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6. Water Conservation in the Era
of Global Climate Change

7. Water Conservation in the Era
of Global Climate Change
Edited by
Binota Thokchom
Centre for Nanotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology,
Guwahati, India; Department of Forestry and Environmental Science,
Manipur University, Imphal, India
Pengpeng Qiu
State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer
Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering,
Donghua University, Shanghai, P.R. China
Pardeep Singh
Department of Environmental Studies, PGDAV College,
University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Parameswar K. Iyer
Department of Chemistry and Centre for Nanotechnology,
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India

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9. Contents
List of contributors ............................................................................................... xv
Biographies ..........................................................................................................xix
Preface.................................................................................................................xxi
Chapter 1: Impact of climate change and water quality degradation
on food security and agriculture............................................................. 1
Priyanshu Gupta, Janhavi Singh, Sunita Verma, Amit Singh Chandel
and Rajeev Bhatla
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Climate change...................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Precursors of climate change ......................................................................2
1.2.2 Current scenario of global climate change ..................................................3
1.3 Water quality degradation...................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Basic parameters of water quality ...............................................................5
1.3.2 Precursors and adverse effects of water quality degradation .......................6
1.3.3 Current status of global water quality degradation......................................6
1.4 Global food security .............................................................................................. 9
1.4.1 Components of food security ....................................................................10
1.4.2 Assessment of food security......................................................................12
1.4.3 Factors affecting food security..................................................................12
1.5 Impact of climate change and degrading water quality on agriculture ................. 13
1.5.1 Impact of climate change on agriculture ...................................................15
1.5.2 Impact of water quality degradation on agriculture...................................18
1.6 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 20
References ................................................................................................................... 21
v

10. Chapter 2: Groundwater extractions and climate change........................................ 23
Rahul Sharma, Ravi Kumar, Pinki Rani Agrawal, Ittishree,
Chankit and Gaurav Gupta
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 23
2.2 Groundwater sources: global distribution, quality, and uses................................. 26
2.3 Impact of urbanization and industrialization on ground water sources................. 28
2.4 Groundwater extractions and climate change....................................................... 30
2.5 Management of groundwater sources................................................................... 33
2.6 Concluding remarks: major challenges and future prospects................................ 36
References ................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter 3: Urban water-supply management: indirect issues of climate
change leading to water scarcity scenarios in developing and
underdeveloped nations ....................................................................... 47
Nazia Talat
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 47
3.2 Impacts of climate change on water resource....................................................... 49
3.2.1 Impacts of climate change on water resources in developing and
underdeveloped nations.............................................................................50
3.3 Urban water-supply management......................................................................... 52
3.4 Impacts of climate change on urban water-supply management........................... 54
3.4.1 Reduced water availability........................................................................54
3.4.2 Water quality deterioration .......................................................................54
3.4.3 Increased runoff........................................................................................56
3.4.4 Increased salinization................................................................................56
3.4.5 Other issues ..............................................................................................56
3.5 Mitigating the impacts of climate change on urban
water-supply management.................................................................................... 57
3.5.1 Mitigating reduced water availability........................................................57
3.5.2 Mitigating deterioration in water quality...................................................58
3.5.3 Mitigating salinization ..............................................................................58
3.5.4 Application of various approaches to deal with
wastewater treatment.................................................................................59
3.5.5 Improvement in administration/management of water resources ...............59
3.6 Climate change adaptations in case of urban water supply in developing
countries .............................................................................................................. 61
3.7 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 65
References ................................................................................................................... 67
vi Contents

