1. Female Genital Mutilation
Female Genital MutilationThe World Health Organization provide definition of female
genital mutilation (FGM) as every procedure that involves either partial or total elimination
of the external genitalia of a female individual, or any other injury to the genital organs of a
female without any medical grounds. Female genital cutting and female circumcision are
other alternative terms used in place of FGM. Typically the procedure is carried out on girls
between a few days old and puberty. It may be carried out in a hospital but mostly it is done
by a traditional circumciser with the use of a knife, scissors or razors and without
anesthesia. FGM is considered to be practiced in more than 25 countries in various regions
in Africa and in some parts of the Middle East. There are some immigrant communities in
continents like Europe, Australia, and North America. Worldwide, the estimate of women
and girls who have experienced the procedure is documented by the WHO to be between
100 and 140 million with 92 million being from Africa . Of the four classifications offered by
the WHO, type I, type II and type III are the three main ones.The three main types of
FGMType I applies when the clitoral hood is removed which mostly translates to the clitoris
itself being removed. Type II applies when the inner labia and the clitoris are removed. Type
III applies when part or the whole inner and outer libia are removed and sometimes the
clitoris as well as the fusion of the wound. In this case, a small hole is left allowing urine to
be passed and the menstrual blood. During intercourse and child birth the fusion gets
opened. Approximately 85 percent of women who have undergone female genital cutting
experience the first two types and the other percentage experience type III although the
most common procedure in a number of countries such as Somalia, Djibouti and Sudan is
type III. There are a number of miscellaneous activities ranging from symbolic piercing of
the labia and clitoris to cutting into the genital organs o a female fall into type IV.Female
genital mutilation and male genital mutilationAs a result of female genital mutilation sexual
feelings may get to be reduced or permanently terminated in the victim. A lot of pain is
experienced during sexual intercourse and in addition, a caesarian section is the most
recommendable method of childbirth. For millennia North Africa has held FGM as a social
custom. FGM is thought by many to be associated with the Islam religion and culture. In the
actual sense though, animists, Christians and Islamists all experience FGM in their religions.
However, a number of Muslim nations also embrace the practice such as Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia, and Iraq. Despite Indonesia having FGM as a universal procedure, it is performed in
the nation in a minimally invasive manner.Similarly two male circumcisions, the female
procedure functions under two rituals. In Africa mostly, it is considered as a ritual or a
2. customary practice as well as in some Islamic societies too. Victorian doctors, though,
rationalize the practice in the same way they rationalize male genital mutilation . It is
interesting that despite the similarities that the two genital mutilation procedures practice,
FGM is found to be more of a cruel abomination, more prioritized and causing a lot of
interest to the international community. This might be majorly attributed to the numerous
negative impacts arising from the practices on female individuals.A tolerant attitude is
placed on male circumcision as well as a common western society belief that the exercise
sexually disables the victim and is not beneficial health wise to the victim. The severity
experienced in FGM depends on the type of circumcision performed. It has been proven that
the most extreme forms of FGM are not common and that the impacts on the victim after
healing tend to be more severe and prevalent in women and girls than in men and boys. The
male circumcision is considered safer and more beneficial compared to its counterpart
since it is less risky, with fewer effects and providing medical precautions such as reducing
contraction of HIV/ AIDS. In male circumcision, the damage to the penis is determined by
the amount of tissue excised. Since MGM also causes some concerns concerning procedure
going bad, hygiene not being observed and long-term complications in delivery and sexual
interaction matters, FGM is prioritized as a gender. All the same, this is no reason why male
circumcision should be embraced while at the same time female circumcision is
encouraged. Even if one circumcision gender does not get much affected, the other offers
enough concern to probe a query into its potential benefits weighed against the cons. some
continents such as the united states of America excuse and consider male circumcision to be
bearable compared to female circumcision.There is hope concerning female circumcision as
in the previous year, an estimate of 2000 communities did away with FGM. Calculating the
number in the last several years, approximately 8,000 communities have been reported to
renounce FGM . From these encouraging findings, we can see that social norm and cultural
practices that were previously misguided are now changing and rights of the female gender
are being protected. More than 13 countries are placed in an initiative by the United Nations
organizations to make aware the limitations of FGM and among them are Sudan, Somalia,
Uganda, Kenya, Egypt and Burkina Faso.Female genital mutilation in AfricaThe communities
that practice this procedure in Africa value it as a very important ritual that marks the
transition of a woman from childhood to adulthood. FGM in these communities is
considered to represent part of the rite of passage purposed to improve the skills and
information of the woman in order for her to be able to carry out her wifely and motherly
duties. In a conventional way, it will be seen that FGM functions to ultimately reduce the
sexual desire of a woman and ensure that she maintains her virginity until she gets married.
