The Big Bang model postulates that the universe began as a hot dense state around 13.8 billion years ago and has since expanded and cooled. It is supported by two theoretical pillars: general relativity, which describes gravity as the curvature of spacetime, and the cosmological principle that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic on large scales. The model accounts for the cosmic microwave background radiation and expansion of the universe, but is incomplete as it does not explain structure formation or the universe's uniformity on the largest scales.
The problem with intelligent design william grassieSabiq Hafidz
William Grassie argues that the debate around intelligent design and evolution has become muddled. [1] He advocates separating discussions of known natural history from interpretations of origins and purposes. [2] Grassie believes intelligent design proponents should acknowledge established facts like the Cambrian explosion and long earth history rather than denying science. [3] This would allow meaningful discussion of how and why questions while respecting evidence from natural science.
1) The document discusses Rene Descartes' philosophical ideas from the 17th century and how they influenced the development of science and philosophy. Descartes proposed separating mind and matter, establishing a division between res cogitans (thinking thing) and res extensa (extended thing).
2) While this division was extremely successful for classical physics, it oversimplified the relationship between God, world, and humanity. It also forced animals and plants entirely into the realm of matter.
3) Quantum theory has changed the situation in modern physics, calling for a reexamination of Descartes' philosophical system and the mind-matter division on which much of modern thought was based.
The document discusses our limited understanding of consciousness and the brain. It argues that mystical experiences provide insight into a wider dimension of consciousness beyond what is normally perceived. Our brains cast a spell that transforms the basic reality of the world into the complex reality we perceive, and mystical experiences break this spell to reveal a deeper truth about the nature of reality that has yet to be fully understood.
The Standard Model describes the fundamental forces and particles in physics. It includes theories of strong and electroweak interactions, though not gravity. Fundamental particles called fermions make up matter, interacting through force carrier bosons. Quarks combine to form hadrons like protons and neutrons, while the top quark was recently discovered. Particle masses are measured in GeV/c2 and interactions occur through virtual boson exchange.
The cyclic universe model proposes that the universe undergoes endless cycles of evolution in infinite space and time, with each cycle beginning with a big bang and ending in a big crunch. This challenges the conventional view that the big bang was the beginning of time. The model incorporates concepts from string theory, which suggests the big crunch and big bang transitions are caused by the collapse and expansion of extra dimensions rather than an actual singularity. Each cycle is consistent with observations like the cosmic microwave background and galaxy formation. The model may help explain open questions about what occurred before the big bang and the role of dark energy.
This document discusses the relationship between science and the creation story in Genesis. It argues that Genesis and modern scientific theories like the Big Bang are not necessarily contradictory and that Genesis contains subtle structures and symbolism not apparent at first glance. While science and religion address different domains, the document notes similarities between the order of events in Genesis and scientific understanding, such as light appearing before stars and plants preceding land animals. It concludes that Genesis chapter 1 can be interpreted in a non-literal way and does not clearly contradict mainstream science.
The Big Bang model postulates that the universe began as a hot dense state around 13.8 billion years ago and has since expanded and cooled. It is supported by two theoretical pillars: general relativity, which describes gravity as the curvature of spacetime, and the cosmological principle that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic on large scales. The model accounts for the cosmic microwave background radiation and expansion of the universe, but is incomplete as it does not explain structure formation or the universe's uniformity on the largest scales.
The problem with intelligent design william grassieSabiq Hafidz
William Grassie argues that the debate around intelligent design and evolution has become muddled. [1] He advocates separating discussions of known natural history from interpretations of origins and purposes. [2] Grassie believes intelligent design proponents should acknowledge established facts like the Cambrian explosion and long earth history rather than denying science. [3] This would allow meaningful discussion of how and why questions while respecting evidence from natural science.
1) The document discusses Rene Descartes' philosophical ideas from the 17th century and how they influenced the development of science and philosophy. Descartes proposed separating mind and matter, establishing a division between res cogitans (thinking thing) and res extensa (extended thing).
