Falls from height constitute 56% of reported accidents in construction, underscoring the critical need for risk assessment and safety measures. A range of fall hazards exists at construction sites, necessitating the use of personal fall protection systems, scaffold safety, and employee training to mitigate risks. Proper scaffold design, inspection, and adherence to safety protocols are vital for preventing accidents and ensuring worker safety.

1. Work at Height

2. Work at height
• Fall from height: (i) Material Fall (ii) Fall of person
• 56% of accidents are reported due to fall from height and highest
percentage of accidents in construction.
• It is most common activities in construction.
• Negligence and leniency are one of major causes of accidents.
• Competency in this areas is limited.

3. Definitions
• Fall - a fall by a person from one level to another.
• Falling object – an unsecured object (e.g. a spanner) falling from
height can cause serious injuries if controls are not implemented to
eliminate or minimise the associated risks.
• Fall hazard means a circumstance that exposes a worker in a
workplace to a risk of a fall that is reasonably likely to cause injury
to the worker or other person.

4. What is a fall hazard?
A fall hazard is an anything that exposes a worker or another person to
the risk of a fall that may injure them.

5. Fall Hazards
 Fall hazards can be found on
every construction site:
• Building structures
• Exterior construction areas
• Scaffolds
• Stairs
• Ladders

6. Situations that pose fall hazards include
when a worker is:
• In or on plant or a structure that is at
an elevated level (e.g. a covered
walkway).
• In or on plant that is being used to gain
access to an elevated level (e.g. a
ladder).
• Near an opening through which a
person could fall (e.g. an open pit).
• Near an edge over which a person
could fall (e.g. standing near the edge

7. • On or near a surface through which a person could fall (e.g. a
fragile roof or skylight).
• On or near a slippery, sloping or unstable surface (e.g. a steep
embankment).

8. The risks of working at height
• Main falling hazards are due to:
i. Fall of objects
ii. Fall of person
it may results due to inadequate edge protection, or material storage
are inadequately secured.
There are many jobs leads to fall hazards. E.g.
painters, decorators and window cleaners and those who undertake
one-off jobs without proper training, planning or equipment.

9. Assessing risks from working at height
• If work at height cannot be avoided, a risk assessment should be
carried out before any work at height is undertaken. The
assessment should highlight the measures that must be taken to
ensure people are not at risk of falling from height.
• The risks associated with working at height must be assessed.
There are few steps recommended ---

10. Assessing risks from working at height
i. Work assessment
ii. Activity assessment
iii. Hazard Assessment
iv. Who are going to exposed
v. Number of person involved
vi. Control measures implemented
vii. Risk Level
viii. Minimization of risk
ix. Final assessment of risk
x. Decide : Go head or stop the work.

11. Common Fall Hazards at construction site
• Common Fall hazards at construction site due to:
• Improperly stacked poorly secured material
• Inadequate edge protection
• Inadequate mean of access
• Poorly design of structure
• Designer recommendation not
adequately implemented
• Unstable structure/ supports etc.
• Base support not on firm ground
• Fall arrest system inadequate
• Improper material / man carriage
• Work station condition
• Slip/ trip/ hit
• Inadequate resources
• Quality of resources
• Manpower selection
• Training & education
• ------------ & so on…

12. Common Scaffold Hazards
• Getting struck by falling tools or debris
• Electrocution
• Scaffold collapse
• Defective wood planks and inadequate planking overhang.
• Uneven and uncompact ground
• Unsafe access to scaffold.
• Cross bracing not adequate.
• Inadequate footings.
• Bridging of scaffolds.
• High winds and skiddy surface due to rain
• Nature of electrical, fall, and falling object hazards
• No guardrails on scaffolds.

13. PERSONAL FALL PROTECTION
• A worker at risk of falling
certain distances must be
protected by guardrails or, if
guardrails are not practical, by
a travel restraint system, fall-
restricting system, fall-arrest
system, or safety net.

14. Travel-Restraint Systems
• A travel-restraint system lets a
worker travel just far enough
to reach the edge but not far
enough to fall over.

15. Travel-Restraint Systems
The basic travel-restraint system consists of
• Approved full body harness
• Lanyard
• Lifeline
• Rope grab to attach harness or lanyard to
lifeline
• Adequate anchorage (capable of supporting
a static load of 15 KN with a recommended
safety factor of at least 2)

16. Fall-Arrest Systems
• Where workers cannot be
protected from falls by guardrails
or travel restraint, they must be
protected by at least one of the
following methods:
- fall-restricting system
- safety net
- fall-arrest system.
• In the event of a fall, these systems
must keep a worker from hitting
the ground, the next level below,
or any other objects below.

