2. PLANNING AND
ORGANIZING
Organizing an Essay
• the pre-writing stage
• ask the following questions: What type of essay am I going to be writing? Does it
belong to a specific genre?
• Avoiding a common pitfall: the structure of an essay should not be determined
by the structure of its source material-Your obligation is to advance your
argument, not to reproduce the plot.
*If your essay is not well structured, then its overall weaknesses will show through in
the individual paragraphs
3. • Some techniques for integrating note-taking and planning
• Though convenient, the common method of jotting down
your notes consecutively on paper is far from ideal. The
problem is that your points remain fixed on paper. Here are
three alternatives that provide greater flexibility:
METHODS
Index cards the computer the circle
When you are researching, it easy for you to arrange see at a glance how
write down every idea, your points hierarchically things tie together
fact, quotation, or
paraphrase on a separate
Index card. You
Can order them
4. Using thesis statements
When you are asked to write an essay that creates an argument, your reader
will probably expect a clear statement of your position
It makes a definite and limited assertion that needs to be explained
and supported by further discussion - trite, irrelevant intriguing
It shows the emphasis and indicates the methodology of your argument-
emotional, vague- worth attention
It shows awareness of difficulties and disagreements- sweeping, vague-
suitably complex
5. Introductions
and conclusions
Introductions and conclusions play a special role in the academic essay, and
they frequently demand much of your attention as a writer. A good introduction
should identify your topic, provide essential context, and indicate your
particular focus in the essay. It also needs to engage your readers' interest. A
strong conclusion will provide a sense of closure to the essay while again
placing your concepts in a somewhat wider context. It will also, in some
instances, add a stimulus to further thought. Since no two essays are the same,
no single formula will automatically generate an introduction and conclusion for
you. But the following guidelines will help you to construct a suitable beginning
and end for your essay
6. How do I write an interesting, effective introduction?
Consider these strategies for capturing your readers' attention and for fleshing out your
introduction:
Find a startling statistic that illustrates the seriousness of the problem you will
address.
Quote an expert (but be sure to introduce him or her first).
Mention a common misperception that your thesis will argue against.
Give some background information necessary for understanding the essay.
Use a brief narrative or anecdote that exemplifies your reason for choosing the topic.
In an assignment that encourages personal reflection, you may draw on your own
experiences; in a research essay, the narrative may illustrate a common real-world
scenario.
In a science paper, explain key scientific concepts and refer to relevant literature.
Lead up to your own contribution or intervention.
In a more technical paper, define a term that is possibly unfamiliar to your audience
but is central to understanding the essay.
In fleshing out your introduction, you will want to avoid some common pitfalls:
Don't provide dictionary definitions, especially of words your audience already
knows.
Don't repeat the assignment specifications using the professor's wording.
Don't give details and in-depth explanations that really belong in your body
paragraphs. You can usually postpone background material to the body of the essay.
7. How do I write an interesting, effective conclusion?
The following strategies may help you move beyond merely summarizing the key
points of your essay:
If your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible
consequences of not attending to the problem.
Recommend a specific course of action.
Use an apt quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you
have reached.
Give a startling statistic, fact, or visual image to drive home the ultimate point of
your paper.
If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding
point with a relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.
Return to an anecdote, example, or quotation that you introduced in your
introduction, but add further insight that derives from the body of your essay.
In a science or social science paper, mention worthwhile avenues for future
research on your topic.
8. Paragraphs
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a series of related sentences developing a central idea, called
the topic. Try to think about paragraphs in terms of thematic unity: a paragraph is a
sentence or a group of sentences that supports one central, unified idea. Paragraphs
add one idea at a time to your broader argument.
How do I unify my ideas in a paragraph?
Probably the most effective way to achieve paragraph unity is to express the
central idea of the paragraph in a topic sentence.
Topic sentences are similar to mini thesis statements. Like a thesis statement, a
topic sentence has a specific main point. Whereas the thesis is the main point of
the essay, the topic sentence is the main point of the paragraph. Like the thesis
statement, a topic sentence has a unifying function. But a thesis statement or topic
sentence alone doesn’t guarantee unity. An essay is unified if all the paragraphs
relate to the thesis, whereas a paragraph is unified if all the sentences relate to the
topic sentence.
