Smoking and Gambling addiction for A2 AQA Psychology Unit 4

1. Georgie Hartshorne Psychology – Unit 4 Vulnerabilitytoaddiction.
Risk Factors:
Stress:
Everyday stress:
People reportthattheydrink,smoke,use drugs,gamble etc.asameansof copingwithdailyhassles
(suchas romanticproblems,moneyworriesandworkplace stress).
Such stressorsmaycontribute toinitiationandmaintenance of addictions,aswell asrelapse even
afterlongperiodsof abstinence (NationalInstituteon Drug Abuse).
Traumatic stress:
Researchhasfoundthat people exposedtoseverestressare more vulnerable toaddictions,
especiallychildren(childabuse/deathof aparent).
PTSD (post-traumaticstressdisorder) isalsocommonlylinkedtoaddiction. Driessen etal foundthat
30% of drug addictsand 15% of alcoholicssufferfromPTSD.Theyalsofoundthat ‘mere trauma’was
not enoughtoleadto addiction.
Evaluation:
Do addictionsdecrease stress? Hajeketal - Despite the factthat manysmokerssaytheysmoke to
reduce stress,itactuallyincreaseslevels.Sostressmaybe a riskfactor for smokingbutthe addiction
doesn’thave the desiredeffect.Although,paradoxically,once asmokerissmokingitmaybecome
stressreducingasit reduceswithdrawal cravings.
Individual differences: Cloniger– stresscreates vulnerability insome butnotall.Suggestedthat
there are two typesof alcoholics;one thatdrinkto reduce tension(mostlikelywomenandprone to
anxietyanddepression) andone thatdrinksto relieve boredom(risk-takers).Therefore,stressisan
explanationforsome butnotall.
Peers:
Citedas a commonreasonwhyadolescentsinparticulardevelopanaddiction.
Eiser et al – smokerstendtobefriendsmokers,andvice-versa.
McAlister et al – Transitiontoincreasedlevelsof smokingare linkedtopeers’encouragementand
approval,togetherwiththe message thatsmokingisanactivitythatpromotespopularity.
Social LearningTheory: Bandura –behavioursare learnedthroughobservationof othersand
subsequentmodellingof thisbehaviours.Youngpeople are mostlikelytoimitate the behaviourof

2. Georgie Hartshorne Psychology – Unit 4 Vulnerabilitytoaddiction.
those withwhomtheyhave the mostsocial contact. Once theyhave startedsmoking,experiences
withthe newbehaviourdeterminewhetheritpersists.
Social IdentityTheory: Abramsand Hogg –thisassumesthatgroup membersadoptthose normsand
behavioursthatare central to the social identityof the grouptheybelongto.Inpeergroupswhere
the statues as a ‘smoker’or‘non-smoker’isventral tothe social identityof the group,individualsare
likelytobe similartoone anotherintheirhabits,suggestingan‘in’group/’out’groupworking.
Evaluation:
Social LearningTheory: manyof the hypothesesconsistentwiththe importance of social contextin
smokinghave beensupportedbyresearch.E.g. – researchsupportsthe claimthat exposure topeer
modelsincreasesthe likelihoodthatteenagerswill beginsmoking(Duncan etal).Likewise there is
plentifulsupportforthe claimthatperceivedrewardsuchassocial statusand popularityare
instrumental inwhyadolescentsbeginsmokingandremainimportantwhiletheycontinuetosmoke
(Eiser et al).
Socail IdentityTheory: althoughthereisevidence tosupportthe claimthatadolescentsare
motivatedtobeginsmokingbecauseof the stereotypestheyholdof specificsocial crowds(Michell),
little isknownaboutthe extenttowhichthese groupsinfluence theirmemberstosmoke.Nordowe
knowwhetheradolescentsare impervioustothe demandsof theirsocial groupwhen these
evidentlyconflictwiththeirownconcernstomaintainahealthylifestyle.
Age:
The influence of peersonsmokinganddruguse appearstowane in lateradolescence andthe role of
close friends/romanticpartnersbecomesincreasinglyimportantasaninfluence onattitudesand
behaviours,especiallythose thatare health-related(Brown etal).
It islikelythatthe social crowdmighthave a greaterimpacton smokinganddrug use for young
adolescence,whilebestfriendsandpartnersplayagreaterrole lateron.
Personality:
Neuroticismandpsychoticism: Eysenck –proposedabiologically-basedtheoryof personalitybased
on 3 dimensions: Extraversion-introversion,where extravertsare chronicallyunder-arousedand
boredand therefore seekexternal stimulationtoincrease theircortisol arousal. Neuroticism,where
people highinneuroticismexperience negative andunstable emotions,highanxietyandatendency
of lowmoods. Psychoticism,whichisrelatedtoemotionalcoldness,aggression,hostility,impatience
and impulsivityassufferersreactwithlittleforethought.
Francis– supported Eysenck ashe founda linkbetweenaddictionandhighscoresonboth
neuroticismandpsychoticismtests.
Zuckerman – supported Eysenck ashe foundthat individualshighinsensationseeking/extraversion
have highsusceptibilitytoboredomandseeknovel experiences,whichwouldpredispose themto
seekingahighfromaddiction.