2) While this division was extremely successful for classical physics, it oversimplified the relationship between God, world, and humanity. It also forced animals and plants entirely into the realm of matter.
3) Quantum theory has changed the situation in modern physics, calling for a reexamination of Descartes' philosophical system and the mind-matter division on which much of modern thought was based.
The document discusses our limited understanding of consciousness and the brain. It argues that mystical experiences provide insight into a wider dimension of consciousness beyond what is normally perceived. Our brains cast a spell that transforms the basic reality of the world into the complex reality we perceive, and mystical experiences break this spell to reveal a deeper truth about the nature of reality that has yet to be fully understood.
The Standard Model describes the fundamental forces and particles in physics. It includes theories of strong and electroweak interactions, though not gravity. Fundamental particles called fermions make up matter, interacting through force carrier bosons. Quarks combine to form hadrons like protons and neutrons, while the top quark was recently discovered. Particle masses are measured in GeV/c2 and interactions occur through virtual boson exchange.
The cyclic universe model proposes that the universe undergoes endless cycles of evolution in infinite space and time, with each cycle beginning with a big bang and ending in a big crunch. This challenges the conventional view that the big bang was the beginning of time. The model incorporates concepts from string theory, which suggests the big crunch and big bang transitions are caused by the collapse and expansion of extra dimensions rather than an actual singularity. Each cycle is consistent with observations like the cosmic microwave background and galaxy formation. The model may help explain open questions about what occurred before the big bang and the role of dark energy.
This document discusses the relationship between science and the creation story in Genesis. It argues that Genesis and modern scientific theories like the Big Bang are not necessarily contradictory and that Genesis contains subtle structures and symbolism not apparent at first glance. While science and religion address different domains, the document notes similarities between the order of events in Genesis and scientific understanding, such as light appearing before stars and plants preceding land animals. It concludes that Genesis chapter 1 can be interpreted in a non-literal way and does not clearly contradict mainstream science.
This document provides an overview of the author's life experiences and perspectives on spirituality and consciousness. In 3 sentences:
The author describes living an adventurous life filled with unexpected events and experiences that shaped their humanitarian work and spiritual beliefs. They believe mystical experiences reflect an expanded consciousness rather than a direct encounter with God, and that future humans will have minds that roam the heavens in wonder while being less driven by earthly desires. The author expresses frustration that their ideas about the transformation of human consciousness were not more widely accepted despite being an important topic.
Human cells may contain clues about the origin of life because:
1) While human cells are complex, they still retain molecular remnants from early life under layers of complexity.
2) Bacteria appear to have lost RNA and other molecular remnants of early life through simplification over time.
3) We know more about human cell biochemistry than simple bacteria, so human cells may harbor more insights into early life origins.
The document discusses how human cells, as eukaryotes, may provide insights into the origins of life despite their complexity. It notes that bacteria appear to have simplified over time, losing molecular remnants of early RNA-based life. However, as we understand human cell biochemistry extensively
This document provides an overview of the author's life experiences and perspectives on spirituality and consciousness. In 3 sentences:
The author describes living an adventurous life filled with unexpected events and experiences that shaped their humanitarian work and spiritual beliefs. They believe mystical experiences reflect an expanded consciousness rather than a direct encounter with God, and that future humans will have minds that roam the heavens in wonder while being less driven by earthly desires. The author expresses frustration that their ideas about the transformation of human consciousness were not more widely accepted despite being an important topic.
Human cells may contain clues about the origin of life because:
1) While human cells are complex, they still retain molecular remnants from early life under layers of complexity.
2) Bacteria appear to have lost RNA and other molecular remnants of early life through simplification over time.
3) We know more about human cell biochemistry than simple bacteria, so human cells may harbor more insights into early life origins.
The document discusses how human cells, as eukaryotes, may provide insights into the origins of life despite their complexity. It notes that bacteria appear to have simplified over time, losing molecular remnants of early RNA-based life. However, as we understand human cell biochemistry extensively
The document discusses mathematical constants like pi and explores their digit sequences when expressed in different bases like base 10 and base 2. Despite being defined by simple formulas, the digit sequences of constants like pi appear highly complex and random, with no observable patterns even after examining billions of digits. Other rational numbers with non-terminating repeating digit sequences are also discussed.
