
efforts to find valuable medicinal plants among the flora of the New World to add to the medical canon
got underway.
 The first drugstore in North America appeared in Boston, Newyork.
 The 19th century (1800s) birthed “pharmacy as we know it” and again, pharmacy’s development in
mainland Europe continued to fuel its growth in the young American republic.
MEDICAL SOCIETIES AND EDUCATION OF PHARMACY:
In 19th century, many medical societies were established to increase the quality of medicines and to
promote the profession of pharmacy such as American Pharmaceutical Association whose slogan is to
produce better pharmacists.
University Education regarding pharmacy was started in 1829 when New York College of
Pharmacy was established. These colleges were acting as professional associations, or at least promoted
pharmacist education and the distinct profession of pharmacist with a guild-like zeast.
With the rise of mechanization and mass production, new modern ways of making tablets (1884), the
enteric-coated pill (1884) and gelatin capsule (1875) became practicable.
By 1900, most pharmacies stocked the shelves, partially or pre-dominantly, with medicines growing
industries to train pharmacist to produce medicines increasingly eroded.
III. INDUSTRIALIZATION ERA:
 During civil war and World War – I, more people needed drugs for injuries and illness from the wars,
so mass production of medications were made through industrial machines.
 Scientific research was also growing in the industrial era. Investigations into medicines and their
effects were studied.
 Due to all the researches many new drugs and uses of old drugs were being used which caused more
reactions and interactions with medications, which is why the patient care era is called that.
IV. PATIENT CARE ERA:
 In 19th
and 20th
century new problems were seen like allergic reactions, multiple drug interactions with
other drugs and foods.
 It increases the therapeutic duties of patient care in pharmacies and hospitals.
V. BIOTECHNOLOGY ERA:
 In 21st
century gene therapy is being conducted. Some diseases are linked to genetic defects.
Pharmacists are trying to modify the genetic makeup of people that may prevent or cure diseases.
 Recombinant DNA technology is a form of synthetic DNA that is engineered through the
combination or insertion of one or more DNA strands, thereby combining DNA sequences that would
not normally cure together.

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Importance of Profession:
 Impact on individual patient(s):
o State of health
o Better health of individual
 Pharmacy services results in:
o Improved health
o Economic outcomes
o Reduction in adverse effects of medicines
o Improved quality of life
o Reduced morbidity and mortality
 Pharmaceuticals:
o Formulation / manufacturing
o Quality assurance / monitoring
o Licensing / registration
o Marketing
o Dispensing
o Distribution / supply / storage
o Education, research & development
THE SEVEN-STAR PHARMACIST:
It is a concept developed by WHO in 2000.
 Care-giver
 Decision-maker
 Communicator
 Manager
 Life-long-learner
 Teacher
 Leader and researcher
Role of Muslim Scientist in Pharmacy:
Among the Muslim scientist, the Arabs were the greatest doctors, the first chemists, the best
pharmacists. They played a major role in history of therapeutics. They preserved and built the knowledge of
Greco-Roman period. They followed the teachings of Muhammad (P.B.U.H). The formerly nomadic people
who united into the nations of Islam conquered huge areas of middle east and Africa and eventually expanding
into Spain and eastern Europe.
Abbasid Caliphate:
In Baghdad, the first Pharmacy was established in 754 under the Abbasid caliphate during the Islamic
golden age. The clear-cut separation of the two professions, physicians and Pharmacist was done in 800 A.D
in Abbasid caliphate.
Yahanna Bin Masawayh (777 to 857 A.D.):

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He was one of the contributors to Arabic Pharmacy. He Wrote a book “Ibn-e-Masawayh” which
includes 30 aromatics, their Physical properties, method of detecting adulteration (spoil) and Pharmacological
effects. Ibn-e-Masawayh recommended saffron for liver and stomach ailments.
Abu- Hassan Ali Bin Sahl Rabban at Tabari:
He wrote a famous book “paradise of wisdom”. It contains discussions on the nature of man,
cosmology (study of stars), embryology, diet and diseases.
Abu Bakr Muhammad ar Razi (841 to 926 A.D.):
He was one of the greatest Physician in Islam but at the same time he was supporter of the art of Al-
Chemy. To a great extent, he influenced the development of Pharmacy and medical therapy throughout the
middle ages. He wrote two books named Ar-Asrar and Sirr Al Asrar.
Ali Ibn-Al-Abbas Al-Majusi (994 A.D.):
He was a Persian physician and psychologist, most famous for the Kitab al-Maliki (Complete Book of
the Medical Art). In this book he concluded that, “joy and contentment can bring a better living status to many
who would otherwise be sick and miserable due to unnecessary sadness, fear, worry and anxiety”.
Al Ghafiqi:
He was the highly respected Physician in cordova (muslim spain) an that he was also interested in
Pharmacy as well.
Abu Al Qasim Al Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936 – 1013 A.D.):
He was Pioneer in the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation. Also he worked on the
extraction or urinary bladder stones. He is known as the doctor of / father of surgery. He wrote “Kitab-al-
Tasrif”, a thirty volume encyclopedia of medical practices. The 28th
book consists of simple medicines of
vegetables, animals or mineral origin.
Sabur Bin Sahl (940 to 1000 A.D.):
The first medical formulary to be written in Arabic is “al-Aqrabadin”. In it, he gave medical recipes
stating the methods and techniques of compounding these remedies, their Pharmacological actions, the
dosages and the means of administration.
Ibn-e-Sina (Avicenna) (980 – 1037 A.D.):
Among the brilliant contributors to the sciences of Pharmacy and Medicine during the Arabian era was
one genius who seems to stand for his time – the Persian, Ibn-e-Sina (about 980-1037 A.D.), called Avicenna
by the Western world. Pharmacist, poet, physician, philosopher and diplomat. Avicenna was an intellectual
giant, a favorite of Persian princes and rulers. He wrote in Arabic. He wrote the famous book “ Kitab Al Shifa
( the book of healing ). He also described 700 preparations, their properties, mode of action and their
indications.
Al –Beruni (973 – 1050):