17. Lifelines
There are three basic types of
lifelines:
1) vertical
2) horizontal
3) retractable.
• All lifelines must be inspected
daily to ensure that they are
- free of cuts, burns, frayed strands,
abrasions, and other defects or signs
of damage
- free of discolouration and
brittleness indicating heat or
chemical exposure.

18. Lifelines
1) Vertical Lifelines
• Vertical lifelines must comply with the
current edition of the applicable standard
and the following minimum requirements:
- Only one person at a time may use a
vertical lifeline.
- A vertical lifeline must reach the
ground or a level above ground where
the worker can safely exit.
- A vertical lifeline must have a
positive stop to prevent the rope grab from
running off the end of the lifeline.

19. Lifelines

20. Lifelines
2) Horizontal Lifelines
• The following requirements apply
to any horizontal lifeline system:
- The system must be designed by a
professional engineer according to
good engineering practice.
- The design can be a standard
design or specifically engineered for
the site.

21. Lifelines

22. 3) Retractable Lifelines
In general, retractable lifelines
- are usually designed to be anchored above the worker
- employ a locking mechanism that lets line unwind off the drum under
the slight tension caused by a user’s normal movements
- automatically retract when tension is removed, thereby preventing
slack in the line
- lock up when a quick movement, such as that caused by a fall, is
applied
- are designed to minimize fall distance and the forces exerted on a
worker’s body by fall arrest.

23. INTRODUCTION
Scaffolding, also called scaffold or staging, is a temporary
structure used to support a work crew and materials to aid in the
construction, maintenance and repair of buildings, bridges and all
other man made structures.
Scaffolding is also used in adapted forms for formwork and shoring,
grandstand seating, concert stages, access/viewing towers, exhibition
stands, ski ramps, half pipes and art projects.

24. INTRODUCTION
• More than half of scaffold accidents in construction areas are falls.
• Several fatalities are also related to scaffolds each year.
• The number and severity of injuries involved make scaffold
accidents one of the more serious safety problems in construction.

25. Problem Areas
The main problem areas are
• Erecting and dismantling scaffolds
• Climbing up and down scaffolds
• Planks sliding off or breaking
• Improper loading or overloading
• Platforms not fully planked or “decked”
• Platforms without guardrails
• Failure to install all required components such as base plates,
connections, and braces
• Moving rolling scaffolds in the vicinity of overhead electrical wires
• Moving rolling scaffolds with workers on the platform.

26. Types of scaffolds
• Standard Tubular Frame scaffolds
• Standard Walk-through Frame scaffolds
• Rolling scaffolds
• Fold-up scaffold Frames
• Adjustable scaffolds
• Tube-and-Clamp scaffolds
• Systems scaffolds
• Mast-Climbing Work Platforms
• Crank-up or Tower scaffolds

27. Standard Tubular Frame scaffolds
• This is the most frequently
used scaffold in construction.
• Historically it has been made
of steel tubing, but
aluminum is gaining
popularity.
• The scaffold is manufactured
in various configurations and
spans.
• On some systems, ladder
rungs are built into the end
frames.

28. Standard Walk-through Frame scaffolds
• This is a variation of the standard tubular frame scaffold.
• Although primarily designed to accommodate pedestrian traffic
at the ground or street level, the walk-through scaffold is
frequently used by the masonry trade to provide greater height
per tier and easier distribution of materials on platforms at
intermediate levels.
•

29. Standard Walk-through Frame scaffolds (cont’d)
• Although primarily designed to accommodate pedestrian
traffic at the ground or street level, the walk-through scaffold
is frequently used by the masonry trade to provide greater
height per tier and easier distribution of materials on
platforms at intermediate levels.

30. Rolling scaffolds
• Rolling scaffolds are best suited where short-duration work must
be carried out at multiple locations.
• They are used mainly by mechanical and electrical trades.
There are two main types of rolling scaffold.
• Castor Type.
• Farm Wagon Type.

31. Castor Type
• This type of scaffold is best suited for work on smooth floors and is
typically used inside buildings.
• All castors should be equipped with braking devices.
• This kind of scaffold should be erected so that its height-to-width
ratio is no greater than 3 to 1.
• This limits the height of platforms with standard outrigger
stabilizers and single span towers to approximately 9 metres (30
feet).