9. How do I develop my ideas in a paragraph?
Often, the body paragraph demonstrates and develops your topic sentence through an
ordered, logical progression of ideas. There are a number of useful techniques for
expanding on topic sentences and developing your ideas in a paragraph.
Illustration in a paragraph supports a general statement by means of examples, details, or
relevant quotations (with your comments).
The definition paragraph does exactly what you would expect: it defines a term, often by
drawing distinctions between the term and other related ones. The definition that you
provide will often be specific to your subject area. Try to avoid perfunctory dictionary
definitions that do not inform your analysis in a meaningful way.
The analysis or classification paragraph develops a topic by distinguishing its component
parts and discussing each of these parts separately.
A comparison or a contrast paragraph zeroes in on a key similarity or difference
between, for instance, two sources, positions, or ideas. Decide whether to deal only with
similarities or only with differences, or to cover both. Also, keep in mind that a single
comparison can be spread out over two separate paragraphs. As the following topic
sentence indicates, you should make your intention clear to readers from the outset.
10. A qualification paragraph acknowledges that what you previously asserted is not
absolutely true or always applicable.
The process paragraph involves a straightforward step-by-step description. Process
description often follows a chronological sequence
How do I make my ideas flow in a paragraph?
"Flow" is a word used to describe the way a paragraph moves from idea to idea. This
movement occurs both within the paragraph and between paragraphs. The best overall
strategy to enhance flow within a paragraph is to show connections. A variety of simple
techniques can help you to clarify those connections and thereby communicate your
intended logic.
Deliberate repetition of key words helps. Reiterating the focus of your analysis by
repeating key words or synonyms for key words enhances the overall flow of the
paragraph. In the following example, the repetition of the key words "Canadian,"
"nation," and "communication" allows for clear flow throughout the paragraph.
Strategic use of pronouns such as it, they, and this keeps the focus on the ideas
announced at the beginning of the paragraph—as long as they are clearly linked to
specific nouns. In the following example the antecedent is underlined and its
corresponding pronoun is in bold.
11. Specialized linking words can also be powerful tools for pulling ideas together.
But don’t just sprinkle them into your sentences—use them to support your logic.
How long should a paragraph be?
Paragraphs vary in length depending on the needs of the paragraph. Usually,
paragraphs are between one-third and two-thirds of a page double spaced.
A series of long paragraphs can make prose dense and unpleasant to read
USING TOPIC SENTENCES
What is a topic sentence?
A topic sentence states the main point of a paragraph: it serves as a mini-thesis for
the paragraph. You might think of it as a signpost for your readers—or a headline—
something that alerts them to the most important, interpretive points in your essay.
When read in sequence, your essay's topic sentences will provide a sketch of the
essay's argument. Thus topics sentences help protect your readers from confusion
by guiding them through the argument. But topic sentences can also help you to
improve your essay by making it easier for you to recognize gaps or weaknesses in
your argument.
12. Reading and
Researching
Critical Reading :To read critically is to make judgements about how a text is argued.
Critical reading occurs after some preliminary processes of reading. Begin by skimming research materials, especially
introductions and conclusions, in order to strategically choose where to focus your critical efforts.
When highlighting a text or taking notes from it, teach yourself to highlight argument: those places in a text where an
author explains her analytical moves, the concepts she uses, how she uses them, how she arrives at conclusions. Don't
let yourself foreground and isolate facts and examples, no matter how interesting they may be. First, look for the large
patterns that give purpose, order, and meaning to those examples. The opening sentences of paragraphs can be important
to this task.
When you begin to think about how you might use a portion of a text in the argument you are forging in your own paper,
try to remain aware of how this portion fits into the whole argument from which it is taken. Paying attention to context
is a fundamental critical move.
When you quote directly from a source, use the quotation critically. This means that you should not substitute the
quotation for your own articulation of a point. Rather, introduce the quotation by laying out the judgments you are
making about it, and the reasons why you are using it. Often a quotation is followed by some further analysis.
Critical reading skills are also critical listening skills. In your lectures, listen not only for information but also for ways
of thinking. Your instructor will often explicate and model ways of thinking appropriate to a discipline.
