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2.Baye Chapter 2.pptx
1.
Chapter 2 Market Forces:
Demand and Supply
2.
Apply Apply supply
and demand analysis as a qualitative forecasting tool to see the βbig pictureβ in competitive markets. Explain 1.Explain and illustrate how excise taxes, ad valorem taxes, price floors and price ceilings impact the functioning of a market. Explain Explain price discrimination in a competitive market and show how equilibrium changes in response to changes in determinants of demand and supply. Calculate Calculate consumer surplus and producer surplus and describe what they mean. Explain Explain the laws of demand and supply and identify factors that cause demand and supply to shift. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. Learning Objectives
3.
Market demand curve βIllustrates
the relationship between the total quantity and price per unit of a good all consumers are willing and able to purchase, holding other variables constant. Law of demand βThe quantity of a good consumers are willing and able to purchase increases (decreases) as the price falls (rises). βPrice and quantity demanded are inversely related. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-3 Demand
4.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-4 Market Demand Curve (Figure 2-1) Quantity (thousands per year) Price ($) Demand $40 0 $30 $20 20 40 $10 60 80
5.
Changing only price
leads to changes in quantity demanded. βThis type of change is graphically represented by a movement along a given demand curve, holding other factors that impact demand constant. Changing factors other than price leads to changes in demand. βThese types of changes are graphically represented by a shift of the entire demand curve. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-5 Shift in Quantity Demanded versus a Shift in Demand
6.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-6 Changes in Demand (Figure 2-2) Quantity 0 Price D1 Increase in demand A B D0 D2 Decrease in demand
7.
1. Income β’ Normal
good β’ Inferior good 2. Prices of related goods β’ Substitute goods β’ Complement goods 3. Advertising and consumer tastes β’ Informative advertising β’ Persuasive advertising 4. Population 5. Consumer expectations 6. Other factors Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-7 Demand Shifters
8.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-8 Advertising and the Demand for Clothing (Figure 2-3) Quantity of high-style clothing 0 $50 $40 50,000 Price of high-style clothing D2 60,000 Due to an increase in advertising D1
9.
The demand function
for good X is a mathematical representation describing how many units will be purchased at different prices for X, the price of a related good Y, income and other factors that affect the demand for good X. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-9 The Demand Function
10.
One simple, but
useful, representation of a demand function is the linear demand function: ππ π = πΌ0 + πΌπππ + πΌπππ + πΌππ + πΌπ»π» where: βππ π is the number of units of good X demanded; βππ is the price of good X; βππ is the price of a related good Y; βπ is income; βπ» is the value of any other variable affecting demand. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-10 The Linear Demand Function
11.
The signs and
magnitude of the πΌ coefficients determine the impact of each variable on the number of units of X demanded. ππ π = πΌ0 + πΌπππ + πΌπππ + πΌππ For example: βπΌπ < 0 by the law of demand; βπΌπ > 0 if good Y is a substitute for good X; βπΌπ < 0 if good X is an inferior good. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-11 Understanding the Linear Demand Function
12.
Suppose that an
economic consultant for X Corp. recently provided the firmβs marketing manager with this estimate of the demand function for the firmβs product: ππ π = 12,000 β 3ππ + 4ππ β 1π + 2π΄π Question: How many of good X will consumers purchase when ππ = $200 per unit, ππ = $15 per unit, π = $10,000 and π΄π = 2,000? Are goods X and Y substitutes or complements? Is good X a normal or an inferior good? Answer: ππ π = 12,000 β 3 200 + 4 15 β 1 10,000 + 2 2,000 = 5,460 units. Goods X and Y are substitutes. Good X is an inferior good. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-12 The Linear Demand Function in Action
13.
By setting ππ
= $15 and π = $10,000 and π΄ = 2,000 the demand function is ππ π = 12,000 β 3ππ + 4 15 β 1 10,000 + 2 2,000 the linear demand function simplifies to ππ π = 6,060 β 3ππ Solving this for ππ in terms of ππ π results in ππ = 2,020 β 1 3 ππ π which is called the inverse demand function. This function is used to construct a market demand curve. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-13 Inverse Demand Function
14.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-14 Graphing the Inverse Demand Function in Action (Figure 2-4) Quantity Price ππ = 2,020 β 1 3 ππ π $2,020 0 6,060
15.