32. Castor Type

33. Farm Wagon Type
• Scaffolds erected on farm wagons or other devices with pneumatic
tires are frequently used for installing sheet metal siding and
similar materials on industrial buildings.
• For safe, effective use, the area around the building should be well
compacted, relatively smooth and level.
• This type of scaffold must also have outrigger beams with levelling
devices.
• It is subject to the 3-to-1 height-to-width ratio and is impractical
for heights greater than 7.5 metres (25 feet).
• The scaffold should always be resting on the outriggers while
workers are aboard.
• It should never be used as a work platform while it is “on rubber.”

34. Farm Wagon Type

35. Fold-up scaffold Frames
• Fold-up scaffold frames are frequently used by trades such as
electricians, painters, and suspended ceiling erectors.
• Widths range from dimensions that will pass through a 750-mm
(30-inch) opening to the standard width of about 1.5 metres (5
feet).
• Frequently made of aluminum, this type of scaffold is easily and
quickly transported, erected, and moved about construction sites
and from job to job.
• It should be used only on a smooth, hard surface.

36. Fold-up scaffold Frames

37. Adjustable scaffolds
• Uses similar to the fold-up model.
• Although it is not so easily erected, the system is light and very
easily adjusted for height.
• It breaks down into a minimum of components readily transported
from job to job.
• These devices should also be used only on smooth, hard surfaces.
They are not intended to carry heavy loads.

38. Adjustable scaffolds

39. Tube-and-Clamp scaffolds
• Tube-and-clamp scaffolds are frequently used where
obstructions or non-rectangular structures are encountered.
• The scaffolds are infinitely adjustable in height and width.
• They can also be used for irregular and circular vertical
configurations.
• Tube-and-clamp scaffolds above 10 metres (33 feet) must be
designed by a professional engineer.

40. Tube-and-Clamp scaffolds

41. Systems scaffolds
• European scaffold systems have become very popular in
applications that were traditionally suited to tube-and clamp.
• Although they are not as adjustable as tube-and clamp scaffolds,
they can be applied to a wide variety of non-rectangular, circular,
or dome-shaped structures.
• As with tube-and clamp scaffolds, personnel carrying out the
erection should be experienced with that type of system and a
sketch or drawing of the scaffold to be erected is recommended
for each application.
• Systems scaffolds above 10 metres (33 feet) in height must be
designed by a professional engineer.

42. Systems scaffolds

43. Mast-Climbing Work Platforms
• They are best suited for medium to high-rise projects, and are
used also by siding installers, window installers, dry wallers, and
other trades.
• For low to medium height projects they can be free standing,
depending on ground conditions and manufacturers’ instructions.
• For high rise applications they can be tied to the structure at
regular intervals as set out by the manufacturer.
• Mast-climbing work platforms can be used as a single tower or as
multiple towers braced together.
• The platform climbs the mast, normally powered by an electric or
gas engine

44. Mast-Climbing Work Platforms

45. Crank-up or Tower scaffolds
• They consist of towers, bases, and platforms that can be lifted by
winches.
• The working platform is located 600 to 900 mm (2 to 3 feet) below
the material platform, which is in an ergonomically good position
for the worker.
• The entire scaffold can be raised easily, allowing the worker a
comfortable working height.
• Crews must be trained to erect, use, dismantle, and maintain
tower scaffolding safely and efficiently.

46. Crank-up or Tower
scaffolds
• Manufacturers’ instructions
must be followed at all
times.
• Tower scaffolds must be
tied to the structure
according to manufacturer’s
instructions.

47. Scaffold components
Tubular Frame scaffolds: There are many tubular frame scaffold
components available.
Some components are necessary in almost all situations; others are
optional depending on use and manufacturers’ instructions.
In addition to scaffold end frames, the minimum components
required are
– base plates or castors
– mudsills
– adjustable screw jacks
– vertical braces on both sides of frames unless

48. Scaffold components
• frames are designed with “non-pinned” joints
• additional bracing is provided by a designed system using tube-
and-clamp accessories
– horizontal braces on every third tier of frames
– platform materials to fully deck in the intended working level
– guardrails complete with toeboards
– guardrail posts where working platforms will be at the top level
– ladders or stairs for access
– intermediate platforms where required—not more than 9 metres
(30 feet) apart and adjacent to vertical ladders.