13. How to Get the Most Out of Reading
tips on reading different material in appropriate ways. They will help you read more
effectively
Textbooks
Textbooks sometimes repay intensive reading, though usually in some parts more than others. Be aware
of the structure of the text as you read: the chapter titles, headings and subheadings will name the main
concepts to be covered. Mark only key passages in the text. Use symbols to show different kinds of
points. It's worthwhile to make brief summarizing notes in your own words. That forces you to process
the material in your own mind, and it provides a guide for later review.
Primary Sources
Read through each literary work or historical document, paying attention to your
own responses and questions. "Stickies" will let you express these on the spot without spoiling the
pages. Many people find it useful, immediately after a first reading, to write out a brief journal account
of their experience.
Research Readings
In going through sources for a research essay, you are looking for facts to support or modify your
original view of the topic, and for others' opinions to bolster and to challenge your own.
For books, scan the preface, table of contents and index to see the general outlook and argument. Then
read sections on your own topic; if you see useful material, expand your reading to establish the context
for any ideas that you might quote or paraphrase.
14. Taking Notes from Research Reading
If you take notes efficiently, you can read with more understanding and also save time
and frustration when you come to write your paper. These are three main principles
Know what kind of ideas you need to record
Don't write down too much
Label your notes intelligently
Dealing with New Words
It's best not to interrupt your reading process to look up every hard word right away in the
dictionary. Mark unfamiliar words, but try these tactics for making an "educated guess" at the
meaning as you go. You'll acquire some real understanding of how words are used rather than just
long vocabulary lists and a dog-eared dictionary.
SOUND it out: Use simple phonics to attempt saying the word
examine the STRUCTURE. Look for familiar word parts
look at the CONTEXT. Guess at the word's meaning from the way it is used in the sentence
check the DICTIONARY
Then reinforce your understanding by WRITING a usable brief definition or synonym in the
margin of your reading
15. Research Using the Internet
Don't rely exclusively on Net resources.
Narrow your research topic before logging on.
Know your subject directories and search engines.
Keep a detailed record of sites you visit and the sites you use.
Double-check all URLs that you put in your paper.
On the internet, Anyone can put anything they want on a Web site, there is no review or screening process, and there
are no agreed-upon standard ways of identifying subjects and creating cross-references. This is both the glory and the
weakness of the Net - it's either freedom or chaos, depending on your point of view, and it means that you have to pay
close attention when doing research on-line
The following points are guidelines for evaluating specific resources you find on the Net. If you ask these questions
when looking at a Web site, you can avoid many errors and problems.
Authority
Who is the author?
Is the author's name given?
Are her qualifications specified?
Is there a link to information about her and her position?
Is there a way to contact her (an address or a "Mailto" link)?
Have you heard of her elsewhere (in class, or cited in your course text or in Library material)?
Has the author written elsewhere on this topic?
16. Affiliation
Who is the sponsor of the Web site?
Is the author affiliated with a reputable institution or organization?
Does the information reflect the views of the organization, or only of the author? If the sponsoring institution or organization is not clearly
identified on the site, check the URL. It may contain the name of a university (U of T Mississauga's includes utoronto) or the extension
.edu, which is used by many educational institutions. Government sites are identified by the extension .gov. URLs containing .org are
trickier, and require research: these are sites sponsored by non-profit organizations, some of which are reliable sources and some of which
are very biased. Sites with the .com extension should also be used with caution, because they have commercial or corporate sponsors who
probably want to sell you something. The extension ~NAME often means a personal Web page with no institutional backing; use such
sites only if you have checked on the author's credibility in print sources.
Audience Level
What audience is the Web site designed for? You want information at the college or research level. Don't use sites intended for elementary
students or sites that are too technical for your needs.
Currency
Is the Web site current?
Is the site dated?
Is the date of the most recent update given? Generally speaking, Internet resources should be up-to-date; after all, getting the most current
information is the main reason for using the Net for research in the first place.
Are all the links up-to-date and working? Broken links may mean the site is out-of-date; they're certainly a sign that it's not well-
maintained.
Content Reliability/Accuracy
Is the material on the Web site reliable and accurate?
