Development Administration chapter 6 (UNPAS 2012)

Prof. Ginandjar Kartasasmita

Program Doktor Bidang Ilmu Sosial
Universitas Pasundan
Bandung
2011

 CULTURAL PROCESSES UNDERLIE MUCH OF WHAT HAPPENS
IN MODERN ORGANIZATIONS. CULTURE FILTERS THE WAYS
IN WHICH PEOPLE SEE AND UNDERSTAND THEIR WORLDS.
CULTURE PRESCRIBES SOME BEHAVIORS AND FORBIDS
OTHERS. CULTURE COLORS THE EMOTIONAL RESPONSES
THAT PEOPLE HAVE TO EVENTS.
 FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION,
SCHOLARS DEFINE CULTURE AS EXISTING AT THREE DISTINCT
LEVELS: SOCIETAL, POLITICAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE.

S3-Unpas_2012 www.ginandjar.com 2

Societal
Culture

Public
Administration
Adminis-
Political
trative
Culture
Culture


 AROUND THE GLOBE, THE TYPICAL PUBLIC ORGANIZATION IS
DEEPLY ENTRENCHED IN THE CLASSICAL WEBERIAN-TYPE
BUREAUCRATIC MODEL. WITH EMPHASIS ON CONTROL AND
COMPLIANCE, THE TRADITIONAL PUBLIC ORGANIZATION IS
A DETERMINISTIC SYSTEM SEEKING EQUILIBRIUM AND
STABILITY IN WHICH DISORDER AND UNCERTAINTY ARE
VIEWED AS DYSFUNCTIONAL.


 THEREFORE, TRANSFORMATION OF THE STRUCTURES,
PROCESSES, AND CULTURES WITHIN PUBLIC
BUREAUCRACIES IS NOT LIKELY TO OCCUR VIA SELF-
ORGANIZING PROCESSES. TO REALIZE FUNDAMENTAL
REFORM OF PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS THUS REQUIRES AN
ORGANIC PROCESS THAT FITS WITH ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS
[ARKADY IN BOX, IBID]. NEEDLESS TO SAY AN ORGANIC
PROCESS IS A CULTURAL PROCESS.


 MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY. CULTURAL VARIATION DOES NOT
ONLY DISTINGUISH ONE SOCIETY AGAINST THE OTHER, BUT
WITHIN A SOCIETY, ESPECIALLY IN A COUNTRY SUCH AS
INDONESIA WHICH IS A MULTICUTURAL SOCIETY. VALUES,
NORMS AND TRADITION IN ACEH IS DIFFERENT THAN IN
JAVA OR IN BALI OR IN PAPUA.


 INDEED MANY NATIONS ARE MULTICULTURAL AND DIVERSE
IN TERMS OF RACE, ETHNICITY, RELIGION, IDENTITY,
TRADITION. IN MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATORS WORK IN DIVERSE ORGANIZATIONS AND
DEAL WITH A DIVERSE CITIZENRY. MULTICULTURALISM
IMPACTS PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN TWO MAJOR
DOMAINS: WITHIN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS AND IN THE
GREATER SOCIETY [ARKADY, IBID].


 DAHL AND WALDO ALSO POINTED OUT, CULTURAL
FACTORS COULD MAKE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONS ON
ONE PART OF THE GLOBE QUITE A DIFFERENT ANIMAL
FROM PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ON ANOTHER PART.
 THE MOVEMENT GAVE RISE TO A SEMIAUTONOMOUS
SUBFIELD OF COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
IN WHICH DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
CONCENTRATES ON THE DEVELOPING NATIONS.


 THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF AN EMERGING
NATION INEVITABLY INCARNATES PARTICULAR NEEDS
AND DEMANDS THAT REQUIRE SPECIFIC
ADMINISTRATIVE ABILITIES.
 THIS TYPE OF ADMINISTRATION OR MANAGEMENT,
ADAPTED FOR THE PARTICULAR NEEDS OF
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, HAS BEEN REFERRED TO
INTERCHANGEABLY AS DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION OR DEVELOPMENT
MANAGEMENT.


 BROADLY, DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS AN
INTEGRAL PART OF SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT AND IS
PROFOUNDLY INFLUENCED BY THE OVERALL
POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURAL ATTRIBUTES
OF THE SOCIETY.
 DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS DIFFERENT
FROM ADMINISTRATIVE DEVELOPMENT, WHICH
COULD BE ANY ADMINISTRATION IN ANY SETTING
SEEKING REFORM, CHANGE, OR IMPROVEMENT OF
ITS CAPACITY.


PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

COMPARATIVE

DEVELOPED DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES COUNTRIES

DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION


THE OBJECTIVE OF DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION

 THE CONCERN OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS
HOW CAN THE IDEAS AND MECHANISMS OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION BE USED AS INSTRUMENTS OF
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT?



MAIN IDEAS MECHANISM

EFFICIENCY ORGANIZATION

EFFECTIVENESS MANAGEMENT

ECONOMY

DEVELOPMENT

 “DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION” IS GENERALLY
SIMILAR TO THE TRADITIONAL “PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION” IN ITS CONCERN WITH HOW A
GOVERNMENT IMPLEMENTS ITS RULES, POLICIES, AND
NORMS.
 IT DIFFERS, HOWEVER, IN ITS OBJECTIVES, SCOPE, AND
COMPLEXITY.
 DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS MORE INNOVATIVE,
SINCE IT IS CONCERNED WITH THE SOCIETAL CHANGES
INVOLVED IN ACHIEVING DEVELPOMENTAL OBJECTIVES.

 DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS THE NAME
OFTEN GIVEN TO THE WAY A COUNTRY’S
GOVERNMENT ACTS TO FULFILL ITS ROLE IN
ACHIEVING DEVELOPMENT.