11. Chapter 4: Impact of climate change on freshwater ecosystem ................................ 73
Gurudatta Singh, Anubhuti Singh, Priyanka Singh
and Virendra Kumar Mishra
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 73
4.1.1 Water and freshwater................................................................................74
4.1.2 Types of freshwater habitats .....................................................................74
4.1.3 Distribution of freshwater .........................................................................75
4.2 Influence of climate change on water resource .................................................... 76
4.2.1 Cause of climate change ...........................................................................77
4.2.2 Climate change and the global hydrological cycle ....................................77
4.3 Case studies of climate change impact on river water/river basin ........................ 80
4.3.1 Case study 1: impact of climate change on Ganga, Hooghly,
Meghna, Mahanadi, and Brahmaputra River flowing in India
and Bangladesh.........................................................................................81
4.3.2 Case study 2: amplified flood hazard in Indian subcontinent
due to the warming climate.......................................................................82
4.4 Physicochemical influence of changing climate on freshwater resource .............. 83
4.4.1 Physical impacts .......................................................................................84
4.4.2 Chemical impact of climate change on freshwater resource......................90
4.5 Climate change trends and future impacts on freshwater ..................................... 94
4.6 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 94
References ................................................................................................................... 95
Chapter 5: An overview of the potential impacts of global climate change
on water resources.............................................................................. 99
Aaditya Chaturvedi, Bhanu Pandey, Aneet Kumar Yadav
and Shubham Saroj
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 99
5.2 Global climate change ....................................................................................... 100
5.3 Components of climate change .......................................................................... 101
5.3.1 Earth’s orbital change .............................................................................102
5.3.2 Volcanic activity.....................................................................................102
5.3.3 Greenhouse gas emissions.......................................................................102
5.3.4 Changes in land use ................................................................................103
5.4 Major effects of climate change......................................................................... 103
5.4.1 Precipitation pattern................................................................................103
5.4.2 Water quality ..........................................................................................105
5.4.3 Eutrophication.........................................................................................106
Contents vii

12. 5.5 Effect of climate change on different water bodies............................................ 107
5.5.1 Rivers .....................................................................................................107
5.5.2 Costal lagoons and estuaries ...................................................................108
5.5.3 Seas ........................................................................................................108
5.5.4 Ground water ..........................................................................................109
5.5.5 Surface water..........................................................................................112
5.5.6 Surface and subsurface hydrological interactions....................................113
5.5.7 Soil moisture and vadose zone................................................................114
5.5.8 Aquifer recharge .....................................................................................114
5.6 Climate change mitigation ................................................................................. 115
5.7 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 115
Acknowledgment ....................................................................................................... 116
References ................................................................................................................. 116
Chapter 6: Climatic controls on water resources and its management:
challenges and prospects of sustainable development
in Indian perspective ..........................................................................121
Aditya Abha Singh and Arvind K. Singh
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 121
6.2 Hydrological cycle and climate change.............................................................. 122
6.3 Water resources of India.................................................................................... 124
6.3.1 Surface water resources ..........................................................................124
6.3.2 Groundwater resources............................................................................125
6.4 Water consumption and its management............................................................ 126
6.4.1 Flood management and climate change...................................................128
6.4.2 Drought management and climate change...............................................129
6.4.3 Groundwater management and climate change .......................................131
6.5 Climate change impacts on water availability.................................................... 132
6.5.1 Water scarcity and food security.............................................................132
6.5.2 Water quality and groundwater contamination........................................133
6.5.3 Precipitation variability...........................................................................135
6.5.4 Loss of aquatic ecosystem and biodiversity ............................................136
6.6 Challenges and prospects of sustainable development........................................ 137
6.6.1 Resource planning and strategy...............................................................139
6.6.2 Resource assessment and efficiency elevation.........................................139
6.6.3 Pollution and quality control...................................................................139
6.6.4 Climate change and environmental degradation......................................140
6.6.5 Legislation supporting water resources ...................................................140
viii Contents