Marketing strategies β
like value pricing and price discrimination β rely on understanding consumer value for products. βTotal consumer value is the sum of the maximum amount a consumer is willing to pay at different quantities. βTotal expenditure is the per-unit market price times the number of units consumed. βConsumer surplus is the extra value that consumers derive from a good but do not pay extra for. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-15 Consumer Surplus
16.
Quantity in liters Price per liter Demand $5 0 $3 $2 1
2 $1 4 5 Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-16 Market Demand and Consumer Surplus in Action (Figure 2-5) Total Consumer Value: 0.5($5 - $3)x2+(3-0)(2-0) = $8 Expenditures: $(3-0) x (2-0) = $6 Consumer Surplus: 0.5($5 - $3)x(2-0) = $2 $4 3 Consumer Surplus
17.
Market supply curve βA
curve indicating the total quantity of a good that all producers in a competitive market would produce at each price, holding input prices, technology, and other variables affecting supply constant. Law of supply βAs the price of a good rises (falls), the quantity supplied of the good rises (falls), holding other factors affecting supply constant. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-17 Supply
18.
Changing only price
leads to changes in quantity supplied. βThis type of change is graphically represented by a movement along a given supply curve, holding other factors that impact supply constant. Changing factors other than price leads to changes in supply. βThese types of changes are graphically represented by a shift of the entire supply curve. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-18 Changes in Quantity Supplied versus Changes in Supply
19.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-19 Changes in Supply (Figure 2-6) Quantity Price S2 0 Decrease in supply A B S0 S1 Increase in supply
20.
1. Input prices 2.
Technology or government regulation 3. Number of firms β’ Entry β’ Exit 4. Substitutes in production 5. Taxes β’ Excise tax: a tax on each unit of output sold, where tax revenue is collected from the supplier β’ Ad valorem tax: percentage tax 6. Producer expectations Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-20 Supply Shifters
21.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-21 A Per Unit (Excise) Tax (Figure 2-7) Quantity of gasoline per week Price of gasoline 0 t = per unit tax of 20Β’ S0 S0+t t = 20Β’ $1.20 $1.00 t
22.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-22 An Ad Valorem Tax (Figure 2-8) Quantity of backpacks per week Price of backpacks 0 S0 S1 = 1.20 x S0 $24 $10 Ad valorem tax $12 1,100 $20 2,450
23.
The supply function
for good X is a mathematical representation describing how many units will be produced at alternative prices for X, alternative input prices W, and alternative values of other variables that affect the supply for good X. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-23 The Supply Function
24.
One simple, but
useful, representation of a supply function is the linear supply function: ππ π = π½0 + π½πππ + π½ππ + π½πππ + π½π»π» βππ π is the number of units of good X produced; βππ is the price of good X; βπ is the price of an input; βππ is price of technologically related goods; βπ» is the value of any other variable affecting supply. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-24 The Linear Supply Function
25.
The signs and
magnitude of the π½ coefficients determine the impact of each variable on the number of units of X produced. ππ π = π½0 + π½πππ + π½ππ + π½πππ For example: βπ½π > 0 by the law of supply. βπ½π < 0 increasing input price. βπ½π > 0 technology lowers the cost of producing good X. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-25 Understanding the Linear Supply Function
26.
Your research department
estimates that the supply function for high definition televisions (HDTVs)is given by: ππ π = 2,000 + 3ππ β 4ππ‘ β 1ππ Question: How many televisions are produced when ππ = $400, ππ‘ = $250 per unit, and ππ = $1,400? Answer: ππ π = 2,000 + 3 400 β 4(250) β 1 1,400 = 800 HDTVs. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-26 The Linear Supply Function in Action
27.
By setting ππ
= $2,000 and ππ‘ = $250 in ππ π = 2,000 + 3ππ β 4 250 β 1 1,400 the linear supply function simplifies to ππ π = 3ππ β 400 Solving this for ππ in terms of ππ π results in ππ = 400 3 + 1 3 ππ π which is called the inverse supply function. This function is used to construct a market supply curve. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-27 Inverse Supply Function
28.
Producer surplus: the
amount producers receive in excess of the amount necessary to induce them to produce the good. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-28 Producer Surplus
29.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-29 Producer Surplus in Action (Figure 2-9) Quantity Price Supply $400 0 800 ππ = 400 3 + 1 3 ππ π $400 3 Producer surplus
30.
