A review of main theories

2. Understanding Change and
Resistance

3. Understanding Change and
Resistance
A Seminar Presented by

4. Understanding Change and
Resistance
A Seminar Presented by
Ada González

6. Remember. . .

7. Remember. . .
 Change is inevitable

8. Remember. . .
 Change is inevitable
 We all want and fear change

9. Remember. . .
 Change is inevitable
 We all want and fear change
 Changes in one person affect the whole
system

10. Remember. . .
 Change is inevitable
 We all want and fear change
 Changes in one person affect the whole
system
 Changes in the system affect all individuals

11. Remember. . .
 Change is inevitable
 We all want and fear change
 Changes in one person affect the whole
system
 Changes in the system affect all individuals
 Anticipate and welcome expected changes

12. Remember. . .
 Change is inevitable
 We all want and fear change
 Changes in one person affect the whole
system
 Changes in the system affect all individuals
 Anticipate and welcome expected changes
 People tend to resist change

13. WHY CHANGE?
 Fact of life
 Environmental factors –
 Government, university, company, social
 The Boss wants it
 Things could be better
3

14. What is to be changed?
 Strategies, positions, policies, programs,
ploys, patterns
– Performances: competitiveness, added values,
responsiveness, productivities, results,
innovations
– Alliances, sustainability's, movement
– Structures and groupings
– Processes, work arrangements
– Resource allocations, savings
4

15. What is to be changed?
 People – individual and groups
– Behaviors: performances, conformities,
creativity
– Competencies: mastery in performance
– Attitudes, Values, Beliefs
 Distributions of opportunity
 Orientations to externalities
5

16. How is change best implemented?
 Strategies
– With a knife, quickly, cleanly, clear up the mess
afterwards
– systematically, efficiently in planned, controlled
ways
– Evolutionary, stepped
– Radical, revolution
– With TLC
– Let it all hang out, it will all come together in
the wash
– Politics, networking, positioning, coalitions and
influences 6

17. How is change best implemented?
 Tactics, programs
 Methods, techniques
 Roles and skills
 Interventionist style: directive, non-directive
 Technologies to be applied
7

18. Model for Planned
Organizational Change
8

19. Theories and their importance
 A theory is a set of assumptions or
principles that have been repeatedly tested
to explain or predict facts or phenomena
 Theories:
– Provide a conceptual framework
– Provide a common vocabulary
– Guides action
– Assists comprehension or judgment
– Challenge practice wisdom
9

20. Fundamentals & fads
Critical evaluation
Guiding ideas
Domains of
action
(organizational
Innovations architectures and
in infrastructure processes) Theory, methods, tools
Do they improve? Do they work?
Adapted from Senge: Fifth Dimension Fieldbook
10

21. Mainstream theoretical
perspectives
 Structural functionalism
 Scientific management
 Classical and administrative organization
theory
 Human relations and Behavioral
 Systems and Contingency theory
 Strategic choice
 Action research and learning
11

22. Structural Functionalism
 Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), central figure
at Harvard University.
 Structural functionalism occupies an
intermediate position between classical and
contemporary theories.
 Argues that we need to look at both
structure (how the parts of a society fit
together to make the whole) and function
(what each part does, how it contributes to
society).
12

23. SF Two emphasis
 Application of the scientific method to the
objective social world
 Use of an analogy between human
organisms and organizations.
13

24. Scientific Management
 Frederick Taylor (1856 – 1916)
– Systematically analyzed human behavior at
work
– Goal was to improve performance
– Followers used scientific methods and
experiments to find best ways to perform a task
(Example, automatization, Henry Ford)
– Science of rewards and incentives
– Work measurements
14

25. Administrative Management
 Strategic planning
– Formulating plans or strategies to pursue major
objectives for change
 Acceptance of theory of authority
– Employees allow authority figures to dictate
change
15

26. Behavioral Movement
• Classical theory ignored employee motivation
and behavior
• Classical approach did not achieve
production efficiency or workplace harmony
• Managers needed help with the “people side”
of their organizations
• Hawthorne Effect:
- Studies conducted from 1924 to 1933
demonstrated the important influence of
human factors on worker production
- Bias that occurs when people know they
are being studied
16

27. Human Relations
 Concerned with Motivation:
– From Latin movere – “to move”
– Anything causing a person to change behavior
– Motive is an incentive to act
– Need to convince workers to improve behavior
and productivity
17

28. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Five levels of needs
 Satisfy lower level needs before
 upper level needs
 Top three levels are biggest leadership
challenge
 Employees move up and down the pyramid
18