3. Georgie Hartshorne Psychology – Unit 4 Vulnerabilitytoaddiction.
Tri-dimensional theory: Cloniger–proposed3 personalitytraitsthat predisposed individualstowards
substance dependence: Noveltyseeking,where individualssearchfornew experiences(including
drug taking). Harmavoidance,where individualsworryandare pessimistic. Rewarddependence,
where the extenttowhichanindividuallearnsquicklyfromrewardingexperiencesandrepeats
behavioursthathave beenrewarding.
Mobile phone addiction: Takao etal– lookedatpersonalityandproblemphone usage whichisan
additive-like behaviour.Issuedquestionnairesto400 college studentsandfoundproblematicphone
userstendedtobe lowinself-esteemandhighinself-monitoring(how people seeyou).Supports
the viewthatpeople whoare addictsshare personalitytraits.
Evaluation:
Causality:one issue withthe conceptof anaddictive personalityrelatestothe fact thatresearchis
correlational only.Certainpersonalitytraitsmaybe commonamongstaddicts,butthisdoesn’tmean
theypredictaddictive behaviour.Evenif there isacausal relationship,the questioniswhetherthe
personalitytraitorthe addictioncomesfirst. Teeson etal suggesteditisdifficulttodisentanglethe
effectsof personalityonaddictionfromthe effectsof addictiononpersonality.
Evidence forpersonalityasa cause:research has foundevidence inratsthatpersonalitycomesfirst.
Belin et al placedrats ina device where theycouldself-administercocaine.One groupwere
sensation-seekersandimmediatelystartedtakinglarge doses.A secondgroupwere highin
impulsivenessandstartedwithlowerdosesbuttheywere the onesthatbecame addicted,notthe
sensation-seekers.
Impulsivityratherthansensation-seeking:ahumanstudysupported Belin et al. Weintraub et al
assessedindividualssufferingfromParkinson’swhoare treatedwithdrugsthatincrease dopamine
levelstocombatsymptoms.A side-effectisa3.5 foldincrease inimpulse-controldisorders
(gambling/sex addiction).Suggeststhathighlevelsof dopamine leadtoimpulsivityandmaycause
addiction.
Role of dopamine: Buckholtzetal indicatedthataddictionsmaybe more rewardingorpeople with
certainpersonalitytypesbecause those people have more hypersensitive dopamine response
systems.Theyspeculatedthataheightenedresponsetoananticipated rewardcouldmake such
individualslessfearfulaboutthe consequencesof theirbehaviour.
Media Influence:
Increased Media Usage:
The increased importance of the mass media in society has impacted on opinions about addictive
behaviours. The increased use of internet and TV, increased sales of celebrity magazines and the
development of popular culture means we are bombarded with images that may influence our
behaviours with respect to addiction. Celebrity ‘endorsement’ of certain lifestyles may influence
addictive behaviour amongst young people who are particularly vulnerable to the cult of celebrity
and perceived glamour.