13. 6.6.6 Research, education, and training............................................................140
6.6.7 Public participation, capacity building and
international cooperation.........................................................................140
6.7 Conclusion-looking ahead.................................................................................. 141
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................... 141
Conflict of Interests ................................................................................................... 141
References ................................................................................................................. 142
Chapter 7: Recent advances in nanotechnology for accomplishing
sustainable agriculture .......................................................................147
Swati Chaudhary, Niloy Sarkar and Mahima Kaushik
7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 147
7.2 Agricultural problems ........................................................................................ 148
7.2.1 Plant pathogens.......................................................................................149
7.2.2 Plant pests...............................................................................................150
7.3 Nanotechnology-based management of plant diseases ....................................... 151
7.3.1 Detection of plant diseases......................................................................153
7.4 Retention of soil moisture.................................................................................. 160
7.5 Conclusions and future directions ...................................................................... 162
Acknowledgment ....................................................................................................... 163
References ................................................................................................................. 163
Chapter 8: Water, arsenic, and climate change.....................................................167
Bindiya Aribam, Wazir Alam and Binota Thokchom
8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 167
8.2 Sources and occurrences.................................................................................... 168
8.3 Toxicity ............................................................................................................. 170
8.3.1 Acute and subacute toxicity ....................................................................171
8.3.2 Chronic toxicity ......................................................................................173
8.4 Speciation and mobility ..................................................................................... 175
8.4.1 Arsenic methylation................................................................................175
8.4.2 Effect of Eh pH.....................................................................................176
8.4.3 Adsorption on oxyhydroxides and arsenic mobility.................................176
8.5 Groundwater arsenic contamination................................................................... 178
8.6 Climate change, groundwater, and arsenic contamination.................................. 179
8.6.1 Impact of climate change on groundwater arsenic contamination ...........179
8.6.2 Impact of seasonal variation ...................................................................180
8.7 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 181
References ................................................................................................................. 186
Contents ix

14. Chapter 9: An overview of nanotechnology in water treatment applications
and combating climate change.............................................................191
Ksh Priyalakshmi Devi and Harsh Chaturvedi
9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 191
9.2 Role of nanotechnology in water treatment........................................................ 192
9.2.1 Nanoadsorption.......................................................................................195
9.2.2 Membranes and membrane processes......................................................199
9.2.3 Photocatalysis .........................................................................................202
9.3 Role of nanotechnology to combat climate change............................................ 204
9.3.1 Lightweight nanocomposite materials .....................................................204
9.3.2 Nanocoatings ..........................................................................................205
9.3.3 Nanocatalysts..........................................................................................205
9.3.4 Nanostructured materials.........................................................................205
9.3.5 Improved renewables ..............................................................................206
9.3.6 Batteries..................................................................................................206
9.3.7 Nanotech sensors ....................................................................................207
9.3.8 Harvesting CO2.......................................................................................207
9.4 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 208
References ................................................................................................................. 209
Chapter 10: Climate change: impact on waterborne infectious diseases .................213
Rehab A. Rayan, Moharana Choudhury, Mitrajit Deb,
Arghya Chakravorty, Rinku Moni Devi and Jyoti Mehta
10.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 213
10.2 The economic impacts of climate change ........................................................ 214
10.3 Water resources ............................................................................................... 215
10.3.1 Recreational water ..............................................................................215
10.3.2 Drinking water....................................................................................215
10.4 Intensive water-related climatic conditions ...................................................... 216
10.4.1 Flood...................................................................................................216
10.4.2 Tsunami..............................................................................................217
10.4.3 Hurricane ............................................................................................217
10.5 Climate change and vector-borne infectious diseases....................................... 218
10.6 Climate change and some significant waterborne infectious microbes ............. 220
10.6.1 Cryptosporidium .................................................................................220
10.6.2 Cholera ...............................................................................................221
10.7 Alleviating the impacts of climate change ....................................................... 222
10.8 Promoting population health during intense climatic events............................. 224
x Contents

