Running head CANCER .docx

Running head: CANCER
1
CANCER
2
Cancer
Amy L Joyner
Liberty University
Abstract
Cancer is a group of related diseases. It starts by continuously
division without stopping of cells. The dividing cells then
spread to other tissues that are nearby. Cancer can begin
anywhere in the body of humans. The cells of humans always
divide and grow to form new ones since the body is in need of
them. This paper has the aim of giving a description of cancer,
current statistics with regard to this problem, symptoms of
cancer, its causes, its intervention or treatment, and biblical
perspective of cancer.
Description of Cancer
Cancer is a name that has been assigned to a group of related
diseases. In all the types of cancer that have been discovered,
the cells of the body start to divide continuously without
stopping. The dividing cells then spread to other tissues that are
nearby. Usually, cancer begins anywhere in the body of human
being, and this is composed of trillions of cells. The cells of
human always divide and grow to form new ones since the body
is in need of them. Cells usually die while new ones take the
place of the ones that die or get damaged (De Pauw, 2008).
However, the development of cancer interferes with this orderly

process. This is by cells becoming more abnormal. The cells
that are damaged survive instead of dying. Also, the new cells
begin to be formed even when they are not required (Appendix
1). The extra cells formed even when not required may continue
with the process of division without stopping, hence causing
growth referred to as a tumor. The solid tumor may result from
many cancers, and it is a mass of tissues. But there are cancers
that do not form a solid tumor. This is cancer of the blood, such
as leukemia (De Pauw, 2008).
Cancerous tumors are malevolent. This means that they spread
or invade tissues that are nearby. Moreover, with the continuous
growth of the tumor, some cells may break off and move to
others parts of the body far from the original tumor to form a
new tumor (Bojesen et al., 2013). The cells that break off may
move through the lymph or blood system. Apart from the
malevolent or malignant tumor, there is a benign tumor. The
benign tumor does not spread or invade tissues that are nearby.
There are times that this form of the tumor may be a bit large
(Bojesen et al., 2013). The good thing with this tumor is that it
does not grow back when removed. A malignant tumor has a
tendency of growing back. One type of benign tumor that is
threatening is the benign brain tumor (Bojesen et al., 2013).
Cancer can be classified into many types. There are
approximately more than one hundred types of cancer. The
names given to cancers are as a result of the parts of the body
where they form. For instance, brain cancer begins from the
brain cells while lung cancer begins from lung cells. Cancer
may also be named from the type of cell that form it, such as
squamous cell and epithelial cell (Kipps, 2008). Below are some
examples of cancer:
· Carcinoma – is a common form of cancer and is formed by the
epithelial cells. Epithelial cells are cells that cover outside and
inside surfaces of the body.

· Sarcoma – it a type of cancer that emerges from bone and soft
tissues, such as fibrous tissue (ligaments and tendons), lymph
vessels, blood vessels, fat, and muscle (Appendix 2).
· Leukemia – this cancer starts in the blood-forming tissue if
the bone marrow. It does not cause tumors that are solid (Kipps,
2008).
· Lymphoma – this cancer starts in lymphocytes, that is, B cells
and T cells. These cells are disease-fighting cells, and they are
part and parcel of the immune system.
· Multiple myelomas – this is plasmas cell cancer. A plasma cell
is another form of the immune cell.
· Melanoma – is cancer that starts in cells, which turn to
melanocyte. These are specialized cells with the role of making
melanin.
· Spinal cord and brain tumor – they and of many types, though
they are given the name based on the type of cell they form
(Kipps, 2008).
This paper has the aim of giving a description of cancer, current
statistics with regard to this problem, symptoms of cancer, its
causes, its intervention or treatment, and biblical perspective of
cancer.
Current Statistics of Cancer
By 1st January 2014, there were was about 14.5 million people
living in America with the history of cancer (Eheman, 2014).
Among these individuals, there were those who were diagnosed
recently and they are in the process of treatment. And, others
were diagnosed in the past and are not having evidence of
cancer (Eheman, 2014).