29. Maslow’s Pyramid
19

30. ERG Model
 Three Levels of Need
 Reduced Maslow’s five levels to three
 People often on two or more levels
simultaneously
 Shift quickly from one to another
20

31. X and Y Theories
 Douglas McGregor (1906 – 1964)
– Grouped Maslow’s hierarchy into “lower
order” (X) and “higher order” (Y)
– Suggested either could motivate employees
– Captured core of how people treat each other in
workplace
21

32. Theory X
 Average person prefers to be directed, has
little ambition, dislikes responsibilities, and
desires security above all else
 Authoritarian style based on threat of
punishment
 Must control and threaten people to get
them to work and change
22

33. Theory Y
 Assumes people are ambitious, self-
motivated, anxious to accept responsibility,
exercise self-control and self-direction
 Remove barriers so workers can fully
actualize their potential
 Work is play that offers satisfaction
23

34. Theory Z (Japanese
management style)
 Large amount of freedom and trust in
workers
 Assumes worker loyalty and interest in team
work and the organization
 Places more reliance on attitude and
responsibility of workers
24

35. Managerial/Leadership Grid
 Illustrates the concern for people and the concern for
production
 Compares nine intersections between production and
human relationships
25

36. Motivation-Hygiene Model
 Motivators cause job satisfaction
– Satisfiers
 Hygiene factors cause job dissatisfaction
– Dissatisfiers Job should challenge the employee
 Give more responsibility as appropriate
 If a job does not use full ability of
employee, automate it or replace with lower
skill level employee
26

37.  David C. McClelland (1917 – 1998)
– Internal drivers, or social motives
– Achievement
– Affiliation
– Power
 Personalized
 Socialized
27

38.  Behavioral approach did not always
increase productivity
 Employees want:
– Meaningful work
– To contribute
– To participate in decision-making and
leadership functions
28

39. Systems Theory
 Integrates management theories
 Systems analysis and quantitative
approaches
 Traditional organizational chart is confining
 Emphasizes dynamic and interrelated nature
of organizations
29

40. Systems Theory
 Systems are elements in interaction
 Systems thinking vs. traditional thinking
30

41. Systems Concepts: Equilibrium
 Systems tend toward a state of non-change
called homeostasis or equilibrium
 Thus, we should assume that no system will
change unless it receives new inputs
 Systems that are most amenable to change
are those that are failing (survival is
threatened) and successful and can take
risks without threatening survival
31

42. Systems Concepts: Synergy
 Systems working well experience synergy
where the total system output are greater
than the sum of all inputs.
 For synergy to occur, subsystems must not
optimize, but cooperate for the good of the
overall system, e.g., Teamwork.
32

43. ‘New’ Systems Thinking
 It is more important to do the right job than
to do the job right
 Innovation is more importation than
optimization
 To discover the unknown, must abandon the
successful known
 Things more plentiful are more valuable
(fax machine)
 Wealth follows things that are free
(shareware, open systems)
33

44. Contingency View
 Also called the situational approach
 Questions universal management practices
 Advocates using traditional, behavioral, or
system viewpoints independently or in
combination
34

45. Emerging “Newer” Trends
 Many new theories since 1900
 Often overlapped or contradicted previous
theories
 Several paradigms have emerged since the
behavioral school
35

46. W. Edwards Deming
(1900 – 1993)Total Quality
 Visited Japan in 1950
– Use sampling methods to test for quality
control
– Lower production costs by quality
improvement
 Father of Japanese post-war industrial
revival
36

47. Dr. Deming’s System of
Profound Knowledge
37

48. Organizational Quality
Planning Process
 Process improvement includes:
– Take a “picture of the process”
– Analyze the “picture”
– Make improvements and monitor results

38

49. 39

50. Kurt Lewin’s Change Model

51. Force-Field Analysis

52. Building Critical Mass
Tendency For Change
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Immediate Acceptors Adopters Skeptics
Early Wait and See Core Resistors
Hard

53. Minimizing Resistance to
Change
Minimizing
Resistance
to Change

54. Minimizing Resistance to
Change
Communication
Collaboration Training
Minimizing
Resistance
to Change Employee
Negotiation
Involvement
Stress
Management

55. Why People Resist Change
44

56. Types of Resistance to Change -1

57. Types of Resistance to Change -1

58. Types of Resistance to Change -1
 Logical, rational objections
– Time is required to adjust
– Extra effort to relearn
– Possibility of less desirable conditions
– Economic costs of change
– Questioned technical feasibility

60. Types of Resistance to Change -2

61. Types of Resistance to Change -2
 Psychological, emotional attitudes:
– Fear of the unknown
– Low tolerance for change
– Dislike of management or other change
agent
– Lack of trust in others
– Need for security
– Desire for status quo

63. Types of Resistance to Change -3

64. Types of Resistance to Change -3
 Sociological factors, group interests:
– Political coalitions
– Opposing group values
– Parochial thinking
– Narrow outlook
– Vested interests
– Desire to retain existing friendships

65. Questions Objectives Layers of Resistance
Situation assessment, 1) Lack of agreement on the
What to description of “current problem
change? reality,” and
identification of the core
problem or conflict and
assumptions that sustain
it.
Diagnosis, systemic root
cause analysis.