15. 10.8.1 Surveillance ........................................................................................224
10.8.2 Outbreaks investigations .....................................................................224
10.8.3 Public health education .......................................................................225
10.8.4 Community engagement......................................................................225
10.8.5 Policies and regulations.......................................................................225
10.8.6 Accessible care ...................................................................................225
10.8.7 Research and development..................................................................225
10.9 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 226
References ................................................................................................................. 226
Chapter 11: Impacts of global climate change on water quality
and its assessment ..........................................................................229
Keisham Radhapyari, Suparna Datta, Snigdha Dutta and Rinkumoni Barman
11.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 229
11.2 Overview of global climate change on water resources.................................... 230
11.3 Factors of global climate change affecting water quality ................................. 232
11.3.1 Impacts of increased global temperature and precipitation..................232
11.3.2 Impacts of droughts and increased temperature on water quality ........240
11.3.3 Impacts of flood and heavy precipitation on water quality..................242
11.3.4 Impacts of superstorm and high winds on water quality of
coastal surface water and estuaries......................................................243
11.3.5 Impacts of extreme heat and cold on water quality .............................244
11.3.6 Impacts of wildfire and heavy precipitation on water quality..............245
11.3.7 Global climate change and groundwater quality..................................246
11.4 Modeling techniques for assessing the impacts of global climate
change on water quality................................................................................... 256
11.4.1 Assessment of stream flow impacts on river/lake basin
and application of watershed modeling approach................................256
11.4.2 Assessment of impact of land use change on water quality.................258
11.4.3 Assessment of climate extreme on disinfection byproduct
formation by laboratory simulation method.........................................259
11.5 Conclusion....................................................................................................... 259
Abbreviations............................................................................................................. 260
References ................................................................................................................. 260
Chapter 12: Nanomaterials for climate change and water pollution mitigation.......277
Debika Devi Thongam and Harsh Chaturvedi
12.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 277
12.2 Climate change, global warming, and water pollution ..................................... 280
Contents xi

16. 12.2.1 Carbon dioxide....................................................................................282
12.2.2 Major water pollutants ........................................................................285
12.3 Nanomaterials.................................................................................................. 286
12.4 Nanomaterials in climate change ..................................................................... 288
12.4.1 CO2 capturing .....................................................................................290
12.4.2 Electrocatalytic reduction of CO2........................................................291
12.4.3 Photocatalytic reduction of CO2..........................................................294
12.4.4 Photoelectrocatalytic reduction of CO2 ...............................................296
12.5 Nanomaterials in water pollution ..................................................................... 300
12.5.1 Electrocatalytic wastewater treatment .................................................302
12.5.2 Photocatalysis of wastewater treatment...............................................305
12.5.3 Photoelectrocatalysis method ..............................................................307
12.6 Conclusion....................................................................................................... 308
Reference................................................................................................................... 309
Chapter 13: Biotechnological intervention in global warming: climate
change and water crisis ...................................................................315
Samurailatpam Sanjukta, Madhusmita Mahapatra and Sangeeta Sharma
13.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 315
13.2 Effects of human intervention in environment ................................................. 316
13.3 Effects of global warming................................................................................ 317
13.3.1 An overview on climate change and change in rainfall pattern ...........317
13.4 Biotechnological intervention in combating climate change and
water crisis....................................................................................................... 319
13.4.1 Role of agricultural biotechnologically in controlling climate
change and water crisis.......................................................................319
13.4.2 Application of industrial biotechnology in controlling climate
change and water crisis.......................................................................320
13.4.3 Application of mycobiotechnology in preventing climate
change and water crisis.......................................................................323
13.4.4 Nanotechnology in combating climate change and water crisis...........325
13.5 Conclusion....................................................................................................... 328
References ................................................................................................................. 328
Chapter 14: Climate change and its impact on natural resources..........................333
Jyoti Kushawaha, Sivaiah Borra, Abhishek Kumar Kushawaha,
Gurudatta Singh and Pardeep Singh
14.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 333
14.2 Water resources ............................................................................................... 335
xii Contents