Is the information factual, not opinion?
Can you verify the information in print sources?
Is the source of the information clearly stated, whether original research material or secondary material borrowed from elsewhere?
How valid is the research that is the source?
Does the material as presented have substance and depth?
Where arguments are given, are they based on strong evidence and good logic?
Is the author's point of view impartial and objective?
Is the author's language free of emotion and bias?
Is the site free of errors in spelling or grammar and other signs of carelessness in its presentation of the material?
Are additional electronic and print sources provided to complement or support the material on the Web site?
17. Previewing
it is preferable to read with certain goals in mind. This will enable you to place your focus on
the proper elements of the reading and to avoid wasting time on elements which aren’t
important for your purposes
Read the title—don’t skip over it! Titles are chosen to orient the reader and should give a sense of the
central concepts in the text.
Think about the subject matter: Have you read about this topic before? Where and when? What do you
already know about it, or what might you guess? Is it linked in some way to your personal experience?
Do you already have opinions about some aspect of this topic?
Who wrote this text? What information do you have about this author? Does any information about the
author appear anywhere on the title page or elsewhere in the text? If the author is an historical figure,
what do you already know about him or her?
Where was this text originally published? What type of publication is this, and where does it fit into
this field of study? Who would be the audience for this kind of writing? What would the audience
expect to find in it?
When was this text originally published? What is the significance of this time period in this field of
study? Is the text historical? Current? Or is it possibly outdated? What were the major events or
theoretical trends around the time the text was written or published?
Read the chapter titles or the headings that break up the chapter or article. What seems to be the
general progression of ideas here?
Why has your professor assigned this text? Where does it fit into the course as a whole? What kinds
of facts and ideas are you expected to retain from this reading?
18. Skimming and Scanning
Scanning is basically skimming with a more tightly focused purpose: skimming to locate a
particular fact or figure, or to see whether this text mentions a subject you’re
researching. Scanning is essential in the writing of research papers, when you may need to
look through many articles and books in order to find the material you need. Keep a specific
set of goals in mind as you scan the text, and avoid becoming distracted by other material.
You can note what you’d like to return to later when you do have time to read further, and
use scanning to move ahead in your research project.F inally, return to the beginning and read
through the text carefully
19. Summarizing
Summarizing a text, or distilling its essential concepts into a paragraph or two, is
a useful study tool as well as good writing practice. A summary has two aims:
(1) to reproduce the overarching ideas in a text, identifying the general concepts
that run through the entire piece, and (2) to express these overarching ideas
using precise, specific language. When you summarize, you cannot rely on the
language the author has used to develop his or her points, and you must find a
way to give an overview of these points without your own sentences becoming
too general. You must also make decisions about which concepts to leave in and
which to omit, taking into consideration your purposes in summarizing and also
your view of what is important in this text. Here are some methods for
summarizing: First, prior to skimming, use some of the previewing techniques.
20. Using sources
Not to Plagiarize
Standard Documentation Formats
Using Quotations : How much should I quote?
The focus of your essay should be on your understanding of the topic. If you include too much quotation in your essay, you will crowd out your
own ideas. Consider quoting a passage from one of your sources if any of the following conditions holds:
The language of the passage is particularly elegant or powerful or memorable.
You wish to confirm the credibility of your argument by enlisting the support of an authority on your topic.
The passage is worthy of further analysis.
You wish to argue with someone else's position in considerable detail.
Condition 3 is especially useful in essays for literature courses.
If an argument or a factual account from one of your sources is particularly relevant to your paper but does not deserve to be quoted verbatim,
consider
• paraphrasing the passage if you wish to convey the points in the passage at roughly the same level of detail as in the original
• summarizing the relevant passage if you wish to sketch only the most essential points in the passage
21. Types of writing
BOOK REVIEW, ARTICLE CRITIQUE
LITERATURE
REVIEW
COMPARATIVE ESSAYS
HISTORY
SCIENCE
22. Style and Editing
Hit Parade Of Errors In Grammar, Punctuation, And Style
1. Faulty Agreement
a. Subjects and verbs must agree in number: Recent discoveries about the
weather reveal that several cycles are involved.
b. Nouns and pronouns must agree in number: The media were biased in their reporting
of the event.
c. Pronouns must agree with each other: Once you have decided to take the
course, you must keep certain policies in mind.