(RIGGS, 1977)


THE THREE AREAS OF CONCERN :
1. HOW PURPOSEFULLY TO GUIDE GOVERNMENT ACTION
TOWARD DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES;
2. HOW ACTUALLY TO TAKE ACCOUNT OF THE MANY AND
COMPLEX INTERDEPENDENCIES OF SOCIETAL CHANGE; AND
3. HOW TO INSURE THAT GOVERNMENTAL ADMINISTRATION
IS DYNAMIC AND INNOVATIVE.


THE FUNCTION OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
 TO ASSURE THAT AN APPROPRIATELY CONGENIAL
ENVIRONMENT AND EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATION
SUPPORT ARE PROVIDED FOR DELIVERY OF CAPITAL,
MATERIALS, AND SERVICES WHERE NEEDED IN THE
PRODUCTIVE PROCESS –WHETHER IN PUBLIC, PRIVATE,
OR MIXED ECONOMIES.
(GANT, 1979)


 SIX GROUPS OF NEEDED INPUTS:
1) SKILLED MANPOWER,
2) FINANCES,
3) LOGISTICS (OR FACILITIES FOR THE PHYSICAL FLOW OF
GOODS AND SERVICES),
4) INFORMATION (FACILITIES FOR THE PHYSICAL
TRANSMISSION OF DATA),
5) PARTICIPATION (OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS), AND
6) LEGITIMATE POWER (TO ENFORCE DECISIONS).
 THESE SIX INPUTS TOGETHER COMPOSE THE
CONTENT OF DEVELOPMENT ACTION.


MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
 THERE IS A LACK CONSENSUS ON WHAT IS CHARACTERISTIC OF
THE ADMINISTRATIVE SITUATION IN TRANSITIONAL SOCIETIES,
ON POSSIBLE STAGES OR SEQUENCES IN THE PROCESS OF
ADMINISTRATIVE TRANSFORMATION, ON RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGE AND CORRESPONDING
PROCESSES OF POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT.
 THERE IS EVEN DISAGREEMENT ON THE RELATION BETWEEN
ADMINISTRATION AND CULTURE—WHETHER ADMINISTRATIVE
BEHAVIOR IS UNIQUELY DETERMINED BY PARTICULAR CULTURES
OR CORRESPONDS TO GENERAL LEVELS OF SOCIOPOLITICAL
INTEGRATION" (RIGGS).


 IN ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
(1964), RIGGS PRESENTED THE CONCEPT OF
"PRISMATIC SOCIETY" TO EXPLAIN THE UNIQUE
CONDITIONS AND THE DYNAMICS OF POLITICS
AND ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES.


 AS AN ALTERNATIVE MODEL FOR CONCEPTUALIZING
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, RIGGS OFFERED HIS
"PRISMATIC MODEL“, BASED ON THE METAPHOR OF A
PRISM. WHEN WHITE LIGHT (THAT IS, LIGHT MADE UP
OF ALL VISIBLE WAVELENGTHS) PASSES THROUGH A
PRISM, IT IS DIFFRACTED, BROKEN INTO A VARIETY OF
COLORS—A RAINBOW.
 SIMILARLY, RIGGS CONTENDED, SOCIETIES IN THE
PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT MOVE FROM A FUSED
MODE, IN WHICH LITTLE OR NO DIFFERENTIATION
EXISTS, TO A DIFFRACTED CONDITION IN WHICH THERE
IS A HIGH DEGREE OF FUNCTIONAL SPECIALIZATION.


RIGG’S PRISMATIC MODEL

SOCIETY: FUSED PRISMATIC DIFFRACTED
BUREAUCRATIC: CHAMBER SALA/BUREAU OFFICE
MODEL

ROSTOW FIVE STAGES OF GROWTH
NAL SOCIETY

CONDITION
TRADITIO-

THE DRIVE

MATURITY
THE TAKE
FOR TAKE

CONSUM-
THE PRE-

OF HIGH
THE AGE

PTION
MASS
OFF
OFF

TO

RELATIVELY FOCUS RELATIVELY
SPECIFIED UNSPECIFIED
RELATIVELY
SPECIFIED PHASE III PHASE II

LOCUS

RELATIVELY
UNSPECIFIED
PHASE I PHASE IV

The four cells of a 2 X 2 matrix relating two combinations of locus
and focus

THE RISE AND FALL OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
 WITH THE INVENTION OF DEVELOPMENT BY THE
WESTERN NATIONS IN THE IMMEDIATE POST-WAR
PERIOD AND ITS ADOPTION AS STATE IDEOLOGY BY THE
GOVERNMENTS AND EMERGING ELITES OF THE POORER
NATIONS, THE QUESTION AROSE AS TO HOW THE
PROMISED SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION WAS TO BE
ACHIEVED.
 ‘THE PRIMARY OBSTACLES TO DEVELOPMENT ARE
ADMINISTRATIVE RATHER THAN ECONOMIC', DECLARED
DONALD STONE (1965). OTHERS AGREED AND
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION WAS CREATED TO PLAY
A MAJOR ROLE IN FACILITATING DEVELOPMENT.

 MANY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES FACE AN
ONGOING NEED TO BUILD INSTITUTIONS AND
ORGANIZATIONS ABLE TO OVERCOME
TRADITIONAL BARRIERS TO THE EFFECTIVE
IMPLEMENTATION OF DEVELOPMENTAL POLICIES.


 DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION REPRESENTED THE
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF MODERNIZATION
THEORY. ITS PROMOTERS SAW IT AS 'A MIDWIFE FOR
WESTERN DEVELOPMENT-CREATING STABLE AND
ORDERLY CHANGE' (DWIVEDI AND NEF, 1982).
 IT WAS A FORM OF SOCIAL ENGINEERING IMPORTED
FROM THE WEST AND EMBODYING FAITH IN THE
APPLICATION OF RATIONAL SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES
AND THE EFFICACY OF KEYNESIAN WELFARE
ECONOMICS.