In the year 2016, it is expected that approximately 1,685,210
new cases of cancer will be determined (Appendix 3). 595,690
people in America are expected to die of cancer by the end of
the year 2016 (Ward et al., 2015). This is equivalent to
approximately 1,630 people in a day. Out of the cause of death
in the United States, cancer is ranked the second cause of death
in the country. Heart disease is ranked number one. 1 of every 4
deaths that occur each and every day, one is as a result of
cancer (Ward et al., 2015).
The progress against cancer can be evident from the trends in
cancer death rates. In the 20th century, the death rates as a
result of cancer went up. This is as a result of the epidemic of
tobacco. The peak in death rates was seen in the year 1991 with
215 deaths from cancer per 100 patients. However, there was a
drop in the death rate by 23 percent due to a reduction in
smoking. Also, the improvement made in early detection and
treatment also causes a reduction in the cancer death cases. The
death rates went down for the most common types of cancer,
that is, prostate, breast, colorectal, and lung cancer (Welch &
Albertsen, 2009).
Most cases of cancer are evident in the elderly people. 86
percent of cancer in America is diagnosed in people aged 50
years and above. The risk associated with cancer is also
increased by some behaviors, such as not being physically
active, eating an unhealthy diet, and smoking among others. The
term lifetime risk is usually used when it comes to cancer to
refer to those who will develop or die from cancer during their
lifetime. The lifetime risk of developing cancer in the United
States is 42 percent in men. This translates to one in two men.
While in the female, the lifetime risk is 38 percent meaning 1 in
3 females (Siegel, Miller, & Jemal, 2015).
There is survival rate for cancer. Out of the five-year relative
survival rate for people who are diagnosed with cancer, the rate
was 49 percent during 1975-1977 and 69 percent for 2005-2011

(Siegel, Miller, & Jemal, 2015). The improvement in the
survival rate is as a result of the early determination of cancer
and treatment improvement. However, the statistics related to
survival rate also differs with regards to the form of cancer and
diagnosis stage (Siegel, Miller, & Jemal, 2015).
Symptoms of cancer
The symptoms of cancer vary. There those that can be felt or
seen through the skin, such as a lump on testicle or breast. Skin
cancer/melanoma is evident through a change in mole or warts
on the skin. White spots on the tongue or patches in the mouth
are a sign of oral cancer (Hallek, et. al, 2008).
There others without physical symptoms, such brain tumor. But
this can be determined through some effects on crucial
cognitive functions. The symptom of pancreas cancer is a pain
in the pancreatic region due to tumor pushing against nerves
that are nearby. There is also yellowing of eyes and skin
(jaundice) due to interference with the functions of the
pancreas. Change in stool size, diarrhea, and constipation are
among the symptoms of colon cancer (Hallek et al., 2008).
Prostate or bladder cancer interferes with the function of the
bladder through infrequent urination or frequent urination.
Cancer cells interfere with the functioning of hormones and use
the energy of the body. Therefore, it is possible to have the
following symptoms: unexplained weight loss, anemia,
excessive sweating, fatigue, fever, coughing, hoarseness, and
swollen lymph nodes (Appendix 5) (Hallek et al., 2008).
Cause of the Cancer
Cancer results from the uncontrollable growth of cells that do
not die. The programmed death of cells is termed as apoptosis.
So, when this process does not take place, cancer starts to form.
A cancer cell is different from the regular cell since it does not
have programmed death. Due to this, it continues to divide and

grow (Heidenreich, et al., 2014).
The first cause of cancer is related to genes (the DNA type).
Mutations to DNA may cause the uncontrollable growth of cells.
This will alter the genes that are responsible for cell division.
There are four types of genes that perform cell division. These
are oncogene (informs when to start division), tumor suppressor
genes (tells when to stop division), suicide gene (notifies a cell
to kill itself and also controls apoptosis), and DNA-repair gene
(gives instruction to a cell to repair DNA that is damaged)
(Heidenreich, et al, 2014).
Carcinogens also cause cancer. Carcinogens are substances that
damage DNA, hence aiding or promoting cancer. The examples
of carcinogens are compounds in vehicles exhaust fumes, the
sun, radiation (x-rays and gamma rays), arsenic, asbestos, and
tobacco. Exposure to carcinogens leads to the formation of free
radicals that always attempt to steal free radicals from the
body's molecules. The free radicals affect the ability of cells to
function normally through damaging them (Heidenreich et al.,
2014).
Family type genes are linked to the cause of cancer. Cancer can
result from genetic predisposition. The genetic predisposition
may be inherited from a member of the family. There is the
possibility of one being born with a certain fault in genes or
genetic mutations. This greatly increases the probability of
developing cancer later on in life (Heidenreich et al., 2014).
As people are aging, there is the probability of occurrence of
cancer-causing mutations in the DNA. Therefore, age becomes
an important factor in cancer. There are also some viruses that
are believed to have a connection to cancer. Some of these
viruses are Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Epstein-Barr
virus (a cause of some childhood cancers), hepatitis C and B
(causes of liver cancer), and human papillomavirus (a cause of
cervical cancer) among others. Anything that negatively affects