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Muhammad Muneeb
He wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works entitled “Kitab-ul-Saydalah” (the book of drugs)
where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of Pharmacy and the
functions and duties of the Pharmacist. He was known as father of Arabic Pharmacy.
Ibn Al-Wafid (997 – 1074):
He was a pharmacologist and physician from Toledo. His main work is Kitab al-adwiya al-mufrada
which include 520 different kinds of medicines from various plants and herbs.
Saladin de Asculo:
He is one of the greatest influence on practice of pharmacy among early Italian works was the
Compendium written by him in middle of 15th
century for information of pharmacist. This book is called as
“the first real treatise on pharmacy in a modern sense… which became the model for all later textbooks of
pharmacy”.
Al-Ghafiqi:
He is famous for controlling plants from Spain and Africa and documented them with names in Arabic,
Latin and Berber.
Abdullah Ibn Ahmad ibn Al-Baytar:
He was a pharmacist and botanist and was author of two books “Al-Mughanifi al-Adwiyal-al-
Mufaradah” (Medicines) and “Al-Jami Jilah Adwiyah al-Mufradah” (contains simple remedies). This
collection is claimed to contain more than 2000 plants.
Jabir Bin Hayyan:
He recommended:
 Psyllium mucilage, gourds, whey for biliary troubles
 Bamboo, vinegar, pomegranates for blood diseases
 Castor, asafetida for pituitary problems
Ar-Rafiqi (11th
Century):
He was a botanist who compiled information on medicines of plant and mineral origin.
Al-Harith:
He was the first amongst the Arabs as a during the period of Prophet (‫)ﷺ‬.
Shaikh Jalal-ud-Din Abu Suleiman Daud:
He was the writer of Tibb-e-Nabvi. This was translated by Dr. Perron.
Yaqub Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi (800 – 873 A.D.):
In medicines, his chief contribution comprises the fact that he was the first to systematically determine
the doses to be administered of all the drugs known at his time. This resolved the conflicting views prevailing
among physicians on the dosage caused difficulties in writing recipes.
Ibn al-Nafis (1213 – 1288 A.D.):

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Muhammad Muneeb
He was a doctor basically. He wrote “Al-Shamil fial-Tibb” comprising 300 volumes.
Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr (1091 – 1161 A.D.):
He was one of the greatest physicians of Muslim Golden era. He wrote “Kitab al-Taisir fi al-Mudawat
wu al-Tadbir (book of simplification concerning therapeutics and diet).
Ali Bin Sahl Rabban al-Tabari (d. 870):
He was a physician under rule of al-Mu’tasim. He wrote Firdaus al-Hikma (Paradise of Wisdom). He
urged that therapeutic value of each drug be reconciled with particular disease. For sorting drugs he
recommended glass or ceramic vessels for liquid drugs, small jars for eye liquid shelves and lead containers
for fatty substances.
Yahya ibn Jazla (d. 1100 A.D.):
He composed Taqwim al-Abdan fi Tadbir al-Insan, which consisted 44 tables, and 352 diseases.
Modern Age & Early Research:
THE AMERICAN PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION:
 Need for better intercommunication among pharmacists; standards for education and apprenticeship;
and quality control of imported drugs, led to calling of a convention of representative pharmacists in
the Hall of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, October 6 to 8, 1852.
 Under leadership of its first President, Daniel B. Smith, and first Secretary, William Procter, Jr., the
twenty delegates launched The American Pharmaceutical Association; mapped its objectives, and
opened membership to "All Pharmacists and Druggists”.
 The Association continues to serve Pharmacy today.
THE STANDARDIZATION OF PHARMACEUTICALS:
 Despite the professional skill and integrity of 19th-century pharmacists, seldom did two preparations
of vegetable drugs have the same strength, even though prepared by identical processes. Plant drugs
varied widely in active alkaloidal and glycosidal content.
 The first answer to this problem came when Parke, Davis & Company introduced standardized "Liquor
Ergotae Purificatus".
 Parke-Davis also pioneered in developing pharmacologic and physiologic standards for
pharmaceuticals.
THE PHARMACOPOEIA COMES OF AGE:
 As the scientific basis for drugs and drug products developed so did the need for uniform standards to
ensure quality.
 This need led to the development and publication of monographs and reference books. Organized sets
of monographs or books of these standards are called Pharmacopoeias and formularies.
 The "United States Pharmacopoeia" (1820) was the first book of drug standards from a professional
source which achieved a national acceptance.
THE ERA OF BIOLOGICALS:

