Chapter 13

13-1 EXCE B
L OOKS

Chapter

13
JOB DESIGN,
WORK
SCHEDULING
AND MOTIVATION

13-2

ANNOTATED OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION
Job design is a way of organising tasks, duties and responsibilities
into a productive unit of the work. The early emphasis in HRM was to
design jobs around high specialisation and standardisation

The engineering approach
The engineering approach, developed by F.W.Taylor, was built
around certain well-known principles

Job Design, Work Scheduling And Motivation

13-3

Principles of scientific management

Work should be scientifically studied
 Work should be arranged so that workers can be efficient
 Employees selected for work should be matched to the demands of the job
 Employees should be trained to perform the job
 Monetary compensation should be used to reward successful completion of
the job

Problems with the engineering
approach
 Repetition
 Mechanical pacing
 No end product
 Little social interaction
 No input


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INTRODUCTION

The human relations approach
The human relations approach recognised the need to design jobs
in an interesting manner. According to Herzberg, employees will be
more satisfied with their jobs, if motivators such as achievement,
recognition, autonomy, growth etc are introduced into the job
content.

The job characteristics approach
According to Hackman and Oldham, employees will work hard
when they are rewarded for the work they do and when the work
gives them satisfaction. Hence, they suggested that motivation,
satisfaction and performance should be integrated into the job
design.


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Core job dimension

According to Hack and Oldham, any job can be described in terms of five core job
dimensions:

 Skill variety
 Task identity
 Task significance
 Autonomy
 Feedback

The model states that core job dimensions are more rewarding when individuals
experience three psychological states in response to job design.


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Job characteristics model

C o re J o b C r it ic a l C o re J o b
D im e n s i o n P s y c h o lo g ic a l D im e n s i o n
S ta te s
S k i ll V a r ie t y M e a n in g f u ln e s s H ig h in te r n a l
Ta s k I d e n tity o f w o rk w o r k m o t iv a t io n
Ta s k S ig n ific a n c e
H ig h q u a lit y
w o rk p e rfo rm a n c e
A u to n o m y R e s p o n s i b ilit y f o r H i g h s a t is fa c tio n
o u tc o m e s o f th e w o r k w ith w o r k
Feedback K n o w le d g e o f t h e H ig h
a c t u a l r e s u lt s o f t h e w o r k e ffe c tiv e n e s s
w o rk a c tiv itie s
L o w a b s e n te e is m
E m p lo y e e g r o w t h a n d tu rn o v e r
n e e d s s tr e n g th

Socio-technical approach
According to this approach, jobs should be designed by taking a systems
view of the entire job situation, including physical and social environment.


13-7

Work Scheduling

Companies now a days have realised the importance of organising work in a
flexible manner, so that employees (especially those possessing critical skills,
knowledge and experience,) can come and do their work depending on their
own convenience. The following alternatives are currently in use to facilitate
this approach
 Compressed work week: scheduling of work that allows a full time
job to be completed in fewer than the standard five days
 Flexible working hours: Flexitime may be defined as any work
schedule that gives employees daily choice in the timing between work and
non work activities.
 Job sharing: This occurs when one full time job is assigned to two
persons who then divide the work according to the agreements made
between themselves and the employer.
 Part time work: part time work is done on a schedule that classifies
any employee as temporary and requires less than the standard 40- hour
work week.


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Techniques For Designing Jobs

 Job simplification: Here jobs are divided into smaller components and
subsequently assigned to workers as whole jobs
 Job enlargement: it increases task variety by adding new tasks of similar
difficulty to a job:
 Job rotation: systematic shifting of employees among jobs involving tasks of
similar difficulty;
 Job enrichment: enhancing a job by adding more meaningful tasks and duties
to make the work more rewarding or satisfying.


13-9

Quality Circles, Work Teams and
Total Quality Management
Quality circle: It is a small group of employees who meet periodically to
identify, analyse and solve quality and work related problems in their area
Work team: It is a small group of people with complementary skills, who
work actively together to achieve a common purpose for which they hold
themselves collectively accountable.
Total quality management: This is another work design approach that was
quite popular in USA in mid-1080s and that continues to have a major
influence over organisations all over the world now. Simply stated, TQM is a
set of principles and practices whose core ideas include understanding
customer needs, doing things right the first time, and striving for continuous
improvement.


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Motivation

Motivation is a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired
results. Generally speaking, motivation results from a felt need. It is goal-
directed. It persists until the satisfaction or reduction of a particular need.
Moreover, it is a personal and internal feeling.
 Multiple causes: different people may have different visions for
behaving in the same manner
 Multiple behaviour: Another important characteristic of motivation is
that the same motive or drive may lead to different behaviour
 Complex and difficult to explain: Motivation is a complex subject as it
is not easy to explain and predict the behaviour of employees.
Determinants of Motivation
Three types of forces generally influence human behaviour;
 The individual
 The organisation
 The environment

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Theories of Motivation

A. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory: According to Maslow,
human needs can be arranged into five levels. He felt that there is a
fairly definite order to human needs and until the more basic needs
are adequately fulfilled a person will not strive to meet higher order
needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
S e l f A c t u a l is a t i o n N e e d s H ig h e r-o rd e r
n e e d s (th a t a re
E s te e m s a tis fie d in te r n a lly )
Needs

M an
S eeks S o c ia l N e e d s
G r o w th L o w e r-o rd e r
S a fe ty N e e d s n e e d s (th a t a re
s a t is f ie d e x t e r n a ll y )
P h y s io l o g ic a l N e e d s


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Evaluation
 It is an unstable theory
 The classification scheme is somewhat superfluous
 The chain of causation in the hierarchy is also questionable