The document discusses various types of systems that generate patterns, including cellular automata, mobile automata, Turing machines, and substitution systems. It provides examples of rules for each type of system that yield simple repetitive patterns, nested patterns, and seemingly random patterns. It notes that complexity is common in these systems and can arise from rules with just a few components.
The document outlines the foundations of a new kind of science based on studying simple computer programs and their behavior. The author discovered that even very simple programs can exhibit complex behavior, unlike what traditional intuition suggests. This finding opens up new domains for exploration in theoretical science and provides resolutions to longstanding mysteries like how nature produces complexity. The author argues this new framework based on computational thinking can address fundamental issues across many fields that existing approaches have failed to tackle.
Werner Heisenberg provides a detailed history of the development of quantum theory from Planck's discovery of quantization of energy to the establishment of quantum mechanics. Key developments include Planck's quantum hypothesis, Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect and specific heat using light quanta, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom combining quantum conditions with classical orbits, de Broglie's proposal of matter waves corresponding to particles, and the formulations of matrix mechanics by Heisenberg and wave mechanics by Schrodinger, which together constituted the first consistent mathematical framework of quantum mechanics. However, the dual wave-particle nature of quantum objects remained paradoxical and not fully explained.
The document summarizes images from the Hubble Space Telescope that offer clues about the evolution of galaxies in the universe. The images show galaxies from different eras after the Big Bang. Earlier images show galaxies with less defined spiral arms and more irregular shapes, suggesting spirals took a long time to form while elliptical galaxies emerged earlier. Even in the earliest images, one galaxy has the light profile of an elliptical galaxy, implying ellipticals formed remarkably early in the universe.
Tutorial ini menjelaskan tentang fraktal dan program FractalSharp untuk menggambar dan menjelajahi berbagai jenis fraktal seperti himpunan Mandelbrot dan Julia. Program ini dapat diunduh secara gratis dan dapat menampilkan sifat-sifat unik fraktal seperti kemiripan diri serta bentuk-bentuk yang indah dan kompleks.
The document introduces the topic of how little is known about consciousness and its relationship to the brain, despite advances in neuroscience. It discusses how modern science assumes a limited view of perception based on the 5 senses, but physics and psychic phenomena suggest this view is incomplete. The author, Gopi Krishna, underwent a transformation through yogic practices that radically altered his perceptions. He concluded this was due to changes in his brain and nervous system opening a new channel of perception. The book lays out evidence that an evolutionary process may be developing higher faculties of perception in the brain, which could revolutionize understanding of consciousness if verified through dedicated scientific research.
George Ellis gives a lecture on the science and religion dialogue. He discusses three key aspects - practical issues where the dialogue makes a real-world difference; theoretical issues regarding how we understand and make theories; and philosophical issues about our understanding of how things are. On non-essential issues like the origins of the universe and life, Ellis argues the dialogue can clarify each domain without conflict. However, on foundational issues like the nature of existence, potential conflicts remain regarding design, creation and fine-tuning of the universe.
Galileo began writing a book called "On Motion" in 1589 where he began developing his ideas about motion, challenging Aristotelian views. Aristotelians believed motion required a force and speed was proportional to force and inversely proportional to resistance. Galileo performed early experiments dropping objects of different weights which found lighter objects sometimes fell faster, contradicting Aristotelian thinking. Over 20 years through further experiments and refining his ideas, Galileo arrived at his famous law of falling bodies - in a vacuum, all objects are uniformly accelerated downward regardless of weight.
This document summarizes Joseph A. Bracken's essay on self-organizing systems and final causality. It discusses how 17th century thinkers like Galileo shifted away from teleological views of the natural world towards mechanistic views. It then discusses how Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was interpreted mechanistically. Some scientists like Polanyi and Sheldrake have challenged this view by proposing theories of "morphogenetic fields" and "formative causation" that reintroduce notions of teleology. Bracken seeks to provide a metaphysical framework from Whiteheadian philosophy to support these alternative conceptions.