It is important to note that studies have shown that extreme forms of FGM not only affect
the woman but the man also gets difficulty and pain during intercourse. There are those
communities in Africa who consider FGM a religious activity especially Muslims. The female
genitalia may be considered ugly, dirty, or offensive therefore presenting a woman who has
undergone the procedure to be aesthetically pleasing and more hygienic. There are also
some misguided notions that FGM increases the fertility of a woman as well as increasing
the chances of her children surviving. Such a notion might be termed as misguided since a
majority of women who have undergone FGM get to do a caesarian section during delivery
3. because of the limitations that the exercise places on an expectant woman.The widespread
belief in the benefits of FGM can be blamed on every member of the community. The
families of women and girls undergoing the procedure support it since their girls get to be
marriageable especially regarding them having ready suitors and satisfactory bride prices
offered. These communities have men who have been bred to believe that a woman that has
not undergone the procedure is not worth marrying therefore in order to gain social and
cultural acceptance the women are forced to agree to the practice and procedure. The
women should also not be eliminated from the involvement list as they arrange for and
perform FGM on their children and relatives. In Africa, the mother and the grandmother get
to arrange the procedure while the professional circumciser waits to perform the surgery. A
woman who has failed to undergo the cut is informed that there is no place for her in the
society, is sanctioned and the other women and girls who are circumcised are required not
to associate with her.Taking a particular example of discrimination against an
uncircumcised woman is the Kenyan politician, Linah Kilimo, who faced opposition earlier
in her career regarding the fact that she was uncircumcised therefore unfit for public office .
Times have changed and today she holds a ministerial position in the government. At least
globalization has proved some cultures to be outdated and promoted of maintenance of
women’ s rights which include the right to make decisions regarding matters impacting on
their well-being.FGM and its potential impacts on healthIt is so saddening that the
consequences of FGM in a majority of cases are long-term. The impacts arising from the
practice are attributed to the poor lifestyle of the practicing communities therefore lacking
modern health facilities. In many cases of medical emergencies arising from FGM, death is
the most common end result. Determination of the number of women who have died from
FGM-related complications is not easy since the practice is always highly guarded. Three
factors are considered to determine the magnitude and occurrence of health complications
in a woman or girl.Types II and III are reported to give rise to a majority of severe health
complications. In a number of studies, reduced elasticity of the vagina in type I FGM was
associated with complications during childbirth. The tiny tears that form on the vagina due
to reduced elasticity form more scar tissue and compromise the elasticity of the vagina even
further. With each subsequent birth, more pain, and longer time is experienced. The woman
is predisposed to infection by the tears and her ability to get satisfaction sexually is
undermined due to the ever loosening property caused by the tearing.Another thing is the
sanitary conditions under which the exercise is carried out. Also the competence of the
person performing the procedure should be taken into account. Many circumcisers are
professionals who have performed similar procedures over the years. However, they tend
to use rudimentary tools as well as sanitary conditions. Since there are specific types of
instruments that tradition dictates be used, innovation, or adoption of new and suitable
instruments is not allowed . The ceremony in a number of communities gets to be
performed once a year and the girls who are eligible get to be cut on the same day, with the
use of the same instrument therefore increasing chances of infection as well as risk of
exposure to HIV/AID as the instruments do not get to be sterilized.FGM is carried out very
secretly hence posing a great threat to the girl’ s and women’ s health. Outsiders are pot
allowed any contact with the girls and women immediately before, during and after the
4. procedure are done. These girls and women therefore have limited access to medical aid
should the need for one arise during or after the cut. Type III FGM is even worse as it has a
40-day isolation which means that in case of an infection, the victim would more likely die
before she gets proper medical care. Carrying out the procedure in a hospital with proper
sanitary conditions and by a qualified medical professional reduces the risk of infection but
it doesn’ t eliminate the long-term consequences that are expected after the procedure.
Post-operative shock, bleeding, infections, damage to other organs and the retention of
urine usually resulting when the wound swell or inflames, are examples of immediate
physical complications that may arise. Long-term consequences may include chronic
infections specific to the bladder and vagina, very painful menstruation, cysts forming on
the stitch line, difficulty in child birth, and the risk of contracting HIV/AIDS . There are also
psychological complications such as extreme trauma to a point of which they can be linked
with genitals pain. The trauma may also include fear of possible death during delivery. Also,
sexual intercourse becomes an inconceivable idea for many of them.International response
to the practiceGradually, this practice is being identified as a harmful tradition and one that
violates girls’ and women’ s’ rights. Efforts to eradicate this custom are increasing
globally with many countries formulating legislations against it and several international
organizations prioritizing the elimination of FGM. A certain date, February 8, has even been
set aside as an international day creating awareness on the zero tolerance on female genital
mutilation .ConclusionFemale genital mutilation is a practice that has been carried out for
many years especially in Africa and the Muslim nations. However, the negative effects
associated with the procedure have led to the intervention by governments and the
international community. A lot of effort is being put in the fight against this custom which
poses health threats to the candidates, psychological trauma, and extreme pain during and
after the procedure.Bibliography:Kouba, Joseph & Muasher, John. “ Female Circumcision in
Africa: An Overview” . African Studies Review 28 (1985): 95–110.Nussbaum, Martha
Craven. Judging Other Cultures: The Case of Genital Mutilation: Sex and Social Justice.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 119– 20.Shell-Duncan, Bettina and Hernlund,
Ylva. Female “ Circumcision” in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change (Directions in
Applied Anthropology: Adaptations & Innovations). Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers,
2001.Shell-Duncan, Bettina and Hernlund, Ylva. Transcultural Bodies: Female Genital
Cutting in Global Context. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2007.World Health
Organization. “ Female Genital Mutilation” , 2012, accessed February 17, 2012 from
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/index.html