23. 2. Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a group of words that is punctuated to look like a sentence (i.e.,
begins with a capital letter and ends with a period), but doesn't fulfil the requirements of a
complete sentence.
A complete sentence must contain both a subject and a predicate (verb). The subject is what
(or whom) the sentence is about, while the verb tells something about the subject or
expresses an action. In this example, there's no subject. We don't know who needs to know
about the regulations:
Also, a complete sentence must contain at least one "independent clause," that is, a group of
words that stands by itself as a complete thought. A sentence may also have "subordinate
clauses," that is, a group of words that needs another to complete its meaning. In this
example, the first sentence forms a complete thought. However, the second is a fragment
because it depends on the verb "was poured"-it answers the question why the liquid was
poured but doesn't itself express any action:
We poured the acid into a glass beaker. being the only material impervious to these
liquids.
Because it is the only material impervious to these liquids, we poured the acid into a
glass beaker.
24. 3. Run-on [fused] Sentences
A sentence should express only one central idea:
Home care has expanded tremendously over the past decade. This increase is partly
due to technological advances that now make more treatments possible in the home
rather than the hospital environment.
4. Overuse of Passive Voice
Prefer active verbs to passive verbs. They are more direct and less wordy:
This paper will examine the proposed benefits of active exercise for Chronic Lower
Back Pain (CLBP).
Also, be careful not to shift voice unnecessarily:
I gave the patient 10cc orally and 5cc intravenously.
25. 5. Faulty Parallelism
Building parallel elements into a sentence adds clarity and elegance. Make sure that the
different elements are grammatically the same (i.e., "parallel"):
Eating huge meals, snacking between meals, and exercising too little can lead to
obesity.
Our coach is a former champion wrestler, but now he is overpaid, overweight, and
over forty.
6. Vague Pronouns
Make sure that pronouns such as "it" and "this" refer to something specific. "It is" and "There
are" beginnings not only add meaningless words, they can also create confusion. In this
example, what does "it" refer to? The ischaemic heart disease or the hypertension? It could
mean either one:
Hypertension is an established risk factor for the development of ischaemic heart
disease. Hypertension is also present in many patients who develop stroke.
The authors of the report suggest that moderate exercise is better than no exercise at
all.
26. 7. Dangling Modifiers
Make sure that a modifying phrase or clause doesn't "dangle" without the subject it is intended
to modify. Here, the first example implies that the pain was doing the manipulating. The
second implies that the hobbies go to school:
By manipulating the lower back, the physiotherapist greatly eased the pain.
When I am not going to school, my hobbies range from athletics to automobiles.
8. Squinting or Misplaced Modifiers
A modifying phrase or clause is said to "squint" if it applies equally to two different parts of a
sentence. Make sure the modifier clearly refers to the element you want it to. In the following
example, is the council advising at regular intervals, or should the physicians be administering
the drug at regular intervals?
The council advises physicians to administer the drug at regular intervals.
At regular intervals, the council advises physicians to administer the drug.
A "misplaced" modifier (usually an adverb) is positioned so that it changes the meaning of the
sentence. This example raises an image of an elderly gentleman climbing through a window:
I could see my grandfather coming through the window.
Through the window, I could see my grandfather coming.
27. 9. Mixed or Dead Metaphors
Recognize the literal meanings of your metaphors. The following example offers a
ludicrous image of lightning grabbing someone and then becoming a wooden toy:
The idea grabbed him as soon as he heard of it, and it quickly became an obsession.
Also, avoid clichés. Instead, give a precise description. The cliché in this example suggests
that, at some point in their lives, Canadians may begin to age 48 hours for every 24 that
pass:
We studied pain management techniques for the elderly in long-term care institutions
in urban settings
10. Faulty Word Choice [Faulty Diction]
Don't use "fancy" words for their own sake; use a dictionary to check words whose
meaning you are not sure of:
Explaining the rationale for treatment can help dispel patients' fears.
11. Wordiness
Don't spin empty words; instead, use the minimum number of words to express your idea.