Teks tersebut membahas perbedaan pandangan antara Kisah Lama dan Kisah Baru terkait ilmu pengetahuan. Kisah Lama memandang alam semesta terdiri dari materi, ruang, dan waktu serta menekankan materialisme. Sedangkan Kisah Baru hadir pada abad ke-20 dengan penemuan teori quantum dan relativitas, yang menganggap peneliti berperan aktif dan mengakui adanya kesadaran dan pikiran manusia sebagai realitas.
This document provides an outline on the origin and evolution of the Earth. It discusses the Earth's place in the solar system and how the Earth formed from a rotating cloud of dust after the formation of the solar system. It describes how the Earth grew and differentiated over time through bombardment, insulation, gravitational compression, and radioactive decay. The document outlines the current structure of the Earth, describing its chemical and mechanical layering into a crust, mantle, and core. It introduces the concept of plate tectonics, how the lithosphere is broken into plates that move at divergent, convergent, and transform plate boundaries.
The document discusses the difference between true mystics/sadhus and false ones in India. It notes that for thousands of years, sincere ascetics have lived alongside clever imposters who use the guise of spirituality for selfish gains. While most holy men practice asceticism out of faith or desire for enlightenment, some study scriptures and techniques only to convincingly fake supernatural abilities and attract followers for money and fame. It is difficult for ordinary people to distinguish the genuine from the fraudulent mystic.
This document discusses mystical ecstasy and whether it should be considered a mystical or pathological phenomenon. It notes that the causes of ecstasy are still unknown, and that artificially induced or pathological states can mimic genuine ecstasy. The document also discusses how brain chemistry and bodily conditions can influence consciousness and mystical experiences, suggesting ecstasy may have physiological causes rather than being solely a spiritual experience. It argues ecstasy should be studied scientifically as a psychosomatic phenomenon rather than only explained theologically.
The document describes a Metaphormic 4D/Holographic Thinking System that aims to systematically rebuild 3D thought structures to access 4D imagination and genius. It uses 4D metaphors based on four dimensions - Principle, Motion, Shape and Experience - that allow grasping a complete idea with one word and projecting holographic thinking. This projection changes one's imagination from a 3D to a 4D Projective Imagination, bypassing limiting stories from the past and clarifying intuition.
This section discusses life and the human experience from a scientific perspective. It proposes that humans experience narrative structure that creates a sense of identity through the meaning-making process. The objective world and our subjective experiences interact to form narratives that are shared between people. Understanding life requires comprehending how structure, process, and pattern interact in our experiential world.
This document discusses the body-mind problem and language from an interactionist perspective. It rejects the idea that the body-mind problem can be solved by distinguishing between physical and psychological languages, as these languages are not mutually translatable. It also rejects the idea that the problem arises from faulty language about minds, as there are mental states like beliefs and intentions that exist separately from behavior. The document outlines four main functions of language - expressive, stimulative, descriptive, and argumentative - and argues that any physicalist or causal theory of language can only account for the lower two functions, and not higher functions like describing and arguing that involve intentionality.
The document discusses the nature of time and proposes a new understanding based on a law of time. It argues that everything is governed by the frequency of synchronization, defined mathematically as a 13:20 ratio. It proposes that time is vertical while space is horizontal, and that higher states of consciousness allow perception of a "synchronic order" beyond normal senses. The document outlines this theory of time and proposes implementing a new 13-month calendar aligned with this understanding, arguing this could help unify humanity and establish a new era of peace.
The document summarizes problems that emerged with the Big Bang theory starting in the 1970s-1980s. Observational evidence showed:
1) Galaxies rotated too fast based on visible matter, implying 90% of matter is "dark matter".
2) The cosmic microwave background was too uniform across distances light could not have traveled, the "horizon problem".