17. 14.2.1 Distribution of water...........................................................................336
14.2.2 Climatic conditions and water scarcity................................................337
14.3 Ocean resources and climate change effect...................................................... 338
14.4 Forest resources and vegetation ....................................................................... 340
14.5 Fish and wildlife.............................................................................................. 342
14.5.1 Impact of climate change on freshwater..............................................342
14.6 Conclusion....................................................................................................... 343
References ................................................................................................................. 344
Chapter 15: The Influence of global climate change on freshwater ecosystem ........347
Razia Khan and Vipul Patel
15.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 347
15.2 Worldwide environmental variations impacting freshwater ecosystems ........... 349
15.2.1 Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide ..............................................349
15.2.2 Increase in temperature .......................................................................350
15.2.3 Solar and UV radiation .......................................................................351
15.2.4 Precipitation and drought ....................................................................351
15.3 Climate, environmental drivers, and aquatic ecosystems.................................. 352
15.4 Direct impacts of climate change on freshwater ecosystems............................ 352
15.4.1 Effect of climate change on lakes .......................................................353
15.4.2 Effect of climate change on rivers ......................................................354
15.4.3 Effect of climate change on wetlands..................................................355
15.5 Monitoring the responses of freshwater ecosystems to climate change ............ 356
15.5.1 Species distribution models to assess climate change impacts.............356
15.5.2 Models for the assessment of invasive species distribution .................356
15.6 Interaction of climate change and eutrophication and acid deposition.............. 357
15.7 Distribution of persistent organic pollutants and mercury in freshwater
ecosystems under changing climatic conditions ............................................... 358
15.8 Tools for better decision-making: linking science to policy............................. 359
15.9 Conclusion....................................................................................................... 360
References ................................................................................................................. 361
Chapter 16: The impact of wastewater treatment plants on global
climate change................................................................................367
João Paulo Bassin, Francine Duarte Castro, Renato Rocha Vale
´rio,
Erimar Pontes Santiago, Fernanda Ribeiro Lemos and Isabelli Dias Bassin
16.1 The role of the wastewater treatment on environmental preservation............... 367
16.2 Wastewater treatment plants: how do they work and what are the principles
behind their operation? .................................................................................... 370
Contents xiii

18. 16.2.1 Preliminary treatment..........................................................................370
16.2.2 Primary treatment ...............................................................................370
16.2.3 Secondary treatment............................................................................371
16.2.4 Tertiary treatment ...............................................................................374
16.2.5 Sludge treatment .................................................................................374
16.3 Wastewater treatment and climate change ....................................................... 375
16.3.1 The carbon cycle.................................................................................378
16.3.2 The nitrogen cycle ..............................................................................380
16.3.3 Emission factors..................................................................................384
16.3.4 Overall emissions................................................................................386
16.4 Strategies to control the adverse effect of wastewater treatment
plants on climate change.................................................................................. 387
16.5 Effect of climate change on wastewater treatment plants................................. 398
16.5.1 Effect of rising global temperature......................................................399
16.5.2 Effect of changes in precipitation patterns and intensities...................400
16.6 Concluding remarks......................................................................................... 401
Abbreviations............................................................................................................. 403
References ................................................................................................................. 404
Chapter 17: Changing climate and depleting water resources in the
mountains with a case study from the Himalayas..............................411
Anu Sharma and Moharana Choudhury
17.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 411
17.2 Some of the glaciers in the Himalayan region................................................ 414
17.3 Discussion in reference with case study......................................................... 414
17.4 Bhaderwah: a case study from the Himalayas................................................ 415
17.5 Topography and climate................................................................................. 416
17.6 Geology and soils features of the area ........................................................... 418
17.7 Sources of water in the area........................................................................... 419
17.8 Photographs showing the collection from the Neeru stream
followed by filtration plant ............................................................................ 419
17.9 Photographs of filtration plant and different reservoirs from the
study area....................................................................................................... 422
17.10 Conservation strategies .................................................................................. 425
17.11 Adaptation: a buzzword ................................................................................. 429
17.12 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 433
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................... 434
References ................................................................................................................. 434
Index..................................................................................................................437
xiv Contents

