Gather Data through
formal processes
Tips for ensuring survey sampling is
correct

Sampling
When determining requirements, it is likely that
you will have to collect information from a
number of people. If the organisation is small,
you may choose to collect information from all
people - this is called a census. Alternatively,
you may choose to collect information from
only nominated specialists. This is known as
judgement sampling or convenience
sampling.
Speed is an advantage of a sample survey.

Tips for ensuring survey sampling is
correct
 The key to a successful survey is ensuring that your
questions are concise, easy-to understand and give
you valid and reliable information.
 Determining your sample size will help you decide
which type of survey to use.
 Once you have determined the size of your sample,
you can select the sampling technique that best fits
your needs.
 There are two basic methods to conducting a survey:
self-administered and interviewer-administered. Self-
administered surveys include mail and other written
surveys. Interviewer-administered surveys include
telephone and in-person surveys.

Tips for ensuring survey sampling is
correct
 Keep the questions short
Try to keep each question under 25 words so they
remain short and easy-to-understand.
 Don’t lead with responses
 Avoid loaded questions
Slight wording changes can produce great differences
in results. Could, Should, Might all sound almost the
same, but may produce a 20% difference in
agreement to a question
 Avoid double-barreled questions
Should two questions be asked instead of one.

Tips for ensuring survey sampling is
correct
 Limit open-ended questions
 Misplaced questions. Questions placed out
of order or out of context should be avoided.
 Mutually non-exclusive response
categories. Multiple choice response
categories should be mutually exclusive so
that clear choices can be made.
 Nonspecific questions. Be specific in what
you want to know about.

Tips for ensuring survey sampling is
correct
 Confusing or unfamiliar words. Make sure your
audience understands your language level,
terminology and above all, what you are asking.
 Forcing answers. Respondents may not want, or may
not be able to provide the information requested.
 Non-exhaustive listings. Do you have all of the
options covered?
 Unbalanced listings. Unbalanced scales may be
appropriate for some situations and biased in others.

Questionnaires
Tips for Creating Questionnaires

Questionnaires
 Questionnaires are sometimes called surveys. A
questionnaire involves questions written onto a form.
The respondent provides their response in the form.
 Two common formats for questionnaires are free-
format and fixed-format. A single questionnaire often
includes both formats.
 Free-format questionnaires offer the respondent
greater latitude in their answer. A question is asked,
and the respondent records the answer in the space
provided after the question.
 Fixed-format questionnaires contain questions that
require the selection of predefined responses from
individuals.

Questionnaires
 A typical questionnaire may request the name
and/or job role of the respondent; however, it
has been found that anonymous responses
often provide better information.
 There are many software programs and
techniques that can be used to create
questionnaires.
 Using Microsoft Office Suite and an email
system you can implement a survey and
analyse the respondents’ data without re–
keying the respondents’ responses.

Tips for creating questionnaires
 Don’t forget to give instructions.
 Long questions. Multiple choice questions
are the longest and most complex. Free text
answers are the shortest and easiest to
answer. When you increase the length of
questions and surveys, you decrease the
chance of receiving a completed response.
 Make sure you create an aesthetically
pleasing document that is easy to
understand and follow.

Tips for creating questionnaires
Clearly identify survey objectives.
Identify your target audience.
Use funnel method: Start with broad questions, then
get detailed.
Survey should flow and have a logical progression.
Keep style and grammar consistent and clear.
Ask for email addresses if you need to identify
respondents by name.
Use \"rating\" or \"scale\" questions to clarify responses.

Tips for creating questionnaires
 Determine the type of question
that is best suited to answer the
question and provide enough
robustness to meet analysis
requirements.
 Sequence the questions so that
they are unbiased.
 Pretest the survey to 20 or more
people. Obtain their feedback...
in detail.
 Revise your questionnaire and
pre-test again or begin data
collection.

Interviews
Tips for Interviewing Groups

Interviews
1. Determining the people to interview
You need to determine the people that can best satisfy the
answers to your questions. Organisational charts and job
specifications can help to identify appropriate people to
interview.
2. Establishing objectives for the interview
You need to be clear about what your objectives are for the
interview. To do this, you should determine the general areas to
be discussed, then list the facts that you want to gather.
3. Developing the interview questions
Creating a list of questions helps you keep on track during the
interview. It is appropriate to include open and closed questions
during the body of the interview.
4. Preparing for the interview
Preparation is the key to a successful interview.

Interviews
5. Conducting the interview
An interview can be characterised as having three
phases: the opening, the body and the conclusion.
6. Documenting the interview
It is important that you transcribe your notes into a format
that allows you to understand the information gained at
the interview.
7. Evaluating the interview
It is important to review your notes and transcript to
identify any areas of problem, bias or errors. The
review may prompt further questions that need to be
answered.