In the first example, the idea can be stated much more simply. The second example is so
wordy and its idea so vague that it should simply be omitted.
28. 12. Comma Splices
A comma splice is the joining ("splicing") of two independent clauses with only a comma.
Here are the rules for avoiding them:
Use a period or semicolon to separate two independent clauses, or join them with a
subordinating conjunction:
We started to unpack our equipment; pretty soon we were ready for the test.
We started to unpack our equipment, and pretty soon we were ready for the test.
b. Use a semicolon as well as a conjunctive adverb to join two independent clauses:
Much of the literature advocates stretching preparatory to exercise; however, the
mechanisms are not well understood
however therefore then
thus nevertheless accordingly
as a result moreover even so
rather indeed for example
These are the most common conjunctive adverbs:
29. 13. Misuse of Comma, Semicolon, and Colon
a. Use a comma after each item in a series of three or more:
Many studies indicate favourable results in function, decreased pain, and range of
motion.
b. Use a comma when you join independent clauses with one of the seven coordinating
conjunctions (and, or, nor, but, so, yet, for):
Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.
c. Use a semicolon when you join independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction:
Power corrupts; absolute power corrupts absolutely.
d. Do not use a comma to separate subject and verb:
His enthusiasm for the project and his desire to be of help led him to volunteer.
e. Use a colon to introduce a list or a long or formal quotation after a complete sentence.
Otherwise make the quotation part of the grammar of your sentence:
Strunk (1995) asserts: "Too many programmes are already underfinanced" (p.87).
Strunk (1995) asserts that "Too many programmes are already underfinanced" (p.87).
30. 14. Incorrect Comparison
"Compared to" is often used incorrectly. It shouldn't be used if the sentence contains a
comparative term such "higher," "greater," "less," or "lower." For example,
The blood serum levels in the control group were higher than in the treatment group.
Another error that creeps into comparison sentences is the comparison of items that are
unlike each other:
Our results are similar to the results of our previous studies.
15. Double Constructions
This is a form of grammar overkill in which a part of speech is unnecessarily duplicated:
Since the legislation has passed, we will have more nurse practitioners.
The legislation has passed; therefore, we will have more nurse practitioners.
The new procedure was popular with both doctors and nurses.
The new procedure was popular with doctors as well as nurses.
The reason for the legislation was the long waiting lists
31. Revising gives you the chance to preview your work on behalf of the eventual reader.
Revision is much more than proofreading, though in the final editing stage it involves
some checking of details. Good revision and editing can transform a mediocre first
draft into an excellent final paper. It's more work, but leads to real satisfaction when
you find you've said what you wanted.
Start Large, End Small
First check whether you have fulfilled the intention of the assignmen
Then look at overall organization
Now polish and edit your style by moving to smaller matters such as word choice,
sentence structure, grammar, punctuation, and spelling
Revising and editing
32. Punctuation
Commas after many introductory phrases are optional. When the introductory phrase is
short, you can often omit the comma; when the phrase is longer, a comma will help your
reader recognize where the main clause begins
When the introductory phrase includes a participle (a verb form ending in -ing or -ed), always
add a comma
Make sure also to add a comma after an introductory clause (any grammatical unit that
contains a subject and a verb)
When joining two independent clauses (clauses that could stand alone as sentences) with a
coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet, for, so), you normally place a comma before
the conjunction:
33. This rule can occasionally be broken. The shorter the two independent clauses are, the more
appropriate it is to break the rule. Examples are more likely to be found in fictional prose
where the style is deliberately terse
It was very hot and the express from Barcelona would come in forty minutes. (Ernest
Hemingway, "Hills Like White Elephants")
When joining mere phrases, you usually do not provide a comma
Place commas between each element of a list of three or more parallel words, phrases, or
clauses. Writers often place a comma before the conjunction (and or or) preceding the last
element in the list
Surround interrupting or parenthetical clauses or phrases with commas. Such clauses or
phrases are not essential to the sentence. If you removed them, the central point of the
sentence would remain
Dr. Johnson's Lives of the Poets, as Boswell tells us, was written at the urging of the London