66. Understanding Resistance To Change
Questions Objectives Layers of Resistance
Situation assessment, 1) Lack of agreement on the
What to description of “current problem
change? reality,” and
identification of the core
problem or conflict and
assumptions that sustain
it.
Diagnosis, systemic root
cause analysis.

67. Questions Objectives Layers of Resistance
Verbalization of vision/ 2) Lack of agreement on a
To what to solution, description of possible direction for a solution
change strategy to attain the 3) Lack of agreement that the
desired state, and
to? avoidance of undesirable
solution will truly address the
problem
side effects.
4) Concern that the solution
Prescription, decision- will lead to new undesirable
making, and solution side effects (“Yes, but…”)
development.

68. Understanding Resistance to Change
Questions Objectives Layers of Resistance
Verbalization of vision/ 2) Lack of agreement on a
To what to solution, description of possible direction for a solution
change strategy to attain the 3) Lack of agreement that the
desired state, and
to? avoidance of undesirable
solution will truly address the
problem
side effects.
4) Concern that the solution
Prescription, decision- will lead to new undesirable
making, and solution side effects (“Yes, but…”)
development.

69. Questions Objectives Layers of Resistance
Development of detailed 5) Lack of a clear path around
How to plans and tactics that obstacles blocking the solution
make the will clarify what needs to 6) Lack of follow-through even
happen. Synchronization
change of the efforts of the
after agreement to proceed
with the solution
happen? group in the (nonverbalized fear or
implementation of the concerns)
strategy.
Planning, team-building,
and leadership

70. Understanding Resistance to Change
Questions Objectives Layers of Resistance
Development of detailed 5) Lack of a clear path around
How to plans and tactics that obstacles blocking the solution
make the will clarify what needs to 6) Lack of follow-through even
happen. Synchronization
change of the efforts of the
after agreement to proceed
with the solution
happen? group in the (nonverbalized fear or
implementation of the concerns)
strategy.
Planning, team-building,
and leadership

71. Managing Multiple Realities

72. Managing Multiple Realities
 Same physical setting and time, does not guarantee
similar experience

73. Managing Multiple Realities
 Same physical setting and time, does not guarantee
similar experience
 The world view of those driving the change may be
different from that of the targets of change

74. Managing Multiple Realities
 Same physical setting and time, does not guarantee
similar experience
 The world view of those driving the change may be
different from that of the targets of change
 Differences in reality are often seen by drivers of
change as resistance. Drivers see their own reality as
the “best” or “desired.” “Resisters” are seen as
deviant and / or unmotivated.

75. Managing Multiple Realities
 Same physical setting and time, does not guarantee
similar experience
 The world view of those driving the change may be
different from that of the targets of change
 Differences in reality are often seen by drivers of
change as resistance. Drivers see their own reality as
the “best” or “desired.” “Resisters” are seen as
deviant and / or unmotivated.
 More helpful to look at resistance as the existence of
multi-directional energies - multiple forces or desires,
not all of which support each other, and many of
which pull in different directions.

76. Managing Multiple Realities
 Same physical setting and time, does not guarantee
similar experience
 The world view of those driving the change may be
different from that of the targets of change
 Differences in reality are often seen by drivers of
change as resistance. Drivers see their own reality as
the “best” or “desired.” “Resisters” are seen as
deviant and / or unmotivated.
 More helpful to look at resistance as the existence of
multi-directional energies - multiple forces or desires,
not all of which support each other, and many of
which pull in different directions.
 Perhaps resistance is the first reaction to the change,
not the last.

78. Guidelines for Working with Resistance

79. Guidelines for Working with Resistance
 Believe that the intended change is both
possible and desirable

80. Guidelines for Working with Resistance
 Believe that the intended change is both
possible and desirable
 Create sufficient dissatisfaction with the
status quo

81. Guidelines for Working with Resistance
 Believe that the intended change is both
possible and desirable
 Create sufficient dissatisfaction with the
status quo
 View resistance as something of interest and
of potential value

82. Guidelines for Working with Resistance
 Believe that the intended change is both
possible and desirable
 Create sufficient dissatisfaction with the
status quo
 View resistance as something of interest and
of potential value
 See resistance as a manifestation of an
individual's interest and energy

84. Guidelines for Working with Resistance

85. Guidelines for Working with Resistance
 Become curious - how is it that others see
things differently than I do? How is it that
some people do not accept an apparently
desirable goal or procedure?