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Muhammad Muneeb
 When, in 1894, Behring and Roux announced the effectiveness of diphtheria antitoxin, pharmaceutical
scientists both in Europe and in the United States rushed to put the new discovery into production.
 Parke, Davis & Company was among the pioneers.
 The serum became available in 1895, and lives of thousands of children were saved.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMOTHERAPY:
 One of the successful researcher’s in the development of new chemical compounds specifically created
to fight disease-causing organisms in the body was the French pharmacist, Ernest Francois Auguste
Fourneau, who for 30 years headed chemical laboratories in the world-renowned Institute Pasteur, in
Paris.
 His early work with bismuth and arsenic compounds advanced the treatment of syphilis.
 He paved the way for the life-saving sulfonamide compounds, and from his laboratories came the
first group of chemicals having recognized antihistaminic properties.
 His work led other investigators to broaden the field of chemotherapeutic research.
PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH:
 Research in some form has gone hand in hand with the development of Pharmacy through the ages.
However, it was the chemical synthesis of antipyrine in 1883 that gave force and inspiration for
intensive search for therapeutically useful compounds.
 Begun by the Germans, who dominated the research field until World War-I, thereafter the lead
was transferred to the United States. Research in Pharmacy, came into its own in the late 1930's and
early 1940's, since than it has grown steadily, supported by pharmaceutical manufactures, universities,
and government.
 Today it is using techniques and trained personnel from every branch of science in the unending
search for new life-saving and life-giving drug products
PHARMACEUTICAL MANUFACTURING COMES OF AGE:
 Pharmaceutical manufacturing as an industry apart from retail Pharmacy had its beginnings about 1600, really
got under way in the middle 1700. It developed first in Germany, then in England and France.
 In America, it was the child of wars - born in the Revolution, grew rapidly during and following the Civil War,
became independent of Europe during World War-I, came of age during and following World War-II.
 Utilizing latest technical advances from every branch of science, manufacturing of
Pharmaceuticals is developing and producing the latest and greatest drugs prescribe them and
pharmacists dispense them for the benefit of all mankind.
THE ERA OF ANTIBIOTICS:
 Antibiotics are not new. Their actions probably were first observed by Pasteur in 1877. However, the
second quarter of the 20th century marked the flowering of the antibiotic era - a new and dramatic
production of disease-fighting drugs. Fleming's discovery of penicillin in 1929 went undeveloped and
Florey and Chain studied it in 1940.
 Under Pressure of World war-II the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers rapidly applied mass production
methods to penicillin.
 Antibiotic discoveries came rapidly in the '40's.

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Muhammad Muneeb
 Intensive research continues to find antibiotics that will conquer more of men's microbial
enemies.
PHARMACY TODAY & TOMORROW:
 Pharmacy, with its heritage of 50 centuries of service to mankind, has come to be recognized as one
of the great profession.
 Like Medicine, it has come through many revolutions, has learned many things, has had to discard
many of its older ways.
 Pharmacists are among the community's finest educated people.
 Pharmacy's professional importance will continue to grow in the future as this great heritage
and tradition of service is passed on from preceptor to apprentice, from teacher to student, from
father to son.
Introduction to Official Books:
The word Pharmacopoeia is derived from Greek, Pharmakon and poieo. It indicates a book issued by
a recognized body or authority containing a list of drugs and formulas for medicinal preparations, together
with description of these substances and standards to which they must conform.
ORIGIN:
Prior to Pharmacopoeias apothecary have to look for guidance and knowledge to books written by
individuals who have achieved fame in medicines. These books may be divided into 2 classes:
 The Herbal
 The Formularies
THE HERBAL:
 These books contain information about medicinal plants, their properties and recipes for preparing
remedies. The most important book was “The Meteria Medica” by Dioscorides. It contains more than
600 plants and herbs having medicinal value and also animal and mineral substances.
 This book remained authority for more than 1500 years. Its complete edition was printed in 1529.
 Another important name is “Pliny the Elder” 23-79 A.D. reported 1000 plants of medicinal value.
THE FORMULARIES:
 These were the more authoritative books for physicians and consists chiefly of recipes and list of
medicinal substances and were variously styled as “Compendium, Dispensatorium or
Antidotarium”.
 These books based on ancient Greek, Roman and Arabian writers.
 The most widely known book was Antidotarium of Nicholas describing the preparation of
confectioneries, lozenges, ointments, pills, syrups and many other classes of preparations and also
prescribed apothecaries weight and measure system i.e., the grain and drachms still employed in
present day pharmacy.
PHARMACOPOEIA:

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Muhammad Muneeb
An official publication containing a list of medicinal drugs with their effects and directions for their
use published by the pharmacopoeial commission or by the authority of a medicinal or pharmaceutical society.
The word pharmacopoeia is derived from two Greek words i.e. ‘pharmakon’ meaning ‘drug’ and ‘poeis’
meaning ‘make’ thus giving the meaning of drug making. In a broader sense it is a reference work for
pharmaceutical drug specifications.
SPELLINGS:
 Pharmacopoeia
 Pharmacopeia
 Pharmacopoea
MONOGRAPH:
The description of the preparation is called as monograph. It is a set of document given in the
pharmacopoeia which tells about test to perform for a specific compound or a dosage form or raw material.
APPENDICES:
An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the test itself but which
may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem or it is information
that is too cumbersome to be included in body of a monograph. It includes apparatus, and its construction,
general procedures and tests for a particular drug.
TYPES OF PHARMACOPEIAS:
i. Brazilian Pharmacopeia
ii. British Pharmacopoeia (BP)
iii. British Pharmaceutical Codex (BPC) – Retired
iv. Chinese Pharmacopoeia (ChP)
v. Czeck Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Boh)
vi. European Pharmacopeia (EP)
vii. French Pharmacopeia (FP)
viii. German Pharmacopeia (GP)
ix. Pakistan Pharmacopeia (PP)
x. United State Pharmacopeia (USP)
DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOPOEIA:
 The development of Pharmacopoeia must be credited to the discovery of printing techniques in the
15th
century. It was felt that there should be some authoritative formulary, at least for some particular
community.
 1st
book published by College of Florence in 1498. It contains the important work of Nicholas.
 The city of Nuremberg was 1st community to process a Pharmacopoeia who was legally binding on
the apothecaries of that city in 1529. They adopted 100 years old book “Luminare Majus” published
in 1406.
 In 1546 it was replaced by Dispensatorium of Valerius Cordus.
 This action of Nuremberg stimulated others to publish their own pharmacopoeias.