 THE CREATION AND USE OF THESE ABILITIES HAVE
ALWAYS BEEN PRIMARY CHALLENGES OF
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION. THE ABSENCE AND
BREAKDOWN OF THESE ABILITIES HAVE OFTEN BEEN
MAJOR FACTORS IN DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION'S FAILURE TO MEET SATISFACTORY
LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE.
 AS A RESULT, DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION HAS
NOT FARED WELL IN SOME CRITICAL AREAS, SUCH AS
THE CONCEPTION OF AN INSPIRING, COMPATIBLE
VISION AND MANAGING EFFECTIVELY TO ACHIEVE
THIS VISION.


 IN UTILIZING MODERN TECHNIQUES, DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION, FOR EXAMPLE, SEEMS TO LAG
BEHIND THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN LEVERAGING
TECHNOLOGY TO IMPROVE INTERNAL OPERATIONS
AND TO ENHANCE THE OVERALL EFFECTIVENESS OF
DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS.


 UNABLE TO ATTAIN A TIMELY CORRECTION OF ITS
DEFICIENCIES OR TO LEARN FROM ITS FAILURES,
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION LARGELY
REMAINS BURDENED BY A COMBINATION OF
INHERITED STRUCTURES AND BEHAVIORS AND
DEEPLY INTERNALIZED LOCAL CULTURAL PATTERNS.
 THIS COMBINATION OF LEGACIES HAS HAD THE
EFFECT OF IMPEDING PERFORMANCE AND
WASTING BADLY NEEDED INSTITUTIONAL ENERGIES
ON OTHER THAN PRODUCTIVE ENDEAVORS TO
ACCOMPLISH DEVELOPMENTAL MANDATES.


REVIVAL OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

 THE MOST IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND IN THE
WEST WAS BEING INCREASINGLY IDENTIFIED AS THAT
ENVELOPE OF FACTORS AND FORCES WHICH WE
COLLECTIVELY CALL THE ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT.
 WHETHER IT WAS THE SOCIAL CLASS CONTEXT, THE
INFLUENCE OF THE WORLD BANK, THE TYPE OF REGIME,
THE NATURE OF THE POLICYMAKING PROCESS OR SIMPLY
THE PREVAILING CULTURE, THE CENTRALITY OF THE
ENVIRONMENT FOR UNDERSTANDING ADMINISTRATIVE
ACTION AND PARALYSIS WAS BECOMING FIRMLY
ESTABLISHED.


 THE NEO-CLASSICAL ECONOMISTS HAD MEANWHILE GAINED
CONSIDERABLE INFLUENCE IN POLICY CIRCLES AND WERE
ALSO POINTING TO INEFFICIENCY AND INEFFECTIVENESS IN
THE PUBLIC SECTOR.
 BIG GOVERNMENT HAD NOT BEEN EFFECTIVE GOVERNMENT
AND IT WAS TIME THE PRINCIPALS OF THE MARKET WERE
ALLOWED TO OPREATE. REDUCING THE SIZE OF THE STATE
AND RESTRICTING THE OPERATION OF THE STATE WOULD
BRING CONSIDERABLE SAVINGS.
 PROGRAMMES TO INCREASE BUREAUCRATIC CAPACITY AND
EFFICIENCY AND TO ENCOURAGE PRIVATE SECTOR GROWTH
THROUGH MARKET MECHANISMS WOULD THEN ENSURE
THAT DEVELOPMENT WOULD TAKE PLACE.


 THE OLD DISTINCTION BETWEEN PUBLIC SECTOR AND
PRIVATE SECTOR MANAGEMENT BECAME BLURRED.
THE DISSEMINATION OF THIS MODEL TO DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES WAS UNDERTAKEN BY ENTHUSIASTIC
WESTERN ADVOCATES AND MULTILATERAL FINANCIAL
INSTITUTIONS SUCH AS THE WORLD BANK AND IMF.


ANOTHER APPROACH
 FORCEFULLY ADVOCATED BY DWIVEDI AND, NEF (1982)
WAS THE SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF
ORGANIZATIONAL APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT. INSTEAD
OF SIMPLY CRITICISING THE FAILURES, PEOPLE BEGAN TO
LOOK AT THE SUCCESSES AND INNOVATIONS.
 RONDINELLI (1983) WAS KEEN TO IDENTIFY LESSONS FROM
PAST EXPERIENCE THAT COULD ENHANCE DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION IN THE FUTURE. HIS ANALYSIS INDICATED
THAT THE MAIN REASON FOR POOR PAST PERFORMANCE
IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR WAS THE FAILURE TO COPE WITH
THE COMPLEXITY AND UNCERTAINTY OF ORGANIZATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.


 THE REMEDY LAY IN CHANGING STRUCTURES AND
PROCEDURES SO THAT EXPERIMENTATION AND
LEARNING OCCURRED. THIS CREATIVE HYBRID
COMPRISES A HUMAN-RELATIONS TYPE OF
MANAGEMENT THEORY COUPLED WITH A
CONTINGENCY-STYLE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF HIGHLY
VARIABLE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS, INCLUDING
THE POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT.


 IN THE LATE 1980s DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION WAS
EMERGING FROM SELF-CRITICISM AND DOUBT AND WAS
ACQUIRING A NEW LEASE OF LIFE.
 MILTON ESMAN (1988) DECLARED THAT DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION HAS NOT ONLY SURVIVED THE
LIMITATIONS OF ITS FOUNDERS, BUT IT HAS SUCCESSFULLY
ADAPTED TO A MUCH MORE REALISTIC SET OF
EXPECTATIONS ABOUT THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT
AND THE POTENTIALITIES OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR.
 DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION, ACCORDING TO SUCH
WRITERS, HAD MATURED BUT IT WAS STILL DYNAMIC.


 SO HOW DO WE CHARACTERIZE THE CONTEMPORARY
PRACTICE OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION?
 DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION REMAINS HEAVILY BUT
NOT EXCLUSIVELY FOCUSED ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.
IT IS NO LONGER PREMISED ON THE NOTION OF BIG
GOVERNMENT; THIS IS IN PART DUE TO DISAPPOINTING
RESULTS OF OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS AND
TO THE SHORTAGE OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES.