booksellers. (Leon Edel,Writing Lives)
34. Semicolons
The semicolon has two main uses. The first is to combine two closely related independent
clauses into one sentence
A scientific genius is not a person who does what no one else can do; he or she is someone
who does what it takes many others to do. (Malcolm Gladwell, "In the Air")
The other valid use of semicolons is to separate list elements that are long or complex. If, in
particular, those list elements contain internal commas, semicolons will help show just where
each element begins and ends:
The Idea of North offers little hard data about the history, geography, population, sociology,
politics, or economy of the North; about the burgeoning interest in the North after the Second
World War, especially after the creation of the federal Department of Northern Affairs and
Natural Resources in 1953; about the aboriginal-land-claims issues being thrashed out in the
late sixties. (Kevin Bazzana, Wondrous Strange: The Life and Art of Glenn Gould)
35. Colons
Colons offer a way of urging your reader forward. The words preceding the colon create an
expectation; the words following the colon fulfill it
The entomologists' dream of the built-in insecticide was born when workers in the field of
applied entomology realized they could take a hint from nature: they found that wheat growing
in soil containing sodium selenate was immune to attack by aphids or spider mites. (Rachel
Carson, Silent Spring)
Our age has produced a new literary breed: the self-hating essayist. (Cristina Nehring, "Our
Essays, Ourselves")
The part of the sentence following the colon can expand on an idea (that nature suggests
how to take advantage of built-in insecticides) or answer an implied question (who exactly
belongs to this new literary breed?). Note that a colon is generally preceded by a full
independent clause. It can, however, be followed either by another independent clause, a
phrase, or even a word. The phrase sometimes takes the form of a list:
Shakespeare's archvillain had many Shakespearean forerunners: the melodramatic Richard II,
the casuistical Pandulph, the sly and crafty Ulysses. (Harold C. Goddard, The Meaning of
Shakespeare)
36. Dashes
Dashes serve some of the same functions as commas and colons, but they assert themselves
more forcefully. Like commas, dashes are used to set off interrupting clauses or phrases, but
a pair of dashes will tend to call more attention to what lies in between:
Old Beijing—designed for pedestrians and imperial processions but not much in between—has
turned out to be a bad framework on which to construct a modern city. (Paul Goldberger,
"Forbidden Cities")
Acting alone, a dash, like a colon, allows you to expand on or to complete an idea, and
dashes used this way are often interchangeable with colons. But the dash tends to be a little
more abrupt and is particularly good at suggesting irony or surprise:
Nobody ever recommended or even suggested that I be a novelist—in fact, some tried to stop
me. (Haruki Murakami, "The Running Novelist")
The dash has one other occasional use. Following a list, a dash allows you to tie things
together with an explanatory independent clause:
The manner of giving, the thing which is given, the effect of the giving upon the individual—
these are the factors which determine the progress of the Sufi. (Idries Shah, The Sufis)
37. Parentheses
Parentheses offer a third way of introducing interrupting material. A pair of commas supplies
the standard, matter-of-fact way of doing so. If dashes provide a more forceful alternative to
commas, parentheses offer a tentative and modest one:
Paul, like Jesus, encouraged celibacy not because he loathed the flesh (which in my opinion he
did not) but out of his urgent concern for the practical work of proclaiming the gospel. (Elaine
Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent)
A parenthetical aside often sounds like a footnote. It need not always be perfectly integrated
into the sentence:
In one sense, the "epistemic" sense ("epistemic" here means having to do with knowledge),
science is indeed objective. (John R. Searle, Consciousness and Language)
Parentheses can also enclose full sentences. The period goes inside the closing parenthesis:
Ondaatje was born in 1943, into a prominent Sri Lankan family. (He has written a memoir of his
relatives, Running in the Family, published in 1982.) (Louis Menand, "The Aesthete")
38. What is a Comma Splice?
A comma splice occurs when you use a comma to join two complete sentences without
placing an appropriate joining word between them. The comma just isn't strong enough to do
the job of making one grammatical sentence out of two. Learn to recognize what comma
splices look like, and be sure to avoid them in your essays.
How to Fix a Comma Splice
Solution 1: Use a period:
• I completed my essay. I have not submitted it.
• I completed my English essay. Now I must go to the library and begin research at once on
my fifteen-page History term paper.