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Muhammad Muneeb
 In 16th century, pharmacopoeias of London, Augsburg, Antwerp, Lyons, Basle, Valencia, Cologne,
Paris and Amsterdam emerged.
LONDON PHARMACOPOEIA:
 It was published in 1618 by College of Physicians and contains more than 2000 drugs and
preparations. Mostly old work was gathered. It remained English pharmacopoeia for 3 centuries.
 Numerous editions were published.
FUSION OF NATIONAL PHARMACOPOEIAS:
 Medical Act of 1858 ordered the fusion of London, Edinburgh and Dublin pharmacopoeias to form
British Pharmacopoeia.
 The General Council of Medical Education and Registration of UK was given exclusive rights of
publishing, printing and selling the book.
 1st
edition with the collaboration of Pharmaceutical Society appeared in 1864. Subsequent editions in
1867, 1885, 1898, 1914 and sixth in 1932.
 A pharmacopoeia commission was established in 1914 to revive and make amendments in official
books.
FORMULARIES:
 These are supplementary to Pharmacopoeias. The scope of Pharmacopoeia is mainly restricted to drugs
and preparations which at the time of publication are of sufficient importance.
 Information regarding drugs and preparations which are widely used but are not official and also the
recently introduced substances which have not yet proved sufficiently important for inclusion in
pharmacopoeia must be sought elsewhere.
 Various books of this kind appeared from time to time, but the most important were.
o British Pharmaceutical Codex (B.P.C.)
o Extra Pharmacopoeia (E.P.)
o B.P.C. is published by Pharmaceutical Society. 1st edition was published in 1907, 2nd
in 1911
than in 1915, 1922 and 1923.
o E.P. was published in 1883 by W. Martindale and W. W. Westcott. In 1933 after the death of
W. H. Martindale (son of W. Martindale) the rights of this book were purchased by society.
INTERNATIONAL PHARMACOPOEIA:
 In 1951, WHO published the Pharmacopoeia Internationalis, a compilation in two volumes (volume 2
in 1955).
 It designed a collection of standards which could serve as reference for the establishment of
international standards.
 Its 2nd
edition was published in 1963 and 3rd
edition comprising 5 volumes in 1979.
EUROPEAN PHARMACOPOEIA:
 In 1964 a council of Europe was established and included 7 countries, whose council of ministers
adopted a resolution to establish an European Pharmacopoeia.
 The 7 countries were Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands and UK. Latter
on Switzerland was accepted as 8th member.

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Muhammad Muneeb
 These countries signed a document by which this Pharmacopoeia was made legal and binding for all.
o 1st
volume published in 1969
o 2nd
volume in 1971 and
o 3rd
volume in 1975
PAKISTAN PHARMACOPOEIA:
Introduction:
The government of Pakistan constituted Pakistan Pharmacopeia under assistance of Pakistan
Pharmacopoeial commission / committee in 1964, dated on August 08th
. The tenure of the office of memebers
was 5 years.
Applications:
It includes:
 Antibiotics, antiseptics, anti-epileptics
 Anti-histamines, anti-conversant, hypnotics, analgesics
 Hormones and vitamins
Among specifications, it includes:
 Standards for drugs
 Specifications except storage
 Uniformity
 Added substances
 Apparatus
 Procedure
 Biological assays
 Preservations
National Formulary of Pakistan:
First edition of Pakistan NF was published in 1973. The general scope of pharmacopoeia is to give
description and prescribe standards for identity, purity, strength, potency and dosage of substances used in the
practice of medicine and surgery.
BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA:
Introduction:
BP is the pharmacopoeia of United Kingdom (UK). It is an annually published collection of quality
standards for UK medicinal substances.
Pharmacopoeia Commission:
BP is prepared by the pharmacopoeial commission, including pharmacopoeial secretaries, working in
collaboration with BP laboratory, BP commission and its expert advisory groups and panels.
History:

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Muhammad Muneeb
BP was first published in 1864 and was one of the first attempts to harmonize the pharmaceutical
standards and was titled Pharmacopoeia Britannica. A commission was first appointed by general Medicine
Council for producing BP on national basis. In 1968, medicine act established the legal status of B.P.
commission and made it responsible for preparing new editions of BP.
Edition 2008:
It contains 300 monographs for drug substances.
Edition 2011:
BP 2011 contains approx. 3375 monographs, preparations and articles used in practice of medicine.
The BP 2011 comprises 6 volumes, which are as follows.
 Volume 1 and 2: Medicinal substances
 Volume 3: Formulated preparations (General and Specific monographs)
 Volume 4: Herbal, homeopathic, surgical, immunologic products
 Volume 5: IR reference, spectrum, appendices, supplementary chapters, Index
 Volume 6: BP veterinary
Electronic Edition:
BP is also available electronically in both online CO-ROM versions.
Applications of British Pharmacopoeia:
The BP contains:
 General notices (providing general information applicable to all tests)
 General monographs (apply to all dosage forms)
 Specific monographs providing mandatory standards for:
o API, excipients
o Formulated preparations (licensed and unlicensed products)
o Herbal drug products
o Blood-related products
o Immunologic products
o Radiopharmaceutical preparations
 IR reference standards
 Appendices (scattered information)
 Supplementary chapters
 Comprehensive index (separate raw and finished product monographs)
UNITED STATE PHARMACOPOEIA:
Introduction:
USP is for US and is published annually by US Pharmacopoeial commission. USP is published as a
combined volume with national formulary as USP-NF.
First Edition:

