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1. Unit 7.1-How Language Has
Changed

2. Key Terms for this topic
• Graphology: the writing system of a language, as well as other visual elements on the
page.
• Grammar: the rules for organising meaning in a language. The syntax is part of grammar.
• Orthography: the part of language concerned with letters and spelling.
• Phonology: the pronunciation and sound patterns which affect the understanding of
words.
• Pragmatics: how the context in which words and phrases are used affects their meaning.
• Morphology: the structure of words with their meaning.
• Lexis: the lexis of a language.
• Semantics: the meaning of words.
• Syntax: the order of words in a sentence.

3. Origins of English
English evolved from the Indo-European family of languages, with roots
in the Celtic language. Different forms of Celtic existed, including
Goidelic (the root of Irish and Scots Gaelic) and Brythonic (the root of
Welsh, Cornish and Breton). These local forms of Celtic were widely
spoken in Europe and Britain.

4. History of the English Language
Timelines

6. Old English (5th-11th century)
• English was originally a group of West-Germanic dialects (or ‘Anglo-Frisian’)
spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, who had invaded Britain in around 5AD. Their
language (‘Old English’) is the earliest form of the language we call English today.
• Literature was written during this period, including the well-known poems
‘Beowulf’ (a story of a monster-slaying hero) and the Exeter Book (a collection of
riddles).
• Features of Old English include the use of grammatical gender (masculine,
feminine, and neuter genders) and the use of four cases (nominative, genitive,
dative, and accusative.). There were also a lot more inflectional endings,
meaning that word order was much freer.

8. Middle English (ca. 11th-15th century)
• In 1066, Britain was invaded by the Normans, leading to the era of Early Middle
English.
• During this time, English was briefly replaced by Anglo-Norman French, used
mostly by the upper classes. Regional varieties of English were still used by
common people. Due to the occupation of the Anglo-Normans and the use of
French in writing, not much Early Middle English literature has survived.
• Many of the Old English grammatical features were lost or simplified. The use of
French led to the loss of Old English grammatical features, causing syntax to
become more complex and word order to become more important. Early Middle
English also adopted plenty of Anglo-Norman French vocabulary, particularly in
areas such as the church, law, politics, and the arts (ie. the areas occupied mainly
by the upper-class population).

9. Early Modern English (ca. 15th-18th century)
• The 15th century marks the beginning of Early Modern English. A key event during this
time was the Great Vowel Shift, an event true to its name. Over the course of around
300 years, the pronunciation of long vowels shifted ‘upwards’ to a shorter version of the
vowel (either raised vowels or diphthongs).
• The push for standardisation continued during this time, particularly in the spelling
system. The London-based dialect was seen as the standard, which led to the recognition
of other ‘accents’ and ‘dialects’ (new terms acquired to describe regional variations). The
use of the printing press was a way of establishing spelling conventions (ie. the ‘correct’
way of spelling words). The first English dictionary, called ‘A Table Alphabeticall’ was
released in 1604 and, not soon after, the King James Bible was published, in 1611.
However, standardisation was still a work in progress, so there were still
many inconsistencies in spelling during this time.
• The Early Modern English period was also the time of William Shakespeare (1564-1616),
who is regarded as the greatest writer in the history of English. Shakespeare introduced
over 1,700 words to the English language, including the words ‘lonely’, ‘fashionable’, and
‘swagger.

10. The Great Vowel Shift (explored)
The Great Vowel Shift was a period of significant change in the pronunciation of
English vowels, particularly long vowels, which took place over approximately 200
years towards the end of the Middle English era. This process was complex,
occurring at different rates in different regions, and is reflected in evidence from
spelling and rhymes of the period. The changes in pronunciation are partially
explained by the standardization of spellings during the same time period. The
Great Vowel Shift has been attributed to various factors, including the migration of
people to the south-east of England during the Black Death, as well as a desire to
differentiate from the ruling classes who spoke with a French accent. Today, vowel
shifts in English are still ongoing in various forms of world Englishes. The
publication of influential books such as William Tyndale's translation, the
Authorised King James Version of the Bible, and the works of William Shakespeare
introduced many new words and idioms into English, contributing to its prestige as
a language.

11. Late modern English (ca. 18th-Present)
• The Late Modern English period was characterized by the rise of the British
Empire and the industrial revolution. Although the core aspects of Modern
English pronunciation, grammar, and spelling remained stable, a significant influx
of new vocabulary was introduced due to the innovations of the industrial
revolution and the need to name new inventions. English became the lingua
franca of science and technology with many scientific publications being written
in English.
• Colonialism and the growth of the British Empire in the 16th century meant
that English was adopted in regions across the world, including North America,
Australia, New Zealand, India (and surrounding areas), and Africa.
• Many countries in these areas have developed their own dialects of English over
the years, which are now recognised as their own varieties and called ‘New
Englishes’. Examples of ‘New Englishes’ include American English, Indian English,
Caribbean English, and Singaporean English (sometimes called ‘Singlish’).
• In recent years, American culture and American English have gained increasing
influence worldwide, facilitated by the distribution of American corporations,
entertainment, and consumer products globally.

12. Key Points
• The History of English Language - Key takeaways
• The English language belongs to the Indo-European language family and
originated as a West-Germanic dialect.
• Old English (5th-11th century) was brought to Britain by the Anglo-Saxons in 5AD
Britain and was very different to what we know today.
• The Middle English period (11th-15th century) began when the Normans invaded
Britain in 1066 bringing Anglo-Norman French. During this period there was a
push for standardisation and the printing press was established.
• The Early Modern English period (15th-18th century) saw the Great Vowel
Shift and was the time of William Shakespeare.
• The Late Modern English period (18th-Present) saw the Industrial
Revolution and the rise of the British Empire. There has also been the influence
of American culture and English has become one of the most widely spoken
languages in the world.

13. Language change is a natural and dynamic process that reflects the
evolution of a language over time. It results in alterations in
pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and usage, and is characterized by
a shift from one generation to the next. The rate of change may vary
depending on the attitudes and values of the language users.
For instance, when speakers of a language have a strong preference for
stability and tradition, the changes are likely to be slow and gradual.
Conversely, when they are open to innovation and willing to embrace
new and unfamiliar linguistic elements, the rate of change may be
faster. A good example of language change is the introduction of new
words (neologisms) and the discontinuation of old ones.

14. With over 1.35 billion speakers, English has become one of the most widely spoken
languages in the world. Today’s version of English is very different from the Old
English spoken by our ancestors. English is still evolving and will continue to adapt
to the linguistic needs of its speakers. The recent development of technology and
text speak (e.g. ‘thank u, c u l8r’) is a prime example of this.
So what does the future hold for the English language? Well, according to linguist
David Crystal, English is one of the most 'desirable Lingua Franca[s]' worldwide
(Crystal 1999). It exists in many different varieties, from British English to Indian
English to Singaporean English, and we expect to see these varieties develop even
further as time goes on.