19. List of contributors
Pinki Rani Agrawal CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India; Academy of
Scientific and innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
Wazir Alam Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, Manipur University, Imphal,
India
Bindiya Aribam Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, Manipur University, Imphal,
India
Rinkumoni Barman Regional Chemical Laboratory, Central Ground Water Board, North Eastern
Region, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of
Jal Shakti, Guwahati, India
Isabelli Dias Bassin Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemistry, Federal
University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
João Paulo Bassin Chemical Engineering Program, COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Rajeev Bhatla Department of Geophysics, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Sivaiah Borra Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad, India
Francine Duarte Castro Department of Civil, Environmental, Architectural Engineering and
Mathematics, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
Arghya Chakravorty School of Bio Sciences & Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology,
Vellore, India
Amit Singh Chandel Center of Environmental Sciences, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
Chankit Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, Murthal, India
Aaditya Chaturvedi Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) Dhanbad, Dhanbad,
India
Harsh Chaturvedi Centre for Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India
Swati Chaudhary Department of Applied Science, MSIT, GGSIP University, New Delhi, India
Moharana Choudhury Voice of Environment (VoE), Guwahati, India
Suparna Datta Regional Chemical Laboratory, Central Ground Water Board, Eastern Region,
Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal
Shakti, Kolkata, India
Mitrajit Deb Department of Zoology, The Assam Royal Global University, Guwahati, India
Ksh Priyalakshmi Devi Centre for Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati,
India
xv

20. Rinku Moni Devi Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India
Snigdha Dutta Regional Chemical Laboratory, Central Ground Water Board, North Eastern
Region, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of
Jal Shakti, Guwahati, India
Gaurav Gupta Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Priyanshu Gupta Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, India
Ittishree Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, M.D. University, Rohtak, India
Mahima Kaushik Nano-bioconjugate Chemistry Lab, Cluster Innovation Centre, University of
Delhi, New Delhi, India
Razia Khan Department of Microbiology, Girish Raval College of Science, Gujarat University,
Ahmedabad, India
Ravi Kumar CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India; Academy of Scientific and
innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
Abhishek Kumar Kushawaha KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad, India
Jyoti Kushawaha School of Environmental Sciences, JNU, New Delhi, India
Fernanda Ribeiro Lemos Chemical Engineering Program, COPPE, Federal University of Rio de
Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Madhusmita Mahapatra Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Development, Sikkim Centre,
Gangtok, India
Jyoti Mehta Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi,
India
Virendra Kumar Mishra Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, India
Bhanu Pandey CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Dhanbad, India
Vipul Patel Environment Management and Climate Change Group, Center for Environment
Education, Ahmedabad, India
Keisham Radhapyari Regional Chemical Laboratory, Central Ground Water Board, North Eastern
Region, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of
Jal Shakti, Guwahati, India
Rehab A. Rayan Department of Epidemiology, High Institute of Public Health, Alexandria
University, Alexandria, Egypt
Samurailatpam Sanjukta Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Development, Sikkim Centre,
Gangtok, India
Erimar Pontes Santiago Civil Engineering Department, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus,
Brazil
Niloy Sarkar Department of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India; Nano-
bioconjugate Chemistry Lab, Cluster Innovation Centre, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Shubham Saroj Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
Anu Sharma Government Degree College, Bhaderwah, India
Rahul Sharma CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India; Academy of Scientific and
innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
xvi List of contributors

21. Sangeeta Sharma Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Development, Sikkim Centre,
Gangtok, India
Aditya Abha Singh University Department of Botany, B.R.A. Bihar University, Muzaffarpur,
India
Anubhuti Singh Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, India
Arvind K. Singh Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow, India
Gurudatta Singh Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, India
Janhavi Singh Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Pardeep Singh Department of Environmental Studies, PGDAV College, University of Delhi, New
Delhi, India
Priyanka Singh Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, India
Nazia Talat SPM College for Women, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Binota Thokchom Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, Manipur University,
Imphal, India
Debika Devi Thongam Centre for Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati,
India
Renato Rocha Valério Chemical Engineering Program, COPPE, Federal University of Rio de
Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Coordination of Security and Administration of Technological
Environments, Federal Institute of Rio de Janeiro, Nilopolis, Brazil
Sunita Verma Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Aneet Kumar Yadav Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India
List of contributors xvii