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Muhammad Muneeb
It was published in 1820. It contained therapeutic products, their information and recipes of their
preparations.
USP30-NF25:
It contains specific standards of drug dietary substances, biological products used in dosage form.
USP31-NF26:
It contains official substances and preparations monographs. It contains approx. 4240 monographs,
more than 220 general tests and assays. It consists of 3 volumes:
 Volume 1: It contains preface, admissions, notices, general chapters, reagents, indicators, test papers,
solutions, reference tables, supplements, microbiological tests pf assays, chemical tests and assays.
 Volume 2: It has guide to general chapters, monograph (A – L) and index.
 Volume 3: It contains notices, monograph (M – Z) and index.
USP 39-NF34:
It is the current edition of USP-NF.
Drug Compendia:
The books containing the standards of drugs and related substances are known as pharmacopoeia.
Collectively, these books are known as drug compendia.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHARMACOPOEIA AND FORMULARY:
Pharmacopoeia Formulary
Definition
An official book containing directions for the use of
drugs and their QC tests.
An official book giving details of predictable
medicine. It does not provide QC methods.
Information
It provides no indications, adverse effects or
contraindication of drugs.
It gives name, indication, DDIs and
contraindications of drug use.
Tests
It includes the procedures for the testing the quality
of drugs.
It does not include procedures to perform several
tests.
Quality or Region Drugs
It is used for information about QC testing. It is basically the list of drugs of a particular region.
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 3. Physicochemical Principles
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Muhammad Muneeb
Unit 3.
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES
Outline:
a. Solutions: Introduction, types, concentration expressions, ideal and real solution, colligative
properties, their mathematical derivations and applications in pharmacy, molecular weight
determinations, distribution co-efficient and its applications in pharmacy.
b. Solubilization: Solubility, factors affecting solubility, surfactants, their properties and types. Micelles,
their formulation and types.
c. Adsorption: Techniques and processes of adsorption in detail.
d. Ionization: pH, pH indicators, pka, buffers, buffer’s equation, Isotonic solutions and their applications
in pharmacy.
e. Hydrolysis: Types and protection of drugs against hydrolysis.
f. Micromeritics: Particle size and shapes, distribution of particles methods of determination of particle
size and importance of particle size in Pharmacy.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
A. SOLUTIONS
Solutions:
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances at molecular level. A solution may
exist in any phase.
OR
A homogeneous mixture of chemical substances, which has same physical properties and chemical
composition is called solution.
OR
A homogeneous mixture of solute and solvent which doesn’t interact chemically is called solution.
OR
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two substances but consisting of one phase.
PHARMACEUTICAL SOLUTIONS:
Solutions are dosage form prepared by dissolving the active ingredient(s) in aqueous or non-aqueous
solvent.
Definitions:
 SYSTEM: System is the bounded space which is under consideration.
 PHASE: Phase is a distinct homogeneous part of a system separated by definite boundaries from
other parts of the system.
 DISPERSION: Dispersion consists of at least two phases with one or more dispersed (internal) phase
contained in a single continuous (external) phase.

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Muhammad Muneeb
 DISSOLUTION: Two or more mix at the level of individual atoms, molecules or ions.
 BINARY SOLUTION: A solution consisting of only two substances is known as binary solution.
TYPE OF DISPERSION:
 True solution
 Colloidal dispersion
 Coarse dispersion
TRUE SOLUTION COLLOIDAL DISPERSION COARSE DISPERSION
Definitions
A true solution is defined as a
mixture of two or more
components that form a
homogeneous molecular
dispersion.
The colloidal dispersion can be
heterogeneous or homogeneous
(one-phase system).
Coarse dispersions are heterogeneous
dispersed systems, in which the
dispersed phase particles are larger
than 1000 nm (4×10-5
).
Particle Size
less than 1nm Greater than true solution but less
than coarse dispersion i.e. 1 to 500
nm
Greater than 500nm (0.5μm)
No. of Phases
One phase system Heterogeneous or homogeneous
(one-phase system)
Heterogeneous
Light Scattering
Cannot scatter light Show Tindall effect May or may not scatter light
Separation of Particles on Standing
Do not separate on standing Don’t separate on standing Particles settle down
Filtration
Can pass through ordinary
and ultra-filters
Only can pass through ordinary
filters
May or may not pass through
ordinary filters
Examples
Solution of NaCl in H2O  Starch
 Milk
Emulsions (liquid-liquid dispersion)
Suspension (solid-liquid dispersion)
Solute & Solvent:
A solution consists of two or more substances; the substance which is greater in amount is called the
solvent while the substance which is lesser in amount is referred as solute.
 Generally, in liquid and solid solution the liquid is taken as solvent while the solid substance is the
solute irrespective of material quantity.
 Similarly, in case of a solution consisting of water and any other solid or liquid substance, the water
is taken as solvent while the other substance is the solute irrespective of the material quantity.
Types of Solutions According to States:

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Muhammad Muneeb
Solute Solvent Types of solutions Examples
Solid Solid Solid in Solid Alloys
Liquid Solid Liquid in Solid Hydrated salts
Gas Solid Gas in Solid Dissolved gases in minerals
Solid Liquid Solid in Liquid Salt solution in water
Liquid Liquid Liquid in Liquid Alcohol in water
Gas Liquid Gas in Liquid Aerated drinks
Solid Gas Solid in Liquid Iodine vapors in air
Liquid Gas Liquid in Liquid Humidity in air
Gas Gas Gas in Liquid Air
Stages of Solution Process:
i. Separation of Solute:
 Must overcome intermolecular forces or non-ionic interactions in solute
 Requires energy, Endothermic (+∆H)
ii. Separation of Solvent
 Must overcome intermolecular forces of solvent particles
 Requires energy, Endothermic (+∆H)
iii. Interaction of Solute & Solvent
 Attractive bonds b/w solute particles and solvent particles
 “Solvation” or “Hydration” (where water = solvent)
 Release energy, exothermic (-∆H)
Types of Solute:
 NON-ELECTROLYTE: The substances that do not ionize when dissolved in water and do not
conduct electric current is called non-electrolyte, e.g. solution of sucrose, urea and glycerin.
 ELECTROLYTE: The substances that ionize when dissolved in water and conduct electric current
is called electrolyte. There are further divided into:
o Strong Electrolyte: Substance that completely ionized in water, e.g. HCl and Sodim Sulphate.
o Weak Electrolyte: Substances that partly ionized in water, e.g. Ephedrine and Phenobarbital.
Physical Properties of Substances:
 EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES: Properties which depend on the quantity of the matter in the system,
e.g. mass and volume.
 INTENSIVE PROPERTIES: Properties which are independent of the amount of the substances
in the system, e.g. temperature, pressure, density, surface tension, and viscosity of pure liquid.
The physical properties of the substance can be classified into following:
1. ADDITIVE PROPERTIES:
 The physical properties, which depend upon the sum of the properties of all the constituents of the
solution, are called additive properties. OR