49. Frame scaffold components

50. Frame scaffold components

51. Scaffold components
Tube-and-Clamp scaffolds and systems
scaffolds
Platforms
• Platforms for frame scaffolds are
normally either aluminum/plywood
platforms or wood planks.
• Planks normally come in 8-foot or 16-
foot lengths to cover one or two 7-foot
bays with adequate overhang.

52. Scaffold components
Outrigger/side brackets
• The use of outrigger brackets also known as side brackets is very
popular in the masonry industry.
• They are attached to the inside of the frame and accommodate
a platform approximately 20" (two planks) wide.
• They provide a work platform for the mason at an ergonomically
convenient location, lower than the material platform.
• Intended as a work platform only, they are not to be used for
material storage.

53. Scaffold components
Ladders
• A major problem with ladders built into the frame is that planks
sometimes stick out so far that it’s difficult to get from the
ladder to the platform.
This situation results in many injuries but can be overcome in one
of three ways:
• Use manufactured platform components which do not project
beyond the support
• Use a portable ladder where platform elevations are less than 9
metres (30 feet) in height.
• Use a stand-off vertical ladder with a cage if the scaffold is above
3 metres (10 feet).

54. Scaffold components
• Ladder rails should extend
at least 900 mm (3 feet)
above the platform level to
facilitate getting on and off.
• Injuries are often connected
with stepping on and
stepping off the ladder at
the platform level.

55. Scaffold components
Guardrails
• Failing to use guardrails is one of the main reasons for falls from
scaffold platforms.
• Manufacturers of frame scaffolds have guardrail components
which can be attached to the scaffold frames.
• These have posts that sit directly onto the connector pins and to
which the rails are attached using wing nuts.

56. Scaffold components
A guardrail should consist of:
• a top rail about 1 metre (40 inches) above the platform
• a mid-rail about halfway between the platform and the top rail
• a toeboard at least 89 mm (31/2") high at the platform level if
made from wood, and
• posts no more than 2.4 metres (8 feet) apart if made from wood.
Guardrail posts can be farther apart if the materials used are
adequate to support the loads specified.

57. Scaffold components

58. Scaffold components

59. Erecting and dismantling scaffolds

60. Erecting and dismantling scaffolds
Inspection
Scaffold materials should be inspected before use for
• damage to structural components
• damage to hooks on manufactured platforms
• splits, knots, and dry rot in planks
• delamination in laminated veneer lumber planks
• presence of all necessary components for the job
• compatibility of components.

61. Scaffold stability
Tie-in Requirements
• Scaffolds which exceed the 3-to-1 rule of height to least lateral
dimension must be tied in to a building or structure.
• Tie-ins should be applied at every third frame vertically second
frame horizontally for tubular frame scaffolds.
• Tie-ins for tube-and-clamp scaffolds should be applied at every
second node vertically and every third standard horizontally.
• These tie-ins must be capable of sustaining lateral loads in both
tension (pull) and compression (push).

62. Scaffold stability

63. Training
• Selecting the type of scaffold to use is as important as tool
selection.
• An ongoing program that trains personnel in selection and use
of scaffolding is imperative to reducing accidents in the work
place.
• If you need more detailed information, consult the references
and manufacturer’s recommendations.

64. Training (cont’d)
• Employees must receive training from qualified person that
covers:
– Nature of hazards, electrical, falls, and falling items
– Use of scaffold / handling
– Maximum intended load and load carrying capabilities of
scaffold
– Procedures for setup, dismantling or moving the system

65. Retraining
• When the employer has reason to believe an employee lacks
the skill or understanding needed for safe work involving
scaffolds, retraining shall be performed until proficiency is
established.
• Retraining is also required when:
– Additional or new hazards exists
– Changes occur in the type of scaffold and fall protection
exist
– Where there are inadequacies in an employee’s work

66. Ladders
• The frequent use of ladders at home and on construction sites
tends to dull awareness of the dangers involved in their use.
• Although there are varieties of ladders, many of the same
requirements and safe work practices apply.
• When using ladders for such use, make sure they are a minimum
Type I (250 lb. rating) or greater.

67. Ladders
The following are major causes of accidents.
— Ladders are not held, tied off, or otherwise secured.
— Slippery surfaces and unfavourable weather conditions cause workers
to lose footing on rungs or steps.
— Workers fail to grip ladders adequately when climbing up or down.
— Workers take unsafe positions on ladders (such as leaning out too far).
— Placement on poor footing or at improper angles causes ladders to
slide.
— Ladders are defective.
— High winds cause ladders to topple.
—Near electrical lines, ladders are carelessly handled or improperly
positioned.
— Ladder stabilizers are not used where appropriate.