3) The universe appeared "flat" requiring impossibly precise conditions shortly after the Big Bang.
4) Distant quasars existed too early, inconsistent with the universe's evolution. This "crisis in cosmology" suggested the Big Bang theory needed replacing.
1. II. What's the Quark ?
1. 가장 작은 입자, Quark
“ 모든 물질은 궁극적으로 쿼크와 렙톤으로 이루어졌다 . ”
'물질은 무엇으로 이루어졌을까?'
물질을 구성하는 궁극적인 입자 (素粒子)를 찾는 일은 데모크리투스 이후 자연 과
학의 최대 관심사 중의 하나이다. 처음에는 물질의 기본 입자가 원자라고 생각을
했다. 그러나, 원자는 다음과 같은 구조를 가지고 있음이 밝혀졌다.
원자(atom) = 양성자(proton : +전기) + 중성자(neutron : 전기 안가짐) + 전자
(electron : - 전기)
2.
그것이 끝인 줄 알았는데 알고보니 양성자를 이루고 있는 입자가 또 발견되었다.
바로 'Quark-쿼크' 였다. 현재 밝혀진 입자 중 가장 작은 것이 바로 쿼크이다. 쿼크는
6 종류가 있지만, 아직까지는 모두 발견되지 않았다. 쿼크를 이루고 있는 것이 틀림
없지만 아직 발견되지 않은 이유는 우리 인간의 능력으로 쿼크를 쪼갤 만한 에너지
가 없기 때문이다..
원자핵을 쪼개서 그 속에서 양성자, 중성자 등을이 발견하였고, 오늘에 이르기까지
과학의 발달은 양성자를 쪼개어 그 속에서 3 개의 쿼크를 발견하였다.
이러한 쿼크의 발견을 위해 양성자를 쪼갤 때는 입자가속기를 사용한다.
3.
그림의 Fermilab accelerators 처럼, 입자가속기는 큰 원형의 둥근 터널이다, 이 터널
속을 양성자들이 서로 반대 방향으로 매우 빠르게 돌도록 만든다. 속도를 높이는
방법은 전압을 높게 해주면 된다. 원형터널의 반지름이 크면 클수록 더욱 빠르고
힘차게 입자를 돌릴 수 있다. ( 그래서, 이미 미국이나, 유럽은 더 거대한 입자가속
기를 만들고 있다. )
이렇게 반대로 매우 빠르게 가속된 두 양성자를 목표지점에서 부딪히게 하면 그 충
돌 때문에 깨져서 산산 조각이 난다.
이때, 그 속에 숨어 있던 소립자(작은 입자)들이 순간적으로 튀어나와서 쿼크을 비
롯한 여러가지 소립자들을 발견할 수 있다.물론, 쿼크 역시 더 작은 소립자로 이루
어졌을 가능성이 있다. 그러나, 현 단계의 과학 기술은 가장 작은 입자로 생각되는
쿼크만 단독으로 잡아내질 못하고 있다.따라서, 쿼크끼리 충돌시킬 수가 없기 때문
에 쿼크 속에 더 작은 입자를 발견하는 것은 아직까지는 어려운 과제 중에 하나이
다.
입자 가속기의 발달로 새로운 입자들이 계속 발견되면서 소립자에 대한 견해도 바
뀌어 왔다. 1957 년과 1986 년에 소립자를 어떻게 이해했나를 요약해보자. 여기서
우리는 전자는 톰슨의 발견 이래 끝까지 더 가를 수 없는 소립자로 남아있는 것을
알 수 있다. 전자는 렙톤 (lepton)이라고 불리는 가벼운 소립자 중의 하나이다. 한편,
1957 년 까지만 해도 소립자로 생각되었던 양성자와 중성자는 이제는 쿼크 (quark)
라고 불리는 소립자들로 이루어진 것으로 알려졌다.
그래서 지금은 “모든 물질은 궁극적으로 렙톤과 쿼크로 이루어졌다”라고 말 할
수 있게 되었다.