the immune system, such as through suppressing or weakening
it can be linked to cancer. This is because it inhibits the body
from being able to fight various infections, hence raising the
changes related to the development of cancer (Siegel, Miller, &
Jemal, 2015).
Treatment of Cancer
The treatment for cancer differs according to the type of
cancer, health status, age, the stage of cancer, and personal
characteristics. No single treatment can be linked to cancer.
Usually, patients are given a combination of palliative care and
therapies. Treatment for cancer falls into the following
categories:
Surgery
This is the oldest known form of treatment for cancer.
Surgically removing cancer has been used for a long time to
cure cancer completely. This method works appropriately if
cancer has not metastasized. This is evident in the removal of
the breast and prostate cancer (Welch & Albertsen, 2009).
However, after the disease has spread, it becomes difficult to
control it through this procedure. Surgery has become important
when it comes to assisting in controlling symptoms, such as
spinal cord compression or bowel obstruction (Welch &
Albertsen, 2009).
Innovations that are continuing to take place help in the surgical
process. A good example of innovation in this particular are the
iKnife, which sniffs out cancer. Today, surgeons also take out a
certain amount of healthy tissue when they are removing the
tumor. The aim of doing this is to ensure that there are no
malevolent/malignant cells left after removal of the tumor. This

will call for ensuring a patient is kept under general anesthetic
for additional 30 minutes while the samples of the tissue are
tested for clear margins in the lab. The surgeon will have to
continue again removing more tissues if there are no clear
margins found. According to the scientists from the Imperial
College of London, the use of iKnife will not call for a surgeon
to send the samples to the lab for testing (Welch & Albertsen,
2009).
A study that was performed in the year 2014 at the Washington
University School came up with a method of visualizing cancer
cells through the use of high-tech glasses (Welch & Black,
2010). This was developed to make it very easy for surgeons to
differentiate between healthy and cancerous tissues. While
viewing the cells under the glass, the cancer cells were seen to
be glowing blue under a special light. This is made possible
through a fluorescent marker, which is injected in the areas
believed to be affected. The marker will attach only to
cancerous cells and not healthy cells. Additionally, if the shades
of blue are lighter, then there is more concentration of cancer
cells (Welch & Albertsen, 2009).
"Promising results of a small early trial at Duke University
Medical Center in Durham, NC have suggested a new injectable
agent that makes cancer cells in a tumor fluoresce, could help
surgeons remove all of the cancerous tissue on the first attempt.
Tests continue to be carried out" (Schuhmacher et al., 2010, p.
510).
Radiation
Another name for radiation treatment is radiotherapy. This form
of intervention destroys cancer through directing high-energy
rays on the cancer cells. This damages the molecules that make
up these cancer cells. The damage makes the cells commit
suicide. Radiotherapy makes use of high-energy gamma rays.
These rays are produced from metals, such as high-energy x-

rays or radium, which are created in a special machine (Kipps,
2008). There are severe side-effects created by early radiation.
This is due to damaging of healthy and normal tissues by energy
beams. However, improvements in technologies have minimized
the side-effects through accurately targeting the beams. This
form of treatment is utilized as a standalone therapy without
combinations of other forms of treatment. It destroys cancer
cells and shrink tumors. This also applies to those of leukemia
and lymphoma (Kipps, 2008). But there are times that
radiotherapy is used with other forms of treatment.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy makes use of chemicals. These chemicals disrupt
the procedure of cell division and damaging DNA or proteins.
This will enhance committing suicide by cancer cells.
Chemotherapy will target any cell that is dividing rapidly (not
only the cancer cells). However, regular cells can recover even
after being attacked after being damaged by the chemicals
(Kipps, 2008). On the other hand, cancer cells will not be able
to recover. Chemotherapy has been used in the treatment of
metastasized cancer or cancer that has spread. This is because
the chemicals administered travels to the whole body. It is the
important treatment with regards to the treatment of lymphoma
and leukemia. The treatment is administered in cycles so as to
give the body a chance to heal after the doses. This form of
cancer treatment has many side effects, such as vomiting, hair
loss, fatigue, and nausea. Combinations of therapies are usually
given in this form of treatment. Among them is chemotherapy
that is combined with other options of treatment and multiple
types of chemotherapies (Kipps, 2008).
Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy has the intention enabling the immune system