22. Preface
One of the major issues in today’s human existence is “climate change.” As a consequence,
water quality has also been affected dramatically. Few visible impacts related to water with
changes in global temperature and climate are alteration in water temperature, changes in
dissolved oxygen rate which can change the dynamics of living beings, variation in
precipitation pattern of the globe, sea-level rise with sequential follow up like tsunami,
flood, etc. It can be mentioned that even a minor sea-level rise by as much as a foot can
pose big risks of tsunamis for coastal communities worldwide. Besides, new findings have
shown the high potential of causing deathly flood in nearby areas from tsunamis that have
followed earthquakes. One big example is that of northern Japan after the 2011 Tohoku-Oki
earthquake, causing a nuclear plant to meltdown and spread radioactive contamination,
causing panic to humanity and also the unexpected one in Indonesia in 2019, which are all
in one way or the other, notorious consequences of climate change. Therefore, it is of
utmost necessity to gather the latest information and knowledge which will help in
identifying the existing as well as expected rising issues on climate change and adaptation,
possible water management practices, policy-related action to enhance water security, to
create resilience towards climate change, etc. This book will highlight the indispensable
issues related to climate change and water resources. It will not only serve as a valuable
reference to policymakers, but many researchers and students will also get to know the
possible prediction of its impacts and patterns that may happen shortly. Unlike other books,
mathematical tools and simulation models will also be collected such that the general public
will also benefit by learning how to do predictions on major calamities caused by climate
change and water issues at their arm’s length. Apart from it, potential impacts on
agriculture and drinking water quality will also be discussed regarding food and water
security to the society. Furthermore, case studies on the proper management of water and
pollutants that contribute to climate change will also be analyzed.
The important contributions made by the authors are briefly given below:
Chapter 1, Impact of Climate Change and Water Quality Degradation on Food Security and
Agriculture, by Verma et al. summarizes the current knowledge of the predicted climate
change and water quality assessment studies. The impacts of these changes on the major
sets on the agricultural system at risk are analyzed and the inferences for global food
xxi

23. security are also examined. Finally, an overview of major mitigation strategies that can
contribute to responding to these global challenges effectively is presented.
Chapter 2, Groundwater Extractions and Climate Change, by Agrawal et al. discusses the
current situation of groundwater resources and their global distribution. The
interconnections between groundwater overextraction and climate change are reviewed in
light of recent research. The major challenges and opportunities concerning groundwater
utilization and climate sustainability are also highlighted.
Chapter 3, Urban Water-Supply Management: Indirect Issues of Climate Change Leading to
Water Scarcity Scenarios in Developing and Underdeveloped Nations, by Talat introduces
the area of “urban water supply,” its management, and the influence of climate change on
it. The impacts of climate change on the urban water supply systems in the context of
developing and underdeveloped countries are also explored. Several approaches on
mitigation, adaptation, and management are discussed. The methods of adaptation and
mitigation to the impacts of climate change on urban water utilities in the case of
developing and underdeveloped nations are geared towards the use of affordable
technologies, community participation, use of available resources, and
adaptable management structure.
Chapter 4, Impact of Climate Change on Freshwater Ecosystem, by Singh et al. discusses
several effects of climate changes on the availability of freshwater such as the increase in
temperature (increase rate of evaporation, forest fire), melting of ice (increase in flood,
adverse effect the migration of fishes), and sea-level rise. Besides, the problems in the
current freshwater ecosystem are also highlighted such as low oxygen demands, low pH and
thermal stratification.
Chapter 5, An Overview of the Potential Impacts of Global Climate Change on Water
Resources, by Pandey et al. highlights the physical, chemical, biological, and
socioeconomic impacts of present and expected scenario of global climate change on the
nature of the world’s freshwater resources. The climate change and its causes and effects on
water resources and implications for adaptation is also discussed.
Chapter 6, Climatic Controls on Water Resources and Its Management: Challenges and
Prospects of Sustainable Development in Indian Perspective, by Singh and Singh provides
an overview of water resources and its availability, climatic controls, impacts of
environment, and climate change. The prospects of sustainable development of water
resources in Indian perspective are also explored. Furthermore, a series of possible long
term sustainable measures are also proposed in managing the water resources amidst
growing natural and anthropogenic challenges.
Chapter 7, Recent Advances in Nanotechnology for Accomplishing Sustainable Agriculture,
by Kaushik et al. discusses some of the agricultural problem, nanotechnology-based
management of plant diseases and retention of soil moisture. More research is needed for
xxii Preface