Interviews
Participants
 A good size group will have six to ten
people. This is a small enough for
everyone to have an opportunity to
share insights, but large enough to
have a diversity of experience and
opinions.
Questions
 Keep the number of questions to five
to six.
 Ask open-ended questions; avoid
simple yes or no questions.
 Ask the questions in a logical order,
moving from the general to the
specific.

Conducting the Group Interview
•Welcome the group and give an overview of the interview,
including its purpose and process.
•Ask participants to speak one at a time and note that it’s fine for
people to disagree.
•Tell participants how the information from the interview will be
used and whether they could be identifiable in any products.
•Let them know that individual comments will be confidential.
•Discuss tape recording and taking notes.
•Encourage participants to share their points of view even when
they’re different.
•Tell the group there are no right or wrong answers.
•Be clear about which questions are ones you want answered by
everyone and which ones can be answered by anyone wants to
speak.

Data bias
How easy it is to manipulate data analysis to suit a
particular goal.- including ways to control bias
when gathering data through formal processes

Data bias
 Data from experiments, survey questionnaires and
interviews can be influenced by either the context of
the study, the respondents themselves, or the
researcher. The term \"bias\" is often used in this
context, but the term is ambiguous. Technically
meaning \"leaning\" in one direction, it is often used to
refer to respondents or researchers having pre-
conceived ideas or an ideological disposition. What
we mean here by bias is anything that can
\"contaminate\" the picture you are trying to get of either
subjects' behavior or their attitudes and beliefs.

Data Bias Checklist
 Is misinformation (unintended) given?
 Has there been any evasion of the question?
 Is there any evidence of direct lying or deception?
 Is the informant trying to present a false front or
impression?
 What may the informant take for granted and thus not
reveal?
 How far is the informant seeking to please the
interviewer?
 How much has been forgotten or overlooked?

Data bias - shaping the outcome
 Attitudes of researcher; age, gender, class,
race, and so on
 Presentation of researcher; dress, speech,
body language
 Personality of researcher: anxiety, need for
approval, hostility, warmth, and so on
 Attitudes of researcher: religion, politics,
tolerance, general assumptions
 Scientific role of researcher: theory held, and
so on (researcher expectations)

Data bias
 It's important to understand that
bias is inevitable and normal.
The problem is not the presence
of biasing factors, but that the
writer seems unaware of them,
and interprets interview or
questionnaire data as a \"true
account\" of reality. This can
lead to exaggerated claims
based on the data.

Question Writing
Tips for Writing Questions

Tips for writing questions
 Research your subject thoroughly ensuring
questions are relevant
 Short questions are better
 Structure your questions in a logical
sequence, moving from general to specific
 Avoid double-barreled questions
 Avoid using larger, difficult words
 Limit open-ended questions
 Don’t lead with responses

Open and Closed Questions
The use of Open/Closed Formats

The use of open/closed formats
Open and Closed Questions
There is some debate over what defines an open or closed
question.
Generally a closed question is one in which there are a limited
number of answers, most of which will usually be categorised by
the analyst. In addition, the answers to closed questions are
usually one word or a short phrase. In its simplest form the
answer to a closed question may be limited to “yes” or “no”.
An example of a closed question might be the following:
“Do you put a job number on the work request form”
An interviewer who uses this method of questioning will only get
their own opinion confirmed and may not get any new or
relevant information at all. Such a style of questioning may
also be very frustrating for the interviewee, who may never get
the chance to elaborate on what they think is important.

The use of open/closed formats
An open question is one to which there are many answers, most of
which will not be anticipated by the analyst. An example of an
open question might be the following:
“Tell me what happens when the work request form comes in?”
or even better
“Tell me what you do about work requests.”
It could well be that the work request form described might
represent only a fraction of the processing done or might be
completely out of date, superseded by new procedures devised
by the workers to tackle problems.
It is always advisable, at some point - often near the end of an
interview - to simply ask the ultimate open question:
“Now, have we missed anything?” or “Is there anything else you
would like to say?”

The use of open/closed formats
There are also some disadvantages to open questions,
which could include the following:
 trying to summarise the data into a concise form may
be difficult
 it takes a lot longer to collect information
 ambiguities need to be recognised and expanded
upon
 open questions require more psychological effort on
behalf of the respondent, and the respondent may
answer in a haphazard manner.

References
 SPSS Survey Tips
http://inter.heao.han.nl/opleidingen/rstnet/rstextra/survey%20series/Survey%20Tips.pdf
 Microsoft Word Document
http://www.aelweb.vcu.edu/publications/research/meetings/meeting2/session9/Handout.Tips%20fo
 Academic Grammar
http://ec.hku.hk/acadgrammar/report/repProc/sections/methods/bias.htm
 Class Notes