of the body fight tumor. Injection of treatment into an affected
area is the common form of local immunotherapy, for instance,
to bring about inflammation, which makes a tumor shrink
(Hallek et al., 2008). The whole body can also be treated
through systematic immunotherapy treatment. This entails
administering an agent like the protein interferon alpha. This
also helps to shrink tumors. Immunotherapy has also been
known to be non-specific through improving the fighting
abilities of cancer possible through stimulation of the whole
immune system. Additionally, it can be considered to be
targeted. This is where the treatment plan tells the exact
immune system required to destroy cancer cells. These forms of
therapies are a bit young, although researchers have seen
success when it comes to treatments, which calls for the
introduction of antibodies in the body (Hallek et al., 2008). The
introduced antibodies are meant to hold back the growth of
breast cancer. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation
commonly termed bone marrow transplantation is considered to
be immunotherapy since the immune cells of the donor will
attack cancer or tumor cells, which are present in the body of
the host (Hallek et al., 2008).
Hormone therapy
Most cancers are linked to certain types of hormones. Good
examples are prostate and breast cancer. So, hormone therapies
are developed with the aim of altering the production of
hormones in the body so that cancer cells are killed completely
or stop growing. The hormone therapy for prostate cancer
focuses on bringing down the levels of testosterone while
hormone therapy for breast cancer tries to reduce the levels of
estrogen. There are also other cases of lymphoma and leukemia
that can be treated with hormone cortisone (Hallek et al., 2008).
Gene therapy

The aim of performing gene therapy is to do away with genes
that are damaged and in their place add new ones that work so
as to address the cause of the problem. For instance, researchers
are in the process of trying to do away with damaged genes,
which tell cells to stop dividing, that is, the p53 gene, and in its
place putting a gene that works correctly. Other therapies that
are gene-based direct much attention on destroying cancer cells
DNA until that point where the cells will commit suicide. This
field of therapy is a young one, though it has produced positive
treatment in treating cancer (Holick et al., 2008).
Mind-body intervention
This is administered by mind-body intervention specialists. The
practices provided by this intervention are meditation and yoga.
These are meant to complement cancer treatments being
administered to patients. They impact the quality of life for
patients positively together with their families. Through this
process, patients are helped to relax and also enjoy mindfulness.
Mindfulness entails the present moment. It does not involve
judgment together with realizing one’s potential for kindness
and love. Cancer is known to affect people in some ways. These
patients are affected by the disease itself; treatment plans
together with its side effects, such as fatigue. While facing the
stress attributed to cancer, they also have to manage other
aspects of their lives and work (Holick et al., 2008). Yoga
among the mind-body practices gives a person the opportunity
to readily accept their situation. It also makes it possible for
one to face the facts and be in control of the entire situation.
One also gets a chance to benefit from physical benefits that are
very great. Research that was recently carried out managed to
prove that mind-body practices, benefits patients in the
following ways: help patients to manage and cope with stress,

improve sleep, reduce the side effects associated with treatment
(such as cognitive dysfunction and fatigue), and enhances the
quality of life and physical well-being (Holick et al., 2008).
Behavioral intervention
Behavioral intervention, when combined with other forms of
treatment, plays a significant role in enhancing recovery process
of a patient. Increasingly aggressive methods have been used in
the treatment of cancer. These treatment methods have called
for the need of an effective method for managing the side-
effects of the aggressive treatment methods. Some of the side-
effects that can be managed by the behavioral intervention are
nausea and pain among other side-effects that are aversive.
Behavioral treatment works through controlling anticipatory
vomiting and nausea. This has been evident both in pediatric
and adult cancer patients, especially those who are in the
process of chemotherapy (Holick et al., 2008). The behavioral
methods integrated by this form of treatment assists when it
comes to ameliorating distress and anxiety associated with
cancer and its treatment. Among the behavioral treatments is
hypnotic –like method. The hypnotic –like method entails
distracting imagery, suggestion, and relaxation provides the
greatest promise when it comes to the management of pain
(Holick et al., 2008).
Biblical Perspective of Cancer
Being diagnosed with cancer is a life-changing event.
Sympathy, sadness, and sorrow are some of the responses that
come to a person. Helplessness and uncertainty are some of the
emotional impacts that may dominate a person. There are other
people that may give up in resignation. But that is not the end
of life. The bible tries to encourage those who have been
diagnosed with cancer not to give up with life. According to the
Bible, if a person has cancer, God has not forgotten the person