Solution 2: Use a semi-colon.
• I completed my essay; I have not submitted it.
• I completed my English essay; next I will tackle my History essay.
Solution 3: Use a coordinating conjunction.
• I completed my essay, but I have not submitted it
Solution 4: Use a subordinating conjunction.
• I completed my essay, although I have not submitted it.
• Although I completed my essay, I have not submitted it.
39. What is faulty parallelism?
Look out for faulty parallelism whenever you use one of the following constructions:
a and b
a, b, and c
a or b
a, b, or c
not only a but also b
The clauses or phrases joined by the conjunctions should have similar grammatical
structures to ensure that your reader can follow the logic of your sentence and to
avoid awkwardness. Consider the sentence,
My first-year philosophy professor was informative, lively, and a source of
inspiration.
Notice that the first two phrases in the a, b, and c construction are adjectives, while
the third is a noun phrase. This sentence suffers from faulty parallelism.
40. Passive Voice
In English, all sentences are in either "active" or "passive" voice
• In an active sentence, the person or thing responsible for the action in the sentence
comes first. In a passive sentence, the person or thing acted on comes first, and the
actor is added at the end, introduced with the preposition "by." The passive form
of the verb is signaled by a form of "to be": in the sentence above, "was
formulated" is in passive voice while "formulated" is in active.
• In a passive sentence, we often omit the actor completely
active: Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle in 1927.
Passive: The uncertainty principle was formulated in 1927
41. When do I use passive voice?
In some sentences, passive voice can be perfectly acceptable. You might use it in the following
cases
• The actor is unknown: The cave paintings of Lascaux were made in the Upper Old Stone
Age
• The actor is irrelevant: An experimental solar power plant will be built in the Australian
desert. [We are not interested in who is building it.]
• You want to be vague about who is responsible: Mistakes were made. [Common in
bureaucratic writing!]
• You are talking about a general truth: Rules are made to be broken. [By whomever,
whenever.]
• You want to emphasize the person or thing acted on. For example, it may be your
main topic: Insulin was first discovered in 1921 by researchers at the University of
Toronto. It is still the only treatment available for diabetes.
• You are writing in a scientific genre that traditionally relies on passive voice. Passive
voice is often preferred in lab reports and scientific research papers, most notably in
the Materials and Methods section: The sodium hydroxide was dissolved in water. This
solution was then titrated with hydrochloric acid.
42. Dangling modifier
The term dangling modifier refers to a word or phrase, usually at the start of a sentence, that
does not connect properly to the rest of the sentence. Dangling modifiers are easy to miss. In
fact, they surface from time to time in newspapers, magazines, and academic journals. In
other words, even experienced editors sometimes miss them. But once you know how to spot
dangling modifiers, they are reasonably easy to fix.
Tempted by the three witches' prophecy, Macbeth allows his moral scruples to give way
to his ambition.
43. Some Tools and Rules to Improve Your Spelling
Use a (good) dictionary.
Be consistent about using British or American spellings in your writing
Always check certain "troublesome" suffixes in your dictionary.
Create your own "difficult-to-spell" lists.
Learn the standard pronunciations for frequently misspelled words.
watch out for homophones, near-homophones, and other easily confusable words.
Use your computer spellchecker, but with caution
Become familiar with English spelling rules
44. Bibliography
University College. (2oo9) Website http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/
This site was created by Dr. Margaret Procter. She is the principal author of material for the site.
Jerry Plotnick, director of the University College Writing Centre, has served as webmaster since 1999. He was
responsible for redesigning the site in 2009.
Key decisions about content and design are made by an advisory committee of faculty members representing the
University of Toronto's fourteen writing centres. Current membership: Rachael Cayley (ELWS), Deborah Knott (New
College), Cynthia Messenger (Innis College), Jerry Plotnick (chair, University College), Margaret Procter (U of T
writing coordinator, retired), Dena Taylor (Health Sciences).
The site is implemented using the content management system Joomla! version 1.5.
University College kindly hosts the site on its web server and funds the site's technical support staff.
Home-page photo credits: downtown campus: Jerry Plotnick; UTSC: World Architecture News; UTM: June Steel, UTM
website.