 SUSTAINED INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT REQUIRES
CERTAIN CONDITIONS. THESE REQUISITES HAVE
INCREASINGLY BECOME MORE SPECIFIC:
1) TAPPING STAKEHOLDERS' SUPPORT,
2) PROMOTING ONGOING STRATEGIC PLANNING,
3) ENGAGING IN MARKETING, AND
4) REDUCING DEPENDENCY THROUGH THE USE OF LOCAL
RESOURCES.
(GOLDSMITH 1992, 586)


BOTH MACRO AND MICRO POLITICAL PROCESSES ARE
CENTRAL CONCERNS IN THE PRACTICE AND ANALYSIS OF
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION.
FURTHERMORE, AS WE HAVE IDENTIFIED DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION AS AN INSTRUMENTALITY OF
DEVELOPMENT, ITS PRACTITIONERS MUST BE INTIMATELY
CONCERNED WITH THE GOALS OF DEVELOPMENT.
WHETHER IN ANALYSIS OR PRACTICE THERE IS NO VALUE
NEUTRALITY. ALL VIEWS AND ACTIONS HAVE SOME POLITICAL
MEANING, ESPECIALLY IF DEVELOPMENT SHOULD BE
ORIENTED TO THE POOR, MOSTLY DEFINED BY THE POOR
AND INCOPORATING A STRONG ELEMENT OF GRASSROOTS
KNOWLEDGE AND WISDOM.


FINALLY, DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION (OR POLICY OR
MANAGEMENT) APPLIES TO A HUGE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN A
LARGE NUMBER OF COUNTRIES. THE COUNTRIES VARY
ENORMOUSLY WHEN MEASURED BY STATISTICAL INDICATORS
OF DEVELOPMENT OR IN TERMS OF CULTURE AND HISTORY.
EVEN WITHIN NATIONS, HOWEVER SMALL IN POPULATION
TERMS, THERE CAN BE GREAT REGIONAL DIFFERENTIATION.
COLLECTIVE TITLES SUCH AS THIRD WORLD OR THE SOUTH
GIVE AN IMPRESSION OF SIMILARITY TO A DISPARATE GROUP
OF COUNTRIES. DIVERSITY IS WHAT DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION MUST ADDRESS.


DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION APPROACH

ADMINISTRATION
OF MANAGEMENT
DEVELOPMENT

ORGANIZATION/
ECONOMIC POLITICAL SOCIAL ADMINISTRATIVE INSTITUTION


MANAGEMENT
DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION = PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION + OF
DEVELOPMENT


Some contemporary themes in development administration

1. Governments are limited in their capacity, and these limitations
should be incorporated into the design of public programmes.
2. Because governments cannot do it all, alternative and
complementary channels need to be identified and fostered.
3. Programme designers recognize and capitalize on the pluralistic
properties of public administration.
4. Participation is an important dimension in the administration of
Public services.
5. Societal contexts provide both specific opportunities and special
constraints for development administration.
6. There is an enhanced appreciation of the uncertainties and
contingencies inherent in deliberate efforts at developmental
change.
7. There are renewed pressures on governments (a) to extract greater
productivity from continuing expenditures and (b) to reorient
government bureaucracies to serve large disadvantaged publics
more responsively.
Source: Esman, M.]. (1988) 'The Maturing of Development Administration, Public Administration and Development,
Vo. 8 (2), pp 125-34.

MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION
 TWO COMPETING PERSPECTIVE HAVE EMERGED.
 THE FIRST FOCUSED ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGERIAL
CAPABILITIES AND INSTITUTIONS. UNDERLYING THIS APPROACH
IS THE ASSUMPTION THAT ONCE CAPABILITIES ARE IN PLACE, THE
VARIOUS ENTITIES IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR WILL BE ENDOWED
WITH THE ABILITY TO UNDERTAKE THE DEVELOPMENTAL TASK
THAT GOVERNMENT REQUIRES, TO USE RESOURCES EFFICIENTLY,
TO SOLVE FRESH PROBLEMS AS THEY ARISE, AND TO SUSTAIN
INCREASINGLY COMPLEX AND SOPHISTICATED ACTIVITIES OVER
TIME. THIS, IN BRIEF, CONSTITUTES THE CAPACITY-
STRENGTHENING AND INSTITUTION BUILDING PERSPECTIVE IN
DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT (HONADLE AND VAN SANT, 1986).
(MILTON J. ESMAN, 1991)

 THE OTHER APPROACH EMPHASIZES THE MANAGEMENT OF
CONCRETE DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES, ARGUING THAT THE
PUBLIC SECTOR MUST CONCENTRATE PERFORMANCE –ON
DELIVERING THE GOODS, MEETING NEEDS, AND PROVIDING
TANGIBLE BENEFIT. THESE SHORTER-TERM EXIGENCIES , IT IS
ARGUED, MUST TAKE PRIORITY IN THE ALLOCATION OF
RESOURCES AND ENERGIES OVER LONG –TERM CAPACITY
BUILDING; INDEED, SUCCESSFUL EXPERIENCE IN PROGRAM
OPERATIONS AND IN CONCRETE PROBLEM SOLVING IS THE
SUREST WAY TO DEVELOP AND SUSTAIN MANAGERIAL
CAPACITY.


 LONG-TERM CAPACITIES MUST BE DEVELOPED IN
GOVERNMENT AND IN THE PRIVATE REALM. AS THESE
CAPACITIES ARE UNLIKELY TO EVOLVES SPONTANEOUSLY,
GOVERNMENTS MUST BE PREPARED TO INVEST IN
INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL CAPABILITIES. AT THE
SAME TIME, POLICIES MUST BE CARRIED OUT, PROGRAMS
MUST BE OPERATED, AND SERVICES MUST BE DELIVERED
WITH SUCH MANAGERIAL RESOURCES AS EXIT. BOTH
OBJECTIVES MUST BE PURSUED SIMULTANEOUSLY, NOT AS
TRADE-OFFS BUT AS COMPLEMENTARY MEASURES.