69. Types of Ladders
The many types of ladders used on construction sites range from
metal ladders permanently mounted on equipment to job-built
wooden ladders.
• Portable Ladders
• Step, Trestle and Platform Ladders
• Fixed Ladders
• Special Purpose Ladders
• Job-Built Wooden Ladders

70. Types of Ladders
Portable Ladders
• All portable ladders must have
non-slip feet or be set up so
that the feet will not slip.
• Portable ladders are available
in various grades:
light duty or grade 3;
medium duty or grade 2;
heavy duty or grade1

71. Types of Ladders
Step, Trestle and Platform
Ladders
• Apart from the standards of
sound construction and
reliable service that should
apply to all ladders used on
site, the primary
consideration with these
ladders is that they have
strong spreader arms which
lock securely in the open
position.

72. Types of Ladders
Fixed Ladders
• Steel ladders permanently
fixed to structures such as
stacks and silos are designed
for service after construction
is complete but are often used
by work crews during
construction.

73. Types of Ladders
Special Purpose Ladders
• These ladders should be used
in accordance with
manufacturers' directions and
only for the special
applications intended.

74. Types of Ladders
Job-Built Wooden Ladders
• Job-built ladders should be constructed according to good
structural carpentry practice.
• The wood should be straight-grained and free of loose knots,
sharp edges, splinters, and shakes.
• Rungs should be clear, straight-grained, and free of knots. Job-
built ladders must be placed on a firm footing and be securely
fastened in position.

75. Types of Ladders
Job-Built
Wooden
Ladders

76. SUPERVISION AND USE
The Supervisor's Task
• Ladder injuries can be significantly reduced by control of usage
and improved site management.
• This requires that supervisory personnel
— train workers to maintain and use ladders properly
— evaluate the access requirements of a specific work assignment
— choose the best means of access for the job.

77. SUPERVISION AND USE
Proper Use of Ladders
• More than 80 percent of ladder accidents
are related to improper use or application
of the equipment.
• Supervisors must control the application of
equipment to particular situations. But
personnel using the equipment must also
be trained to use it.
Training should include the following
precautions.
— Check the ladder for defects at the start of a
shift, after it has been used in another location
by other workers, or after it has been left in
one location for a lengthy period of time.

78. The following are suggested safe work practices
when using portable ladders:
• Keep ladders free of oil, grease
and other slipping hazards;
• Use ladders only for the
purpose for which they were
designed;
• Do not load ladders beyond the
maximum intended load for
which they were built;

79. • Do not use the top or top step of
a stepladder as a step;
• Do not climb the cross bracing
on the rear section of
stepladders unless the ladder is
designed and provided with
steps for climbing on both
sections;.

80. • Secure or barricade ladders
when using them in
passageways, doorways or
driveways where they can be
displaced by work-place
activities or traffic;
• Keep the area around the top
and bottom of the ladder clear;
• Do not move, shift or extend
ladders while occupied;

81. • Use ladders only for the purpose
for which they were designed;
• Only use ladders on stable and
level surfaces to prevent
accidental movement;

82. Never straddle or sit on top of a step ladder.

83. • When ascending or
descending a ladder, face the
ladder;
• Use at least one hand to grasp
the ladder when moving up
or down it;
• A worker on the ladder must
not carry any object or load
that could cause him or her to
lose balance and fall;

84. INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
• Regular inspection and maintenance will increase
the useful life of ladders and reduce the number of
accidents.
• Repairs should only be carried out by someone
competent and familiar with this kind of work.
• Ladders found to be defective should be taken out
of service and either tagged for repair or scrapped.
• Once tagged, the ladder must not be used until
repaired.
• Ideally, the tag should only be removed by the
person who took the ladder out of service initially.
• The tag should be printed in big bold letters with
the words “DANGER – DO NOT USE”.

85. Training
Train each employee to recognize hazards in the use of ladders, such
as:
• Fall hazards in the work area;
• The procedures for erecting, maintaining and disassembling fall-
protection systems;
• Their proper use and placement;
• Their maximum intended loads;
Retrain employees as necessary to maintain their understanding and
knowledge of safe ladder use.