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 The physical properties which depend on the total contribution of the atoms in the molecule or the sum
of properties of the constituents in a solution.
 E.g. molecular weight.
2. CONSTITUTIVE PROPERTIES:
 The physical properties which depend on the arrangement and number or kind of atoms within a
molecule
 The constitutive properties mainly depend on the arrangement & to a lesser extent on kind and No of
atoms.
 E.g. refraction of light, electric properties and solubility (also are additive properties)
3. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES:
 Depend mainly on the number of particles in a solution
 E.g. osmotic pressure, vapor pressure lowering, freezing point depression and boiling point elevation
Concentration Expression:
The concentration of a solution can be defined as:
‘’The amount of solute present in a given amount of solution is called concentration of the solution.’’
A solution containing a relatively low concentration of solute is called dilute solution while a solution
containing relatively a high concentration of the solute is said to be concentrated solution.
There are several ways of expressing concentration of solution, some are as follows:
1. Percentage Expression
2. Molarity
3. Normality
4. Molality
5. Mole Fraction
6. Parts per million
BASIC DEFINITIONS:
 MOLES: Moles is the gram molecular weight of a substance.
 GRAM EQUIVALENT WEIGHT: It is the mass of a given substance which will:
o Supply or react with one mole of hydrogen cations H+
in an acid–base reaction; or
o Supply or react with one mole of electrons−in a redox reaction.
The Concentration of solution can be expressed in following terms:
1. MOLARITY (M):
Molarity can be defined as: “The number of moles of solute per litter of solution is called Molarity.”
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
Volume of solution (in litters)

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The Molarity of solution is represented by M and its units are mole /litter. Molarity is the general unit
that used in the most of chemistry calculation; we usually use this unit to define the concentration of the
solution in stoichiometry calculation.
2. NORMALITY (N):
Normality can be defined as: “The no. of gram equivalent of solute present per litter of the solution.”
Normality =
No. of gm equivalent of solute
Volume of solution in litters
Where,
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Equivalent weight
And,
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
ACIDITY OR BASICITY
3. MOLALITY (M):
The Molality of solution can be defined as: “The no. of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent is
called Molality.”
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
The Molality of solution is represented by “m” & its units are mole / kg. Molality usually uses to define
the physical properties of the solution like vapor pressure, boiling point elevation, and freezing point
depression of solution. We use normality in the volumetric calculation especially in the titration calculation.
4. MOLE FRACTION (X):
Ratio of moles of one constituent of a solution to the total moles of all constituent.
𝑥1 =
𝑛1
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
; 𝑥2 =
𝑛2
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
Where,
X1 is the mole fraction of constituent 1
X2 is the mole fraction of constituent 2
n1 and n2 are the numbers of moles of respective constituent in the solution
It is denoted by “X”. The Mole fraction is unit less & total mole fraction of a solution will always be
unity:
Xsolute + Xsolvent = 1
5. PERCENT EXPRESSION:

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Muhammad Muneeb
It can be defined as: “The specific amount of solute present in 100 gm of solution.” OR “It is the part
of the solute present in 100 parts of the solution.”
 PERCENT BY WEIGHT (%W/W): Gram of solute in 100g of solution. / It is the weight of
solute as a percent of total weight of solution.
% age of solute =
Weight of solute
Weight of solution
x 100
 PERCENT BY VOLUME (%V/V): Milliliters of solute in 100 mL of solution. / It is the volume
of solute as a present of total volume of the solution.
% age of solute =
Volume of solute
Volume of solution
x 100
 PERCENT WEIGHT-IN-VOLUME (% W/V): Grams of solute in 100 mL of solution. / It is
the no: of parts of the solute by weight in 100 parts by volume of solution. In this case, total weight or
volume of solution is not considered.
% age of solute =
Weight of solute
Volume of solution
x 100
 MILLIGRAM PERCENT: Milligram of solute in 100mL of solution.
6. PARTS PER MILLION:
Number of parts (by wt. or volume) of solute per million parts (by wt. or volume) of solution is called
parts per million.
𝑃𝑃𝑀 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔𝑚)
Mass of solution
× 106
Significance:
 It is used for very low conc. of solution.
 It is used to express the amount of impurities in H2O.
Ideal and Real Solution:
Ideal Solutions Real Solutions
Definition
A solution in which there is no change in the
properties of the components, other than dilution,
when they are mixed to form a solution; no heat is
evolved or absorbed during the process, and the final
volume represent the additive properties of the
individual constituent. It means complete uniformity
of attractive forces.
Solution which does not follow the Raoult’s Law is
called non-ideal solution or real solution. The real
solution show deviation from Raoult’s Law, which
are either positive or negative deviation.
Raoult’s Law
Follow Raoult’s law Doesn’t follow Raoult’s law
PROPERTIES OF IDEAL SOLUTIONS:
 During the formation of an ideal solution, only the dilution or change in concentration occurs.
 In mixing the components of an ideal solution, no heat is evolved / absorbed.