B. Herzberg”s Two Factor Theory: According to Herzberg, if
managers wish to increase motivation and performance above the
average level, they must enrich the job by concentrating on
motivators (such as achievement, recognition, responsibility,
interesting work, advancement, growth etc) and not the hygiene
factors (mostly environment related factors)


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Variables affecting motivation in an
organisational setting
H y g ie n e s M o tiv a to r s

1 . C o m p a n y p o lic y a n d a d m in is t r a t io n 1. A c h ie v e m e n t
2 . R e l a t io n s h ip w i t h s u p e rv is o r 2. R e c o g n it io n
3 . W o r k c o n d it io n s 3. W o r k it s e lf
4 . S a la r y
5 . R e l a t i o n s h ip w it h p e e rs 4. R e s p o n s ib ilit y
6 . P e r s o n a l lif e
7 . R e la t io n s h ip w it h s u b o r d in a te s 5. A dvancem ent
8 . S ta tu s
9 . S e c u r ity 6. G ro w th

Evaluation
 The critical incident method applied on a small sample is being
questioned
 The assumption that the two sets of factors work in only one direction is
also attacked severely
 Critics questioned the procedural deficiencies also; such as the
subjective interpretation of the responses .


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C. Achievement Motivation Theory: According to McClelland,
some people have an intense desire to accomplish and show
excellence, others are not concerned about achieving things.
Three important needs, that is, power, affiliation, achievement,
drive people towards excellence.

Elements of achievement motivation
theory
 Power need (n pow): this is the need to dominate, influence and control people
 Affiliation need (n Aff): this is the need for companionship and support, for
developing meaningful relationships with people
 Achievement need (nAch): this is the need for challenge, for personal
accomplishment and success in competitive situations.


13-15


If the need of employees can be measured, organisations can put
people on suitable jobs and thereby show superior performance.

D. Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregor proposed two
distinct set of assumptions about what motivates people—one
basically negative, labelled Theory X and other basically
positive, labelled Theory Y


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Assumptions of Theory X and Theory Y

T h e o r y X A s s u m p t io n s T h e o ry Y A s s u m p tio n s

E m p lo y e e s in h e r e n t ly d i s l ik e w o r k a n d E m p lo y e e s c a n v ie w w o r k a s b e in g a s
w ill t r y t o a v o id it . n a tu r a l a s re s t o r p la y.
S in c e e m p lo y e e s d is lik e w o r k , t h e y m u s t P e o p l e w i ll e x e r c i s e s e l f d ir e c t io n a n d s e l f -
b e c o e r c e d , c o n t r o lle d a n d t h r e a t e n e d c o n tr o l if t h e y a r e c o m m itte d to t h e
w it h p u n is h m e n t t o a c h ie v e g o a ls . o b je c tiv e s .
E m p lo y e e s w ill s h ir k r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s a n d U n d e r p ro p e r c o n d itio n s , e m p lo y e e s d o
s e e k f o r m a l d ir e c t io n w h e n e v e r p o s s ib le . n o t a v o id r e s p o n s ib ilit y.
M o s t e m p lo y e e s w a n t s e c u r it y a b o v e a ll P e o p le w a n t s e c u r it y b u t a ls o h a v e o t h e r
in t h e ir w o r k a n d d is p la y lit tle a m b it io n . n e e d s s u c h a s s e lf- a c tu a lis a tio n a n d
e s te e m .

Based on managerial assumptions about people, for example,
external control is appropriate for dealing with people who are
assumed to be unreliable, irresponsible and immature.


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E. Theory Z: W. Ouchi proposed a mixed US-Japanese model for
modern organisations, popularly called Theory Z, having the
following unique characteristics;

Elements of Theory Z
 Trust
 Organisation employee relationship
 Employee participation
 Structure less organisation
 Holistic concern for employees


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F. Process theories of motivation:
 Equity theory: this is based on the premise that our levels
of job satisfaction and motivation re related to how fairly we
believe we are treated in comparison to others.
 Expectancy theory: according to this theory, motivation is
a function of a rational calculation. A person is motivated to
the degree that he believes that effort will yield acceptable
performance, performance will be rewarded and the value
of the reward is highly positive.
 Goal setting theory: this theory suggests that managers
and subordinates should set specific goals that are
moderately difficult to achieve. The goals should be of a type
that the employee will accept and commit to accomplishing.
Rewards should invariably be linked directly to reaching
such goals.

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How To Motivate Employees?

 Recognise individual differences
 Match people to jobs
 Use goals
 Individualise rewards
 Link rewards to performance
 Check the system for equity
 Do not ignore money

Non financial incentives: Apart from money, non-financial
incentives such as status, promotion, responsible jobs, interesting
work, job security, recognition etc also play an important role in
motivating people


13-20

Morale And Productivity
Morale refers to the positive feelings of an employee toward his
work, colleagues, employer and the organisation.
All About Morale
 Components of morale
Intrinsic job satisfaction
Satisfaction with company
Satisfaction with supervision
Satisfaction with rewards
Satisfaction with co-workers
 Measurement of morale
Not easy to measure morale
Observation
Surveys
Records
Suggestion boxes
Cont…


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All About Morale

 Factors affecting morale
The organisation
Leadership
Co-worker
The nature of work
Work environment
The employee
 Morale building
Remuneration
Job security
Participation
Job enrichment
Organisation structure
Grievance redressal
Employee counsellors
Sound leadership


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Morale And Productivity

Morale and Productivity: There is always not a positive correlation
between the two. There can be low productivity with morale levels.
According to Rensis Likert, there can be different combinations of
morale and productivity in actual practice such as high morale and
low productivity, high morale and high productivity, low morale and
high productivity and low morale and low productivity.


Chapter 13

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