86. Guidelines for Working with Resistance
 Become curious - how is it that others see
things differently than I do? How is it that
some people do not accept an apparently
desirable goal or procedure?
 Leave room for the positive to rise. Nevis’
second law of change is: All resistance is
composed of ambivalence - It can help if
you make room for inputs from the resisters
in shaping the design and implementation of
the change.

88. Guidelines for Working with Resistance

89. Guidelines for Working with Resistance
 Develop a clear and mutually agreed vision
of the way things could be.

90. Guidelines for Working with Resistance
 Develop a clear and mutually agreed vision
of the way things could be.
 It’s impossible to include all the realities
that individuals hold in any given change
effort. Get them out, and use means of
influence that can shape a new reality for
people. Different leverage points are
required to deal with different objections or
resistance.

91. Guidelines for Working with Resistance
 Develop a clear and mutually agreed vision
of the way things could be.
 It’s impossible to include all the realities
that individuals hold in any given change
effort. Get them out, and use means of
influence that can shape a new reality for
people. Different leverage points are
required to deal with different objections or
resistance.
 Start, create a few easy to implement steps.
Use the success as leverage.

92. Leading Change: John Kotter 1996
1.Transforming Organizations: Why Firms Fail
2. Successful Change and the Force That Drives It
3. Establishing a Sense of Urgency
4. Creating the Guiding Coalition
5. Developing a Vision and Strategy
6. Communicating the Change Vision
7. Empowering Employees for Broad-Based Action
8. Generating Short-Term Wins
9. Consolidating Gains and Producing More Change
10. Anchoring New Approaches in the Culture
11. The Organization of the Future
12. Leadership and Lifelong Learning
55

93. John Kotter: Why Change Projects Fail
 Eight common reasons:
1.too much complacency. No sense of urgency
early on
2.Failing to create a strong guiding coalition
One person with energy/commitment is seldom
enough. A coalition of corporate leaders
capable of overcoming inertia/opposition.
3.Underestimating the power of vision to direct,
align and inspire
4.Undercommunicating the vision by a power of
10 (or 100, or 1,000)
People will commit to benefits & achievables.
56

94. John Kotter: Why Change Projects Fail
4. Permitting Obstacles to block the new vision
If not anticipated or removed - reasons to slip back into
comfort zones.
5. Failing to create short term wins
Many transformations take years. People become dispirited
if they do not see some concrete signs of progress.
6. Declaring Victory too soon. Major changes take time to
'bed down'. Teething problems occur – declaring victor
loses credibility
7. Neglecting to anchor changes firmly in the corporate
culture
temptation to dust hands and walk away. Old habits &
processes return.
8. Neglecting to anchor changes firmly in the corporate
culture temptation to dust hands and walk away. Old habits
& processes return. 57

95. Wilson (1992): Approaches to
organizational change
The process Implementation
of change of change
1 2
Logical
Planned Reducing resistance
incrementalism,
change to change (e.g. force
evolution, need,
field analysis,
commitment &
participation)
shared models
3 4
Emergent Contextualism:
Strategic decisions;
Change implementation as a
messy management;
political process function of
models antecedent factors &
processes
58

96. Strategic Choice
 Alternative Strategies Derive From:
59

97. Strategic Choice
 Alternative Strategies Derive From:
• Vision
• Mission
• Objectives
• External audit
• Internal audit
• Past successful strategies
59

98. Strategy-Formulation Framework
60

99. Strategy-Formulation Framework
Stage 1:
The Input Stage
Stage 2: Stage 3:
The Matching Stage The Decision Stage
60

100. Strategy-Formulation Framework
Internal Factor Evaluation
Matrix (IFE)
Competitive Profile Matrix
(CPM)
Basic input information for the
matching & decision stage
matrices
Requires strategists to
quantify subjectivity early in
External Factor Evaluation
the process Matrix (EFE)
Good intuitive judgment always 61
needed

101. Strategy-Formulation Framework
Internal Factor Evaluation
Matrix (IFE)
Stage 1:
The Input Stage
Competitive Profile Matrix
(CPM)
Basic input information for the
matching & decision stage
matrices
Requires strategists to
quantify subjectivity early in
External Factor Evaluation
the process Matrix (EFE)
Good intuitive judgment always 61
needed