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Muhammad Muneeb
 The total volume of the solution is equal to the sum of the volumes of the components
V= V1 + V2 + V3
 There is no shrinkage or expansion of molecules or volumes because the size of the molecules of the
components remains same after mixing.
 The constitutive properties of the ideal solution are the arrange of the properties pure individual
components.
 For the formation of an ideal solution, the mixing substances should be with similar properties e.g.
methanol & Ethanol, benzene & Toluene, methanol & Water, etc.
 There is a complete uniformity of attractive forces b/w the constituents of an ideal solution.
 The osmotic pressure of an ideal solution can be determined by Vent Hoff’s Rule.
PROPERTIES OF REAL SOLUTION:
 Total volume of real solution is not equal to the sum of volumes of all the components, i.e.
V ≠ V1 + V2 + V3
 During the mixing of components of real solution, there is either evolution or absorption of heat, i.e.
∆H ≠ O.
 When the components of a real solution are mixed, there will be either shrinkage or expansion of the
molecules of the components.
 Real solutions can be obtained by mixing the components of different properties.
 The attractive forces b/w the components of the real solutions are not the same.
 There must be change in properties of the components of the real solution.
 The real solutions deviate from Raoult’s Law in two ways:
o If the cohesive forces are greater than adhesive forces. Then real solutions deviate positively
from Raoult’s Law. E.g. Acetone, water, Benzene & Ethyl Alcohol, Ethanol & Water.
o If the adhesive forces b/w the molecules of components are greater that cohesive forces, then
real solution deviate negatively from Raoult’s Law. E. g. H2O + HCl, Acetone + Chloroform.
Raoult’s Law:
Raoult’s law states that, any particular temperature, the partial pressure of one component of a binary
mixture is equal to the mole fraction of that component multiplied by its vapor pressure in the pure state at
this temperature.
According to Raoult’s law, in an ideal solution the partial pressure (P) of each volatile constituent is
equal to the vapour pressure of the pure constituent (Po) multiplied by its mole fraction (X).

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P = Po × X
ESCAPING TENDENCY: The tendency to escape or expand is called escaping tendency. The escaping
tendency of hotter body is greater than the escaping tendency of colder one.
Colligative Properties:
A. LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE:
VAPOUR: The pressure exerted by the vapours of the liquids at equilibrium state with pure liquid, it self, at
a given temperature is called vapour pressure of the liquid.
LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE: When a non-volatile solute is combined with a volatile solvent,
the solute decreases the escaping tendency of solvent, which on the basis of Raoult’s Law lower the vapour
pressure of the solution.
METHOD USED: Manometric method is used to determine vapour pressure.
GRAPHICAL EXPLANATION:
When a nonvolatile solute is dissolved in a pure solvent, the solute molecules adjust themselves b/w
the intermolecular spaces and attractive forces are produced b/w the solute & solvent. Now, the solvent
molecules cannot easily escape from solution & with the result the Vp is lowered at constant temperature. If
the vapour pressure of solvent with dilute solute is P1, and pure solvent is P1
o
. X1 and X2 are the mole fraction
of solvent and solute then according to Raoult’s law,
𝑃1 = 𝑃1
𝑜
× 𝑋1
We know that,
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = 1
𝑋1 = 1 − 𝑋2
Putting the value of X1 in first equation we get,
𝑃 = 𝑃1
𝑜
× (1 − 𝑋2)
𝑃 = 𝑃1
𝑜
−𝑃1
𝑜
𝑋2
𝑃1
𝑜
− 𝑃 = 𝑃1
𝑜
𝑋2
𝑃1
𝑜
− 𝑃
𝑃
1
𝑜 = 𝑋2
∆𝑃
𝑃
1
𝑜 = 𝑋2
The relative lowering of vapour pressure depend only on the mole fraction of solute.
As,
𝑥2 =
𝑛2
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
So,

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Muhammad Muneeb
As n2 is negligible in a very dilute solution so n1 + n2 ≈ n1
∆𝑷
𝑷𝟏
𝒐 =
𝒏𝟐
𝒏𝟏
Where
𝒏𝟐 =
𝑾𝟐
𝑴𝟐
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒏𝟏 =
𝑾𝟏
𝑴𝟏
and
If the weight of the solvent (W1) is 1000g then
∆𝑃
𝑃
1
𝑜 =
𝑊2
𝑀2
⁄
1000
𝑀1
⁄
We know that W2/M2= m
So,
∆𝑃
𝑃
1
𝑜 =
𝑚
1000
𝑀1
⁄
∆𝑃
𝑃
1
𝑜 =
𝑀1𝑚
1000
GRAPHICAL FORM:
B. ELEVATION OF BOILING POINT
BOLING POINT: The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric
pressure is called boiling point.
Boiling Point ELEVATION: When a solute is added to a pure solvent, the boiling point of solution (solute
+ solvent) will be greater than the BP of the pure solvent. This difference b/w the boiling point of the solution
& pure solvent at constant pressure is called elevation in boiling point.

47
Muhammad Muneeb
Whenever a nonvolatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the V.P. of the solvent is reduced. So < the
resulting solution will boil at a higher temperature is compared to that of pure solvent at. Some atmospheric
pressure. And this difference is said to be elevation in B.P.
APPARATUS: Cottrell apparatus is used for finding elevation of boiling point.
GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION:
From the above graph, it is shown that VP curve of solution lies below that of solvent, so to reach the
normal BP, the temperature: is elevated (i.e. increased) in this increase in temperature of solution is called
elevation in boiling point.
MATHEMATICAL FORM:
Elevation of boiling point: 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 = ∆𝑇𝑏
Lowering of vapour pressure: ∆𝑃 = 𝑃0
− 𝑃
The ratio of elevation of boiling point is proportional to the lowering of vapour pressure.
∆𝑇𝑏 ∝ ∆𝑃
∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾 ∆𝑃
As P0
is boiling point constant it can be considered proportional to ΔP/Po
.
∆𝑇𝑏 =
𝐾 ∆𝑃
𝑃𝑜
According to Raoult’s Law:
∆𝑃
𝑃
1
0 = 𝑋2
So,
∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾 𝑋2
∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾
𝑛2
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
As n1 + n2 ≈ n1
So,