 SCHOLARS LOOK UPON DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT
AS COMPRISING BOTH THE STRENGTHENING OF
MANAGERIAL CAPABILITIES THAT CAN SUSTAIN
COMPLEX ACTIVITIES THROUGH TIME AND CHANGING
CIRCUMSTANCES AND THE ONGOING MANAGEMENT OF
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR.


 WHAT MOST DISTINGUISHED ADVANCE SOCIETIES AND
THEIR GOVERNMENT IS NOT THEIR “CULTURE”, NOR
THEIR NATURAL ENDOWMENTS, NOR THE AVAILABILITY
OF CAPITAL, NOR THE RATIONALLY OF PUBLIC POLICIES,
BUT PRECISELY THE CAPACITIES OF THEIR INSTITUTIONS
AND THE SKILLS OF INDIVIDUALS, INCLUDING THOSE OF
MANAGEMENT. TOGETHER THESE REFLECT THEIR
DIFFERENTIAL CAPACITIES TO UTILIZE RESOURCES ,
CAPITALIZE ON OPPORTUNITIES, AND ADJUST TO
CHANGES (ESMAN, 1991).


 IT IS CRITICAL THAT SUBSTANTIAL ENERGIES AND
RESOURCES BE DEDICATED TO AND INVESTED IN THE
ENHANCEMENT OF THE HUMAN RESOURCES AND
INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES THAT DETERMINE THE
ABILITY OF SOCIETIES TO ACHIEVE AND SUSTAIN
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS. IN AN IMPORTANT
SENSE, THIS IS WHAT DEVELOPMENT IS ALL ABOUT.


ENVIRONTMENTAL FACTORS FOR PUBLIC SECTORS
MANAGERS

ECONOMIC CULTURAL

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT ETHNICITY
STRUCTURE OF PRODUCTION FAMILY AND KINSHIP
LABOUR VALUES AND NORMS
DOMESTIC CAPITAL GENDER
FOREIGN EXCHANGE HISTORY
FOREIGN AID AND DEBT
INFRASTRUCTURE
TECHNOLOGY
POVERTY AND INEQUALITY
INFORMAL SECTOR

DEMOGRAPHIC POLITICAL
SOURCE: MODIFIED
POPULATION GROWTH STATE-SOCIETY RELATIONS FROM AUSTIN, J.E.
AGE STRUCTURE LEGITIMACY (1990) MANAGING IN
URBANIZATION AND MIGRATION REGIME TYPE DEVELOPING
HELATH IDEOLOGY COUNTRIES: STRATEGIC
ELITES AND CLASSES ANALIYSIS AND
INTERNATIONAL LINKS OPERATING
INSTITUTION TECHNIQUES (NEW
YORK: FREE PRESS)

(MILTON ESMAN, 1991)


MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES
OF DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION

DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT OF
MANAGERIAL CAPABILITIES CONCRETE DEVELOPMENT
AND INSTITUTIONS ACTIVITIES


1) PLANNING
2) RESOURCE MOBILIZATION
3) CIVIL-PARTICIPATION MOBILIZATION
4) BUDGETING
5) IMPLEMENTATION OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE PUBLIC
SECTOR
6) COORDINATION
7) MONITORING AND EVALUATION
8) CONTROLLING (OVERSIGHT FUNCTION)
9) INFORMATION SYSTEM
(KARTASASMITA, 1997)

 IT IS CRITICAL THAT SUBSTANTIAL ENERGIES AND
RESOURCES BE DEDICATED TO AND INVESTED IN
THE ENHANCEMENT OF THE HUMAN RESOURCES
AND INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES THAT DETERMINE
THE ABILITY OF SOCIETIES TO ACHIEVE AND
SUSTAIN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS. IN AN
IMPORTANT SENSE, THIS IS WHAT DEVELOPMENT IS
ALL ABOUT.


 PLANNING IS AN ORGANIZED, CONSCIOUS AND
CONTINUAL ATTEMPT TO SELECT THE BEST
AVAILABLE ALTERNATIVES TO ACHIEVE SPECIFIC
GOALS.

(ALBERT WATERSTON, 1965)


 'DURING THE 1960s AND 1970s PROJECTS BECAME
THE PRIMARY MEANS THROUGH WHICH
GOVERNMENTS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
TRANSLATED THEIR PLANS AND POLICIES INTO
PROGRAMMES OF ACTION' (RONDINELLI, 1993).
 PROJECTS WERE SEEN AS THE 'CUTTING EDGE OF
DEVELOPMENT' (GITTINGER, 1982), WHERE
RESOURCES WERE CONVERTED INTO IMPROVED
LIVELIHOODS AND ECONOMIC GROWTH.


 UNFORTUNATELY, THE RIGOUR THAT SUCH
TECHNIQUES BRING TO PROJECT ANALYSIS HAS
NOT ALWAYS REVEALED ITSELF IN TERMS OF
PROJECT RESULTS. THE WORLD BANK (1988) HAS
FOUND THAT SOME 51 PER CENT OF ITS RURAL
DEVELOPMENT AREA PROJECTS, OVER THE
PERIOD 1965 TO 1985, FAILED TO ACHIEVE THE
BANK'S MINIMUM ACCEPTABLE RATE OF RETURN
OF 10 PER CENT.
 POOR DATA, UNCERTAINTY, LACK OF BENECIFIARY
PARTICIPATION, POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT.


ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO PROJECT
PLANNING
 THE SEARCH IS ON FOR APPROACHES THAT MAKE
PROJECTS MORE EFFECTIVE, AND TWO
FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT RESPONSES CAN BE
DISTINGUISHED.
 ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATIVE
 EMPOWERMENT


ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATION
RONDINELLI (1993) HAS MADE AN IMPASSIONED PLEA FOR
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS TO BE CONCEPTUALIZED AS 'POLICY
EXPERIMENTS' REQUIRING 'ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATION'. HE
ARGUES THAT AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH WHICH PLACES
ELEMENTS OF PLANNING, IMPLEMENTATION AND
MONITORING IN THE HANDS OF PROJECT MANAGERS, IS
ESSENTIAL.
THIS IS BECAUSE OF THE ENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS OPERATE (LIMITED INFORMATION,
HIGH RISK, UNCERTAINTY AND POLITICAL MANIPULATION)
AND THE CAPACITIES THAT ARE REQUIRED TO BECOME
EFFECTIVE IN SUCH ENVIRONMENTS (LEARNING,
EXPERIMENTATION, CREATIVITY, ORGANIZATIONAL
FLEXIBILITY AND ACCESS TO LOCAL KNOWLEDGE).