쿼크에는 여섯 종류가 있는데 fractional charge 를 가진 것이 특이하다. 양성자는 up,
up, down 의 세 쿼크로 이루어져 +1 의 전하를 가지고, 중성자는 up, down, down 의
세 쿼크로 이루어져 -1 의 전하를 가진다. 유가와 히데키에 의하여 강한 핵력을 설
명하기 위해 도입되었던 중간자 (中間子, meson)도 두개의 쿼크로 이루어진 것으로
밝혀졌다.
4.
입자들 간의 상호 작용을 지배하는 힘을 이해하는 것도 못지 않게 중요한 일이다.
1910 년대에 러더포드에 의해서 원자핵과 양성자가 발견된 후 원자 내의 양성자와
전자의 상호 작용, 원자 사이의 화학 결합, 분자 사이의 상호 작용은 모두 전자기력
으로 설명할 수 있게 되었다. 한편 원자 세계에서의 중력은 미미하지만 행성, 별, 은
하계 같이 아주 무거운 물체 사이의 상호 작용은 중력으로 설명이 된다. 아인슈타인
은 중력과 전자기력을 하나의 통일장 (unified field)으로 설명하려고 40 년 동안 노
력을 기울였으나 성공을 거두지 못했다.
5.
6. 원자핵 내부에는 약한 핵력과 강한 핵력이 작용하고 있는데 이 두 가지 힘은 원자핵
내부에서만 작용하는 아주 range 가 짧은 (1 fermi = 10-15 m)힘이기 때문에 오래 동안
알려지지 않았다. 1896 년에 베크렐이 방사능을 발견함으로써 인간은 처음으로 약
한 핵력에 접하게 되었다. 약한 핵력은 전자와 같이 가벼운 렙톤 (lepton)과 양성자
나 중성자 같이 무거운 하드론 (hadron) 사이에 작용하는 힘인데, 중성자가 양성자
와 전자로 바뀌는 베타 붕괴에서는 약한 핵력이 관여하는 것을 알 수 있다. 1933 년
에 Fermi 는 약한 핵력에 의한 베타 붕괴의 이론을 발표했는데, 1960 년대 말에
Weinberg, Salam, Glashaw 는 전자기력과 약한 핵력을 electroweak force 로 통합하여
맥스웰이 전기와 자기를 통합한 이후 또 하나의 중요한 힘의 통일을 이루어냈다. 이
세 사람은 1979 년 노벨 물리학상을 공동 수상했다. 쿼크 사이의 strong force 를 매개
하는 gluon 과 중력을 매개하는 graviton 은 아직 검출하지 못했다.
7.
8. 2. 물질 최소 단위의 변천
1. 원자(原子, atom)
• Democritus of Abdera (460-370 B.C. ; Ancient Greek)의 원자설
실증적 근거 미비
• John Dalton(1766 - 1844)의 원자가설 (19 세기 초)
화학반응 설명
• Mendeleev 의 원소주기율표
원소를 원자번호순으로 배열할 때 비슷한 성질의 원소가 주기적으로 나타
남. 원자가 내부 구조를 가지고 있을 가능성을 보여줌.
• 현재: 112 종이 알려짐
2. 원자의 내부 구조 발견
• 전자(electron) 발견 : (1897, J. J. Thomson)
Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940, 영국) : 1906 Nobel Prize
• Rutherford 의 원자 모형 (1911)
원자 = 전자(electron) + 원자핵(nucleus)
전자 배열: 원자의 화학적 성질 결정
원자핵: 원자 질량의 대부분을 차지
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937; 영국) : 1908 년 Nobel 화학상 수상
• 양성자(proton) 발견 (1913) :
• 중성자(neutron) 발견 : (1932, J. Chadwick)
원자핵: 중성자(neutron) + 양성자(proton)
Sir James Chadwick (1891-1974, 영국) : 1935 Nobel Prize
• mp / me = 1836
mn / mp ~ 1
• 중간자(中間子, meson)의 존재 예언과 발견
일본의 Yukawa, Hideki (湯川秀樹, 1907-1981)가 원자핵을 결합시키는데 필
요한 입자로 중간자의 존재 예언.