48
Muhammad Muneeb
∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾
𝑛2
𝑛1
Where
𝒏𝟐 =
𝑾𝟐
𝑴𝟐
𝑾𝟏
𝑴𝟏
And if the weight of the solvent (W1) is 1000g then:
∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾
𝑊2
𝑀2
⁄
1000
𝑀1
⁄
∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾
𝑚
1000
𝑀1
⁄
∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾
𝑀1𝑚
1000
OR
∆𝑻𝒃 = 𝑲𝒃𝒎
Where Kb is the ebullioscopic constant, which can be defined boiling point elevation for an ideal 1m
solution.
C. DEPRESSION OF FREEZING POINT:
DEPRESSION OF FREEZING POINT: When a nonvolatile solute is dissolved in a pure solvent, then it
will freeze at a lower temperature than the temperature at which pure solvent freezes. And this difference in
freezing point b/w the pure solvent & solution is called freezing point depression.
METHOD USED: Beckmann’s Apparatus or Equilibrium Apparatus is used to determine depression of
freezing point.
EXPLANATION:
When a nonvolatile solute is added to a pure solvent at triple point, the lowering of vapour pressure of
solution takes place, so in order to again establish equilibrium b/w solid & liquid, the temperature is further
dropped & this leads to depression in freezing point of the solution as compared to FP of pure solvent and this
is called dispersion in freezing point.
This can also be explained by the following graph. As the F.P. of solvent in the temperature at which
solid and liquid forms are in equilibrium while the F.P. of the solution is the temperature at which the solid
solvent is at equilibrium with liquid solution.

49
Muhammad Muneeb
MATHEMATICAL FORM:
As V.P. of solution is less that the V.P. of pure solvent, so solid solvent and liquid solutions cannot
coexist at freezing point of pure solvent and so the temperature is further reduced.
Depression of freezing point 𝑇 − 𝑇0 = ∆𝑇𝑓
Lowering of vapour pressure ∆𝑃 = 𝑃0
− 𝑃
The ratio of depression of freezing point is proportional to the lowering of vapour pressure.
∆𝑇𝑓 ∝ ∆𝑃
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾 ∆𝑃
As P0
is freezing point constant it can be considered proportional to ΔP/Po
∆𝑇𝑓 =
𝐾 ∆𝑃
𝑃𝑜
According to Raoult’s Law,
∆𝑃
𝑃
1
0 = 𝑋2
So
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾 𝑋2
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾
𝑛2
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
As n1 + n2 ≈ n1
So
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾
𝑛2
𝑛1
Where
𝒏𝟐 =
𝑾𝟐
𝑴𝟐
𝑾𝟏
𝑴𝟏

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Muhammad Muneeb
And if the weight of the solvent (w1) is 1000g then
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾
𝑊2
𝑀2
⁄
1000
𝑀1
⁄
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾
𝑚
1000
𝑀1
⁄
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾
𝑀1𝑚
1000
OR
∆𝑻𝒇 = 𝑲𝒇𝒎
Where Kf is the cryoscopic constant, which can be defined asfreezing point depression for an ideal
1m solution.
As we know
𝑚 =
𝑊2
𝑊1 × 𝑀2
× 1000
So the above equation can be written as
∆𝑻𝒇 = 𝑲𝒇
𝑾𝟐
𝑾𝟏 × 𝑴𝟐
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
D. OSMOTIC PRESSURE:
Osmosis is defined as the passage of solvent into a solution through semi-permeable membrane (is
barrier which allow only the molecules of one component to pass through). This process tends to equalize the
escaping tendency of solvent on both sides of semi-permeable membrane. The escaping tendency can be
measured in term of vapour pressure or the closely related colligative property osmotic pressure.
Osmotic pressure is defined as the pressure greater than that above the pure solvent, that must be
applied to the solution to prevent the passage of the solvent through a perfect semipermeable membrane. The
phenomena of osmosis depend upon the fact that the chemical potential of a solvent molecule is less than that
exist in the pure solution. Solvent therefore passes spontaneously into the solution until the chemical potentials
of solvent and solution are equal.
EXPLANATION.
If a pure solvent is placed adjacent to a solution separated by a semipermeable & so dilute the solution
& also raise the volume of the solution. And with the result the hydrostatic pressure (Osmotic pressure) is set
up on the solution. This osmotic pressure can be measured by applying a known pressure, which stops any
movement.

51
Muhammad Muneeb
This osmotic pressure obtained is therefore proportional to the reduction in VP brought about by the
concentration of solute present. And so, osmotic pressure is Colligative property.
Osmotic pressure osmometers are shown in the figure above. It works on the same phenomena. Once
equilibrium has been attained, the height of the solution in the capillary tube on the solution side of the
membrane is greater by the amount h than the height in the capillary tube on the solvent side, the osmotic
pressure can be measured by following formula.
𝑂𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝜋 (𝑎𝑡𝑚) = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (ℎ) × 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜌) × 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Applications of Colligative Properties:
 Each colligative properties seems to have certain advantages and disadvantages for the determination
of molecular weights.
 The boiling point method can be used only when the solute is nonvolatile and when the substance is
not decomposed at boiling temperature.
 The freezing point method is satisfactory for solutions containing volatile solutes, such as alcohol,
since the freezing point of solution depends on the VP of the solvent alone. The freezing point method
is easily executed and yields results of high accuracy for solutions of small molecules.
 It is sometimes inconvenient to use freezing point or boiling point method, however, since they must
be carried out at definite temperatures. Osmotic pressure measurements do not have this disadvantage,
and yet the difficulties inherent in this method preclude its wide use.
 In summary, it can be said that the cryoscopic and newer techniques of VP are methods of choice,
except for very high polymers, in which instance the osmotic pressure method is used.
 Since the colligative properties are interrelated, it should be possible to determine the value of one
property from a knowledge of any other.
Molecular Weight Determination:
The four colligative properties discuss above can be used to determine the molecular weight of solvent
in the following way:
∆𝑃
𝑃
1
𝑜 =
𝑛2
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
As n2 is negligible in a very dilute solution so n1 + n2 ≈ n1

Pharmaceutics I (Physical Pharmacy) complete notes by Muhammad Muneeb

Pharmaceutics I (Physical Pharmacy) complete notes by Muhammad Muneeb

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