EMPOWERMENT

 FOR THE OTHER RADICAL CRITICS OF CONVENTIONAL
APPROACHES TO PROJECT PLANNING, THE KEY THEMES
OF ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATION –EXPERIMENTATION,
FLEXIBILITY, LEARNING AND CREATIVITY –ARE CRUCIAL,
BUT THERE REMAINS TOO GREAT AN EMPHASIS ON THE
ROLE OF EXTERNAL EXPERTS, BUREAUCRATS AND AID
AGENCIES.
 INSTEAD, WHAT IS REQUIRED IS AN APPROACH THAT
PERMITS MUCH GREATER BENEFICIARY INVOLVEMENT
IN PROJECT IDENTIFICATION, SELECTION, DESIGN,
IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION.


 ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT
 MACRO
 SECTORAL
 REGIONAL
 DECENTRALIZATION
 SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT
 PARTICIPATION
 POLICY DIVERSITY


EITHER

CENTRALIZED DECENTRALIZED
OR

CENTRALIZED DECENTRALIZED

CONTINUUM


WHY DECENTRALIZE?

A MAJOR OBSTACLE TO THE EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE OF
PUBLIC BUREAUCRACIES IN MOST DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
IS THE EXCESSIVE CONCENTRATION OR DECISION-MAKING
AUTHORITY WITHIN CENTRAL GOVERNMENT.
PUBLIC SECTOR INSTITUTIONS ARE COMMONLY PERCEIVED
TO BE GEOGRAPHICALLY AND SOCIALLY REMOTE FROM
'THE PEOPLE' AND TO TAKE DECISIONS WITHOUT
KNOWLEDGE OR CONCERN ABOUT ACTUAL PROBLEMS AND
PREFERENCES.


SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

 DECENTRALIZATION IS THE TRANSFER OF
AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY FOR PUBLIC
FUNCTIONS FROM THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TO
SUBORDINATE OR QUASI-INDEPENDENT
GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND/OR THE
PRIVATE SECTOR
(WORLD BANK, 2001)


DECENTRALIZATION

TRANSFER OF
AUTHORITY CLOSER
TO THE PUBLIC TO BE
SERVED

TERRITORIAL FUNCTIONAL


AUTONOMOUS LOCAL GOVERNMENT
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT CAN BE SAID TO BE
AUTONOMOUS IF THEY ENJOY A SUBSTANTIAL
DEGREE OF INDEPENDENCE, ALTHOUGH AUTONOMY
IN THIS CONNECTION IS SOMETIMES TAKEN TO
IMPLY A HIGH MEASURE OF SELF-GOVERNMENT,
RATHER THAN SOVEREIGN INDEPENDENCE

(ADAPTED FROM HEYWOOD, 2002)


TYPES OF DECENTRALIZATION

1. POLITICAL
2. ADMINISTRATIVE
3. FISCAL
4. MARKET


DECENTRALIZATION AND GOVERNANCE

 DECENTRALIZATION IN SOME COUNTRIES HAS
BEEN SEEN AS POLITICALLY EXPEDIENT FOR
DEALING WITH REBELLIOUS REGIONS.
 IT HAS HOWEVER, MORE BASIC VALUE TO
DEMOCRACY AND DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION.
MANY SCHOLARS HAVE PRESENTED THE
ARGUMENT THAT DECENTRALIZATION ENHANCES
THE LEGITIMACY, AND HENCE, STABILITY OF
DEMOCRACY.


 DECENTRALIZATION IS NOT JUST A POLITICAL
NECESSITY FOR KEEPING THE COUNTRY FROM FALLING
APART OR FOR FOSTERING DEMOCRACY.
 IF MANAGED WELL, DECENTRALIZATION CAN BRING
IMPORTANT BENEFITS TO THE COMMUNITIES AND THE
ECONOMY AS A WHOLE.
 HOWEVER, IF MANAGED BADLY, IT COULD HARM THE
PEOPLE AND SQUANDER RESOURCES AND BRING
INSTABILITY INSTEAD.


 TRANSFERS OF REVENUE TO THE AUTONOMOUS
DISTRICTS MUST BE ACCOMPANIED BY TRANSFERS
OF EXPENDITURE RESPONSIBILITY AND ITS
ASSOCIATED FUNCTIONS. THEY ARE IMPORTANT
TO PREVENT THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FISCAL
DEFICIT TO INCREASE UNABATEDLY CAUSING
SEVERE FINANCING AND DEBT PROBLEMS FOR THE
COUNTRY IN THE FUTURE.


 A NORMATIVE APPROACH:
 GRADUAL/INCREMENTAL PROCESS
 SYSTEMATIC PREPARATION
 NORMAL CONDITION IN TERMS OF POLITIC, SOCIAL
AND ECONOMY

 A BIG-BANG APPROACH:
 ONCE FOR ALL
 LEARNING BY DOING
 TRANSITION CONDITION IN TERMS POLITIC, SOCIAL
AND ECONOMY


 INDONESIA FOLLOWED THE “BIG BANG” APPROACH
TO DECENTRALIZATION.
 IT STARTED IN 1999, BUT MUCH OF THE
RESPONSIBILITY FOR PUBLIC SERVICES WAS
DECENTRALIZED IN 2001 AFTER THE SECOND
AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION IN 2000.