102. Strategy-Formulation Framework
SWOT Matrix
BCG Matrix
Grand Strategy Matrix
62

103. Strategy-Formulation Framework
SWOT Matrix
Stage 2:
BCG Matrix
The Matching Stage
Grand Strategy Matrix
62

104. Stage 2: SWOT Matrix
Four Types of Strategies:
 Strengths-Opportunities (SO):
– Use a firm’s internal strengths to take advantage of
external opportunities
 Weaknesses-Opportunities (WO):
– Improving internal weaknesses by taking advantage of
external opportunities
 Strengths-Threats (ST):
– Use a firm’s strengths to avoid or reduce the impact of
external threats.
 Weaknesses-Threats (WT):
– Defensive tactics aimed at reducing internal
weaknesses and avoiding external threats
63

105. SWOT Matrix
Strengths – S Weaknesses –
W
Leave Blank
List Strengths
List Weaknesses
Opportunities – SO Strategies WO Strategies
O
Use strengths to take Overcoming
advantage of weaknesses by taking
opportunities advantage of
List Opportunities opportunities
Threats – T ST Strategies WT Strategies
Use strengths to avoid Minimize weaknesses
List Threats threats and avoid threats
64

106. Strategy-Formulation
Framework
Quantitative Strategic
Planning Matrix
(QSPM)
 Technique designed to determine the relative attractiveness
of feasible alternative actions
65

107. Strategy-Formulation
Framework
Stage 3: Quantitative Strategic
The Decision Stage Planning Matrix
(QSPM)
 Technique designed to determine the relative attractiveness
of feasible alternative actions
65

108. Steps to Develop a QSPM
1. Make a list of the firm’s key external
opportunities/threats and internal strengths/
weaknesses in the left column
2. Assign weights to each key external and
internal factor
3. Examine the Stage 2 (matching) matrices, and
identify alternative strategies that the
organization should consider implementing
4. Determine the Attractiveness Scores (A.S)
5. Compare the Total Attractiveness Scores
6. Compute the Sum Total Attractiveness Score
66

109. Action Research and Learning
 Kurt Lewin was the first to coin the term
67

110. Action Research
 A change process based on the systematic
collection of data and then selection of a change
action based on what the analyzed data indicate.
68

111. Action Research Process

112. Action Research Process
Establish
Client-
Consultant
Relations
Diagnose Evaluate/
Introduce
Need for Stabilize
Change
Change Change
Disengage
Consultant’s
Services

113. What is Appreciative Inquiry?
Courtesy of Amanda Trotsen-Bloom

114. What is Appreciative Inquiry?
 Directsthe group’s attention
away from its own problems
and focuses participants on
the group’s potential and
positive elements.
 Reframes relationships Courtesy of Amanda Trotsen-Bloom
around the positive rather
than being problem oriented

115. Appreciative Inquiry Process

116. Appreciative Inquiry Process
Discovery Dreaming Designing Delivering
Forming Engaging in Developing
Discovering
ideas about dialogue objectives
the best of
“what might about “what about “what
“what is”
be” should be” will be”

117. Business Excellence
Framework
72

118. ADRI
Improvement Approach
learning and thinking and
adapting planning
Results
monitoring
Deployment
implementing
and evaluating
and doing
IATUL June 04

119. ADRI
Improvement Approach
learning and thinking and
adapting planning
Adjust environment feedback Define the current state
and rewards Define the future state
Determine key sponsors
Review progress against
And implementers
metrics
Results Deployment
monitoring implementing
and evaluating and doing
IATUL June 04

120. Transformational Change
 A change in the way a
person sees the world
 Transformative
approaches seek to trigger
personal development of
participants along one or
more developmental lines
towards more inclusive
structures
 Builds the developmental
capacity to take more
perspectives 75

121. Fostering transformative learning
Core elements (Taylor 2009)
 Individual experience
– Prior life experience – source of dilemmas
– “Classroom” experiences – value-laden content,
intense experiential activities
 Promotion of critical reflection
 Engagement in dialogue with the self and
others
– Build trust and empathy
– Equal opportunities for participation
– Identify ‘edge of meaning’
76

122. Fostering transformative learning
Core elements -2-
 Holistic orientation to teaching that
encourages engagement with other ways of
knowing, including the affective and
relational
 Awareness of context
– Personal, sociocultural factors
– Physical surroundings
– Prior experience
– Time
 Establishing authentic relationships built on
trust and openness 77

123. So if you do all that,
implementing change should
be a breeze…….
78

124. …perhaps not all the time
79