1947 년 C. F. Powell 이 중간자 발견.
• 1949 Nobel Prize to Yukawa, 1950 Nobel Prize to Powell
9. 3. 소립자 (素粒子, Elementary Particle)
물질을 구성하거나 상호작용에 관계하는 입자들 :
전자, 중성미자(中性微子, neutrino) 중성자, 양성자, 중간자, 광자(光子, photon) 위
입자들의 반입자(反粒子, anti-particle)
1940 년대 이래 다수의 소립자가 계속 발견되고 있음. ---> 현재 원소의 수보다 훨씬
많은 몇 백종의 소립자가 발견되어 있음. (Reviews of Particle Physics at Particle Data
Group)
4. 쿼크(quark)
1964 년 Gell-Mann and Zweig :
그 당시까지 알려진 양성자, 중성자, 중간자 등의 많은 소립자가 쿼크(quark)라는 세
종류의 보다 더 기본적인 입자로 구성되어 있다고 가정할 때 그 성질들이 잘 설명된
다는 사실을 발견함. 현재까지 발견된 소립자들을 설명하기 위해서는 최소한 6 종
의 quark 가 필요함.
3. 쿼크가 더 작은 입자들로 이루어져 있을 가능성
지금까지의 실험 결과가 가리키는 한, 쿼크는 렙톤과 더불어 우주에서 가장 기본적
인 물질의 하나이며, 중성자와 양성자의 구성 성분이다.
그렇다면, 쿼크 자체가 다른 더 작은 물질들로 이루어지지 않았을까하는 의문이 당
연히 생기게 된다.
그것을 알아보는 방법의 하나는, 입자 물리학 실험에서 늘 그렇듯이, 쿼크들을 서로
충돌시켜 무엇이 나오는지를 관측하는 것이다.
Fermilab (페르미 국립 가속기 연구소, 미국) 의 과학자들은 양성자와 반양성자를
충돌시켜 발생되는 파편 입자들을 관찰하였다. 그와 같은 상호 작용에서는 큰 각도
로 산란되는 높은 에너지의 입자 무리들이 관찰되며, 올해 초반 무렵, 그러한 입자
무리들이 생성되는 빈도수가 어떤 수준을 넘는 것이 서브쿼크 (subquark: 쿼크를 구
성할 것으로 생각되는 입자) 의 존재 증거로서 해석되었었다. 이와 같은 해석은 실
험을 직접 행했던 과학자들이 내린 것은 아니었다.
쿼크에 대한 가장 최근의 견해는, 쿼크가 그 어떠한 명백한 구조도 갖고 있지 않다
는 것이다.
10. 그에 대한 근거로서 말할 수 있는 한 가지는, 만약 쿼크 안에 무엇이 숨겨져 있다면
그것의 에너지는 약 1.6 TeV 보다 커야한다는 점이다.
이것이 얼마나 존재하기 어려운 값인지는, 중성자의 정지 에너지가 931 MeV 인 것
을 생각하면 쉽게 알 수 있다. 또한, Fermilab 의 과학자들이 그들의 현미경 (가속기
와 그에 따른 관측 장치를 가리킴) 을 쿼크에 집중시켜 관찰한 바로는, 10 의 -19 승
미터 수준의 공간 규모에서 아무것도 볼 수 없다고 한다.
그와 같은 규모는 지금까지 쿼크 내부에 대한 관찰에 있어 가장 작은 거리이다
(Physical Review Letters 에 실릴 예정인 dijet angular distribution 에 관한 논문을 참조
할 것. F. Abe 등이 저자임). 그외에도 몇몇 실험들, 예를 들어 양성자 붕괴 연구 등
에서, 실질적으로 그보다 훨씬 더 작은 거리 수준을 관찰하였으나 쿼크 안에 숨어
있을 그 어떤 것도 발견하지 못하였다.
House of Quarks