 BY THE END OF THE OLD REGIME, AT THE ONSET OF THE
DEMOCRATIZATION PROCESS AND POLITICAL REFORMS
IN 1999, THERE WERE 26 PROVICES [NOT INCLUDING
EAST TIMOR], 234 DISTRICTS AND 59 MUNICIPALITIES,
IN TOTAL 319 AUTONOMOUS REGIONS.
 IN 2010, THERE ARE 33 PROVINCES, 398 DISTRICTS AND
93 MUNICIPALITIES, IN TOTAL 524 AUTONOMOUS
REGIONS, INCREASING IN TEN YEARS BY 205
AUTONOMOUS REGIONS OR BY ALMOST TWO THIRD.


Desentralisasi 1999
% kenaikan
Sebelum Sesudah
Desa 59.834 68.442 8.608 (14,4%)
Kelurahan 5. 935 8.068 2.133 (35,0%)
Kecamatan 5.480 6.519 1.039 (18,9%)

Kabupaten 234 398 164 (70,0%)

Kota 59 93 34 (57,6%)
Provinsi 27 33 6 (22,2%)

Kabupaten:
Diluar 1 Kab. Adm. di DKI Jakarta
Kota:
Diluar 5 Kota Adm di DKI Jakarta

DISTRIBUTION OF AUTHORITIES AND FUNCTIONS 78
Central Local www.ginandjar.com Day3_GRIPS
Government 2012

Obligatory Function Optional
1. Foreign Affairs 1. Planning and Monitoring 1. Mining
2. Defense 2. Spatial Planning 2. Fishery
3. Security 3. Social order and security 3. Agriculture
4. Religion 4. Public infrastructure services 4. Farm
5. Judicial 5. Health Services 5. Forestry
6. Monetary and Fiscal 6. Educational Services 6. Tourism
7. Others 7. Social
8. Labor
9. SME’s and Cooperatives
10. Environment
11. Land (?)
12. Civil administration
13. Government Administration
14. Investment Administration
15. Other services
16. Other obligatory function

REVENUES SHARING BETWEEN CENTRAL AND LOCAL
Before After
Central Province District/ Central Province District/ Share to
Shared-
Shared-Revenues City City Other
District/
City

1. Property Tax 10% 16.2% 64.8% 16.2% 64.8%
2. Property Title Transfer Tax 20% 16% 64% 16% 64%
3. Levy on Forestry Right to 55% 30% 15% 20% 16% 64%
operate
4. Commission on Forestry 55% 30% 15% 20% 16% 32% 32%
Resource
5. Land Rent on Mining Sector 20% 16% 64% 20% 16% 64%
6. Royalties from Mining Sector 20% 16% 64% 20% 16% 32% 32%
7. Tax on Fisheries Operation 100% 20% 80%
8. Tax on Fisheries Output 100% 20% 80%
9. Oil Revenues 100% 85% 3% 6% 6%
10. Natural gas Revenues 100% 70% 6% 12% 12%
11. Personal Income Tax 100% 80% 8% 12%
Source: Government Regulation No. 104/2000 and Law No. 17/2003

 SUBSTANTIAL AMOUNT OF GOVERNMENT BUDGET HAS BEEN
TRANSFERRED TO THE REGIONS.
 FOR 2012, ALMOST ONE THIRD [32.8%] OR $52 BILLION IS
DIRECT TRANSFER TO THE AUTONOMOUS REGIONS’ BUDGET,
IN THE FORM OF NATURAL RESOURCES SHARING FUND FOR
$11 BILLION, GENERAL ALLOCATION FUND FOR $30 BILLION,
SPECIAL ALLOCATION FUND FOR $3 BILLION AND SPECIAL
AUTONOMY FUND FOR THE TWO PAPUA PROVINCES AND
ACEH, $1.3 BILLION, AND ADJUSTMENT FUND [FOR
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT] FOR $6.5 BILLION.
 BUT OVERALL GOVERNMENT BUDGET THAT GOES TO THE
REGIONS THROUGH VARIOUS SCHEMES IS MUCH HIGHER,
CLOSE TO TWO THIRD [62%].


GROWTH OF GENERAL ALOCATION FUND (GAF)
VS AVERAGE FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENT

TOTAL
AVERAGE GROWTH
GROWTH
SOURCE: MOF, 2011


GROWTH OF GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES

SOURCE: MOF, 2011


GOOD THEORY POOR PRACTICE



• Basic Human Rights • Disunity

• Democracy • Warlordism

• Decision Making • Nepotism

• Participation : • Exclusivism
i. Grass Root,
ii. Empowerment, • Local Elites
iii. Responsiveness

• Prevent disintegration



• Debureaucratization
• Efficiency • Weak Institution
• Effectiveness
• Span of Control • Limited Human
• License and Permit
• Client Interaction Resources
• Representativeness
• Populism/Pluralism • Unclear Responsibility
• Differentiated Public
• Better: • Decentralization of
i. Planning
ii. Execution
iii. Supervision corruption
iv. Monitoring



• Efficiency
• Resource Optimization • Rich Region Richer
• Equity • Poor Region Poorer
i. Resource allocation/distribution • Regional Barrier to
ii. Poverty Commerce
iii.Closing disparity • Environment knows no
iv.Opportunity
v. Empowerment Administrative border
• Demonopolization • National vs Local Rules
• Entrepreneurship • National vs Local Taxes
• Environment
• Inter-Regional Cooperation
• Inter-Regional Competition
• Ownership of Development



• Efficiency in Delivery of
i. Education • Different Level & Quality
ii. Health of
iii. Other social i. Education
Services. ii. Health
iii. Social
• Local Capabilities in Services.
Service Delivery
• Responsive to Local • Social Immobility
i. Needs
ii. Potential
iii. Shortcomings

• Social Cohessivenes
• Social Solidarity



• Plurality • Primordialism
• Diversity
• Preservation of local: • Local vs Modern Values
i. Language
ii. Arts
iii. Tradition
• Dignity
• Self Esteem
• Confidence
• Local Wisdom


 TATA RUANG PADA HAKIKATNYA MERUPAKAN
LINGKUNGAN FISIK YANG MEMPUNYAI HUBUNGAN
ORGANISATORIS / FUNGSIONAL ANTARA BERBAGAI
MACAM OBYEK DAN MANUSIA YANG TERPISAH
DALAM RUANG – RUANG (RAPOPORT, 1980).
 DI DALAM TATA RUANG TERDAPAT SUATU DISTRIBUSI
DARI TINDAKAN MANUSIA DAN KEGIATANNYA UNTUK
MENCAPAI TUJUAN SEBAGAIMANA DIRUMUSKAN
SEBELUMNYA. TATA RUANG DALAM HAL INI,
MENURUT WETZING (1978), MERUPAKAN JABATARAN
DARI SUATU PRODUK PERENCANAAN FISIK.