4. Georgie Hartshorne Psychology – Unit 4 Vulnerabilitytoaddiction.
Media and addictive behaviour:
Social LeaningTheory: Bandura –suggeststhatwe may model ourbehaviouronthatof someone
whomwe respect,or wouldlike tobe like,orwhoisinauthority.The mediacanact as a source of
thisobservational learningbyprovidingmodelswhich teenagers mayseektocopy.Ittherefore
followsthatexposuretomediamessagesaboutaddictive behaviourcanprovide direct
reinforcementforwhetherornot a personrakespart inthose behaviours.
Sulkunen – lookedat140 (whichwasreducedto51) scenesfrom47 filmsthatportrayeddrugs,
alcohol,nicotine,gamblingandsex.Foundthatmostof the films(America Beauty,Trainspotting,
Human Traffic) tendedtofocusonthe positive effectsof addictions,the contrastof funand
enjoymenttothe mundane nature of normal life andparental hypocrisy.
Waylen – lookedat360 topUS filmsbetween2001/2005, foundthat teenswhowatchedthe films
involvingsmokingweremore likelytostartsmoking. Evenaftercontrollingforsocial factors
(whetherparents/peerssmoked),stillfoundasignificantrelationships.
Gunasakera etal – lookedatthe 87 most popularfilmsof 1985-2005. Use of cannabisfeaturedin
8%, tobacco 68% and drunkenbehaviour32% of the films.Concludedthatportrayal tendedtobe
positive andthe dangersof associatedbehaviourssuchasunprotectedsex were notconsidered.
HOWEVER Boyd disagreesandbelievesthatfilmsdoconsiderthe negative effectsof addictions,
listingphysical deterioration,prostitution, rape,theft,murderandmoral decline suchasstealing
fromfriendsandfamily.
Influence of media:
Althoughpreviousstudiesconsiderthe actual portrayal,relativelyfew studiesconsiderthe extentto
whichtheyinfluence attitudesandbehaviour.
Sargentand Hanewinkel– lookedatthe effectsof filmportrayal of smokingon4384 adolescents
betweenthe agesof 11-15. Theyquestionedthematthe start andend(12 monthslater) of the
study.Those hadtakenup smokinginthe interveningtime oftencitedthe influence of smokingin
filmsasa contributoryfactor(self-report).
Byrne– filmsplayamajor role indeterminingourideasabouta range of topics,particularlythose
we don’tnormallyencounter.He believesthatfilmscreate outstereotypedview of whatitisto be
an addict.He likensthistothe person’sview of ECT,learnedthroughitsnegative portrayal in‘One
FlewOverThe Cuckoo’sNest’ andnotits actual application.
Media, creativity and drug use:
There are casesof drug-use influencingthe media,notthe otherwayaround,mainlyfoundin
popularmusic.]BrianWilson,the creative dudebehindthe BeachBoys,attributedmanyof hisideas
to cannabis. Belli – statedthatWilson’saddictiondevelopedas a resultof hisstress/creatively,ashe
feltmore creative high.The bandsfame came fromthe use of LSD, notcocaine,whichbecame a

5. Georgie Hartshorne Psychology – Unit 4 Vulnerabilitytoaddiction.
self-medicaterwhichthe mediachangedfromarecreational use toanaddictionbecause of the
stress.
The BeatleswentthroughanLSD phase whichinfluencedwritinginlateralbumssuchasSergeant
Pepper’sLonelyHeartsClubBand,Lucyinthe Sky withDiamondsandthe White Album.
Some of John Lennon’sworkwasprobablyinfluencedbyheroin.Histrack‘ColdTurkey’onthe
album‘ShavedFish’wasabouthisexperiencescomingoff heroin.
Role of media in changing addictive behaviour
TV isan ideal mediumforsendingmessagesonalcohol’s,drug’sandgambling’sdangers.Notonlyis
it accessible,butitalsoallowscampaignstobe focusedatcertaingroup.
‘Psst…the reallyuseful guideto alcohol’ –6 part BBC 30 minute TV seriesin1989. Bennettet al in
1991 concludedthatit increasedpeople’sawarenessof alcohol relatedissuesbuthadlittle orno
impacton theirbehaviourof consumptionof alcohol.
‘Drinkingless?Doityourself!’:Krameretal – assesseditseffectiveness,foundthatthe intervention
groupwere more successful thana control at achievingaloweredrisklevel foralcoholism,which
was maintainedfor3monthsafter. EVALUATION:the studyinvolvedaninterventiongroupthat
watchedthe seriesanda control group onthe waitinglisttoreceive treatment.The intervention
groupreceivedweeklyvisitsfromresearcherssothe extraattentionmayhave workedinfavourof
positive outcomes.Also,the control groupknew theywere gettingthe treatment,somayhave
postponeditsbehavioural chance,artificiallyinflatingthe magnitude of the differences.
Frank: usedtoinformyoungpeople aboutthe dangersof taking drugs.RecentlyFrankhas
introducedPablothe dogdrugmule.The ads are designedtodispel the myththatcocaine isa
glamorousdrug.
US drug campaignfailure: Mostevidence suggeststhatmostsimilar campaigns inthe pasthave
failedtogetthe message across.Between1998-2004, $1 billionwasspentonUS anti-drug
campaigns,whichseemedtofail:
Johnston etal - suggestedmayhave actuallyincreasedcannabisuse (inferredthateveryone butyou
was doingdrugs – so everyone started).
Hornik et al – suggested,givenall the anti-drugmessageswhichUSyouthsare exposedtoo,andthe
fact that the message inthe campaignwasnot novel,itisunsurprisingiseffectswere minimal.
The US Office of Substance Abuse Protection - hasgivenguidelinesforwhatfilmsshouldshow and
howto presentdrugs.Theyshouldshow addictsnegatively,show harmful effectsandnevershow
and ‘recreational’druguse.