Competitive Market Equilibrium βDetermined
by the intersection of the market demand and market supply curves. βA price and quantity such that there is no shortage or surplus in the market. βForces that drive market demand and market supply are balanced, and there is no pressure on prices or quantities to change. βThe equilibrium price is the price that equates quantity demanded with quantity supplied Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-30 Market Equilibrium
31.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-31 Market Equilibrium (Figure 2-10) Quantity Price Supply 0 ππ» 280 Demand Surplus Shortage ππ ππΏ π0 ππ π1
32.
Consider a market
with demand and supply functions, respectively, as ππ = 10 β 2π and ππ = 2 + 2π A competitive market equilibrium exists at a price, ππ, such that ππ ππ = ππ ππ . That is, 10 β 2π = 2 + 2π 8 = 4π ππ = $2 ππ = 10 β 2 $2 = 6 and ππ = 2 + 2($2) =6 ππ = 6 units Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-32 Market Equilibrium in Action
33.
In a competitive
market equilibrium, price and quantity freely adjust to the forces of demand and supply. At times, government restricts how much prices are permitted to rise or fall. βPrice ceiling- the maximum legal price that can be charged in a market. βPrice floor- the minimum legal price that can be charged in a market. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-33 Price Restrictions and Market Equilibrium
34.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-34 A Price Ceiling (Figure 2-11) Quantity Price Supply 0 ππΉ ππ ππ ππ ππ 280 Demand Shortage ππ Priceceiling Nonpecuniary price Lost social welfare
35.
Consider a market
with demand and supply functions, respectively, as ππ = 10 β 2π and ππ = 2 + 2π Suppose a $1.50 price ceiling is imposed on the market. βππ = 10 β 2 $1.50 = 7 units. βππ = 2 + 2($1.50) = 5 units. βSince ππ > ππ a shortage of 7 β 5 = 2 units exists. βFull economic price of 5π‘β unit is 5 = 10 β 2πππ’ππ, or πππ’ππ = $2.50. Of this, β’ $1.50 is the dollar price β’ $1 is the nonpecuniary price Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-35 Price Ceiling in Action
36.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-36 A Price Floor (Figure 2-12) Quantity Price Supply 0 ππ ππ ππ ππ 280 Demand Surplus ππ Pricefloor Cost of purchasing excess supply
37.
Consider a market
with demand and supply functions, respectively, as ππ = 10 β 2π and ππ = 2 + 2π Suppose a $3.50 price floor is imposed on the market. βππ = 10 β 2 $3.50 = 3 units βππ = 2 + 2($3.50) = 9 units βSince ππ > ππ a surplus of 9 β 3 = 6 units exists βThe cost to the government of purchasing the surplus is $3.50 Γ 6 = $21. Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-37 Price Floor in Action
38.
Comparative static analysis βThe
study of the movement from one equilibrium to another. Competitive markets, operating free of price restraints, will be analyzed when: βDemand changes βSupply changes βDemand and supply simultaneously change Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-38 Comparative Statics
39.
Increase in demand
only βIncrease equilibrium price βIncrease equilibrium quantity Decrease in demand only βDecrease equilibrium price βDecrease equilibrium quantity Example of change in demand βSuppose that consumer incomes are projected to increase 2.5% and the number of individuals over 25 years of age will reach an all time high by the end of next year. What is the impact on the rental car market? Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-39 Changes in Demand
40.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-40 Effect of a Change in Demand for Rental Cars (Figure 2-13) Quantity (thousands rented per day) Price Supply 0 $45 104 Demand1 $49 Demand0 100 108
41.
Increase in supply
only βDecrease equilibrium price βIncrease equilibrium quantity Decrease in supply only βIncrease equilibrium price βDecrease equilibrium quantity Example of change in supply βSuppose that a bill before Congress would require all employers to provide health care to their workers. What is the impact on retail markets? Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-41 Changes in Supply
42.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-42 Effect of a Change in Supply (Figure 2-14) Quantity Price Supply0 0 π0 Demand π0 Supply1 π1 π1
43.
Suppose that simultaneously
the following events occur: βAn earthquake hits Kobe, Japan and decreased the supply of fermented rice used to make sake wine. βThe stress caused by the earthquake led many to increase their demand for sake, and other alcoholic beverages. What is the combined impact on Japanβs sake market? Β© 2022 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-43 Simultaneous Shifts in Supply and Demand
44.
Β© 2022 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. 2-44 Simultaneous Shifts in Supply and Demand in Action (Figure 2-15) Quantity Price Supply0 π0 0 Demand1 π1 Supply1 Demand0 Japanβs Sake Market π0 π1 Supply2 π2 π2 A B C
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