or the family members. A person who has cancer should know
that the love of God lasts forever. According to the Isaiah
41:10, God states that “…no person should have fear because I
am with you, you should also not be dismayed since I am your
God: I will give you strength, I will assist you, I will also
support you in all situations with my victorious right hand…”
(De Pauw, 2008).
Homework assignments
Many cancer patients only rely on pharmacological intervention.
Those who are diagnosed with cancer should consider other
intervention or they should combine pharmacological
intervention and non-pharmacological interventions. One should
inquire from professionals about things like physical activities,
yoga, and meditation among others. Those who feel hopeless
and helpless should also try to talk to someone, such as a church
leader.
References
Bojesen, S. E., Pooley, K. A., Johnatty, S. E., Beesley, J.,
Michailidou, K., Tyrer, J. P., ... &
Hillman, K. M. (2013). Multiple independent variants at the
TERT locus are associated with telomere length and risks of
breast and ovarian cancer. Nature genetics, 45(4), 371-384.
De Pauw, B., Walsh, T. J., Donnelly, J. P., Stevens, D. A.,
Edwards, J. E., Calandra, T., ... &
Denning, D. W. (2008). Revised definitions of invasive fungal
disease from the European organization for research and
treatment of cancer/invasive fungal infections cooperative
group and the national institute of allergy and infectious
diseases mycoses study group (EORTC/MSG) consensus group.
Clinical Infectious Diseases, 46(12), 1813-1821.
Edwards, B. K., Noone, A. M., Mariotto, A. B., Simard, E. P.,
Boscoe, F. P., Henley, S. J., ... &

Eheman, C. R. (2014). Annual Report to the Nation on the
status of cancer, 1975‐2010, featuring prevalence of
comorbidity and impact on survival among persons with lung,
colorectal, breast, or prostate cancer. Cancer, 120(9), 1290-
1314.
Hallek, M., Cheson, B. D., Catovsky, D., Caligaris-Cappio, F.,
Dighiero, G., Döhner, H., ... &
Kipps, T. J. (2008). Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment
of chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a report from the
International Workshop on Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
updating the National Cancer Institute–Working Group 1996
guidelines. Blood, 111(12), 5446-5456.
Heidenreich, A., Bastian, P. J., Bellmunt, J., Bolla, M., Joniau,
S., van der Kwast, T., ... &
Mottet, N. (2014). EAU guidelines on prostate cancer. Part 1:
screening, diagnosis, and local treatment with curative intent—
update 2013. European urology, 65(1), 124-137.
Holick, C. N., Newcomb, P. A., Trentham-Dietz, A., Titus-
Ernstoff, L., Bersch, A. J., Stampfer,
M. J., ... & Willett, W. C. (2008). Physical activity and survival
after diagnosis of invasive breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiology
Biomarkers & Prevention, 17(2), 379-386.
Schuhmacher, C., Gretschel, S., Lordick, F., Reichardt, P.,
Hohenberger, W., Eisenberger, C. F.,
... & Ott, K. (2010). Neoadjuvant chemotherapy compared with
surgery alone for locally advanced cancer of the stomach and
cardia: European Organisation for Research and Treatment of
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Siegel, R. L., Miller, K. D., & Jemal, A. (2015). Cancer
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clinicians, 65(1), 5-29.
Ward, E. M., DeSantis, C. E., Lin, C. C., Kramer, J. L., Jemal,
A., Kohler, B., ... & Gansler, T.
(2015). Cancer statistics: breast cancer in situ. CA: a cancer
journal for clinicians, 65(6), 481-495.
Welch, H. G., & Albertsen, P. C. (2009). Prostate cancer
diagnosis and treatment after the
introduction of prostate-specific antigen screening: 1986–2005.
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Institute, 102(9), 605-613.
Appendices
Appendix 1
Normal cells may become cancer cells. Before cancer cells form
in tissues of the body, the cells go through abnormal changes
called hyperplasia and dysplasia. In hyperplasia, there is an
increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue that appear
normal under a microscope. In dysplasia, the cells look
abnormal under a microscope but are not cancer. Hyperplasia
and dysplasia may or may not become cancer.
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Estimated Number* of New Cancer Cases and Deaths by Sex,
US, 2016

Estimated New Cases
Estimated Deaths
All sites
Both sexes
Male
Female
Both sexes
Male
Female
1,685,210
841,390
843,820
595,690
314,290
281,400
Appendix 4
Individual types of cancer
· Anal cancer
· Bladder cancer
· Bone cancer
· Breast cancer
· Cervical cancer
· Colon cancer
· Colorectal cancer
· Endometrial cancer
· Kidney cancer
· Leukemia
· Liver cancer
· Lymphoma
· Ovarian cancer
· Pancreatic cancer
· Prostate cancer
· Stomach cancer

· Testicular cancer
· Thyroid cancer
· Vaginal cancer
· Vulvar cancer
Appendix 5
Soft tissue sarcoma forms in soft tissues of the body, including
muscle, tendons, fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, and
tissue around joints.

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