 KONSEPSI TATA RUANG INI TIDAK HANYA
MENYANGKUT SUATU WAWASAN YANG DISEBUT
WAWASAN SPASIAL, TETAPI MENYANGKUT PULA
ASPEK – ASPEK NON SPASIAL ATAU A-SPASIAL
(FOLEY, 1970). HAL INI DIDASARKAN PADA
KENYATAAN BAHWA STRUKTUR FISIKS ANGAT
DITENTUKAN DAN DIPENGARUHI OLEH FAKTOR –
FAKTOR NONFISIK SEPERTI ORGANISASI
FUNGSIONAL, POLA SOSIAL BUDAYA, DAN NILAI
KEHIDUPAN KOMUNITAS (PORTEOUS, 1981).


 PENATAAN RUANG SECARA UMUM MEMILIKI
PENGERTIAN SEBAGAI SUATU PROSES YANG
MELIPUTI PROSES PERENCANAAN, PELAKSANAAN
ATAU PEMANFAATAN TATA RUANG, DAN
PENGENDALIAN PELAKSANAAN ATAU
PEMANFAATAN RUANG YANG TERKAIT SATU
DENGAN LAINNYA.


 BERDASARKAN KONSEPSI INI, PENATAAN RUANG
DAPAT DISEBUTKAN SECARA LEBIH SPESIFIK
SEBAGAI UPAYA MEWUJUDKAN TATA RUANG YANG
TERENCANA, DENGAN MEMPERHATIKAN:
 KEADAAN LINGKUNGAN ALAM,
 LINGKUNGAN BUATAN,
 LINGKUNGAN SOSIAL,
 INTERAKSI ANTAR LINGKUNGAN,
 TAHAPAN DAN PENGELOLAAN PEMBANGUNAN,
 KEMAMPUAN KELEMBAGAAN DAN SUMBER DAYA
MANUSIA.


95

 SALAH SATU KARAKTERISTIK ATAU CIRI SISTEM
ADMINISTRASI MODERN ADALAH BAHWA
PENGAMBILAN KEPUTUSAN DILAKUKAN SEDAPAT –
DAPATNYA PADA TINGKAT YANG PALING BAWAH
(GRASS-ROOT LEVEL).
 DALAM HAL INI MASYARAKAT, BERSAMA – SAMA
DENGAN APARATUR PEMERINTAH, MENJADI
STAKEHOLDER DALAM PERUMUSAN, IMPLEMENTASI,
DAN EVALUASI DARIS ETIAP UPAYA PEMBANGUNAN.
DENGAN MENINGKATNYA PENDIDIKAN, MASYARAKAT
AKAN MENJADI SEMAKIN TERBUKA, SEMAKIN MAJU
DAN MODERN.


96

 DALAM KONDISI SEPERTI INI, MASYARAKAT TIDAK
AKAN PUAS DENGAN HANYA MENDEGAR DAN
MELAKSANAKAN PETUNJUK, TETAPI JUGA INGIN IKUT
BERPARTISIPASI DALAM PEMBANGUNAN DAN
MENENTUKAN NASIB MEREKA SENDIRI.
 PEMBANGUNAN YANG MEMBERI KESEMPATAN DAN
BERTUMPU PADA MASYARAKAT TELAH MENJADI
PARADIGMA PEMBANGUNAN YANG SEKARANG
BERKEMBANG DAN DIANUT SECARA LUAS
(KARTASASMITA, 1996B).


98

 SEBAGAI IMPLIKASI DARI DIMENSI ADMINISTRASI DALAM
PEMBANGUNAN DAERAH YANG DIKAITKAN DENGAN
KEMAJEMUKAN ADALAH DIMUNGKINKANNYA
KERAGAMAN DALAM KEBIJAKSANAAN (POLICY DIVERSITY).
DARI SEGI PERENCANAAN PEMBANGUNAN HARUS
DIPAHAMI BAHWA SATU DAERAH BERBEDA DENGAN
DAERAH LAINNYA.
 TAK ADA SATU PUN DAERAH YANG MEMILIKI
KARAKTERISTIK YANG SAMA, BAIK DARI POTENSI EKONOMI,
SUMBER DAYA MANUSIA, MAUPUN KELEMBAGAAN
MASYARAKATNYA. DISAMPING ITU, PREMIS BAHWA
PEMERINTAHAN DI DAERAH LEBIH MENGETAHUI
PERMASALAHAN DAERAHNYA SEMAKIN MENGUAT.

99

 DALAM KERANGKA INI, KEBIJAKSANAAN YANG BERSIFAT
NASIONAL HARUS LUWES (FLEXIBLE), AGAR APARAT
PEMERINTAH DIBAWAHNYA DAPAT MENGEMBANGKAN
DAN MEMODIFIKASI KEBIJAKSANAAN TERSEBUT SESUAI
DENGAN KONDISI MASING – MASING WILAYAH (HEAPHY,
1971).
 UNTUK ITU, KEBIJAKSANAAN NASIONAL HARUS
MEMAHAMI KARAKTERISTIK DAERAH DALAM
MEMPERTIMBANGKAN POTENSI PEMBANGUNAN DI
DAERAH TERUTAMA DALAM KEBIJAKSANAAN INVESTASI
SARANA DAN PRASARANA GUNA MERANGSANG
BERKEMBANGNYA KEGIATAN EKONOMI DAERAH.


Development Administration chapter 6 (UNPAS 2012)

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Development Administration chapter 6 (UNPAS 2012)