24. the long-term stability, environmental fate, and toxicity of such nanoformulations before
their widespread use that can be considered for accomplishing sustainable agriculture.
Chapter 8, Water, Arsenic, and Climate Change, by Aribam et al. has summarized that the
quality of groundwater has also been degraded due to increasing human population and
excessive withdrawal for human consumption, domestic and irrigation purposes. Besides,
changing the climate pattern affects the global water resources and it has been reported that
there is a strong correlation between climate change and seasonal variation on arsenic
content in groundwater level. The decrease in water level increases the arsenic-rich bed
oxidation and mobilization.
Chapter 9, An Overview of Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications and
Combating Climate Change, by Devi and Chaturvedi summarizes the application of
nanotechnology to mitigate both climate change and water treatment problems, which are
the latest and highly advanced technology.
Chapter 10, Climate Change: Impact on Waterborne Infectious Diseases, by Rayan et al.
reviews the effect of climate change on waterborne infectious diseases. Special focus has been
paid on some intense climatic events on affecting the insect vectors’ life cycle by influencing
the reproduction and survival rates, habitat, prosperity, and transmission. Similarly, it affects
the proliferating and survival rates of the infectious agent inside the vector.
Chapter 11, Impacts of Global Climate Change on Water Quality and Its Assessment, by
Barman et al. talks about the latest major scientific findings and the resultant implications
for managing the potential impacts of global climate change especially with regard to water
quality. Recent findings, detailed technical data and analyses, maps, analytical
methodology, graphs, and models that support the findings are summarized. They have also
incorporated various modeling approaches for assessment of such impacts on surface and
ground water quality. The chapter, in addition, provides detailed information in a table on
the various factors of global climate change and their impacts on the parameters affecting
water quality, types of water body, study area, and important findings and assessments.
Chapter 12, Nanomaterials for Climate Change and Water Pollution Mitigation, by
Thongam and Chaturvedi describes the use of nanomaterials for environmental applications:
CO2 capture and conversion. Another victim of industrialization, growth, and misdeeds of
earth’s inhabitants is water, with numerous types and amount of pollutants that are added
up to the water bodies via direct or indirect insertion. Three different technologies:
photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, and photoelectrocatalysis are explained methodologically as
a solution finder by using nanomaterials as an approach to mitigate air and water pollutions.
The efficiency of these nanomaterials depends upon its type and their applications.
Chapter 13, Biotechnological Intervention in Global Warming: Climate Change and Water
Crisis, by Sanjukta et al. elucidates the application of nanotechnology, a recent technology
based on nanosized particles to prevent climate change and water treatment processes,
Preface xxiii

25. thereby introducing nanocatalyst, nanoseive, nanotubes, etc., and contributing maximum
efficiency with minimum consumption of energy. Some biotechnological interventions
turned out to be a positive approach to tackle global issues on climate change and water
crisis that have affected billions of lives and disturbed the ecosystem.
Chapter 14, Climate Change and Its Impact on Natural Resources, by Kushawaha et al.
discusses climate change, its indicators and its impact on natural resources, especially on
water, ocean, and forest resources. Moreover, the impact of climate change on water
resources is the fundamental concern in this chapter. The industrialization leads to the
emergence of employment, economic growth, development, high living standards but along
with this the climate change poses a fundamental threat to ecology, environment because of
the exploitation of the natural resources recklessly.
Chapter 15, The Influence of Global Climate Change on Freshwater Ecosystem, by Khan
and Patel summarizes the strategies to minimize the adverse impacts of human activities,
land-use change, environmental pollution, and water diversion through policies that promote
more science-based management of aquatic resources. They are the most successful path to
continue health and sustainability of these ecosystems. Management priorities should
include providing aquatic resources with adequate water quality and quantity at appropriate
times, reducing nutrient loads, and limiting the spread of exotic species.
Chapter 16, The Impact of Wastewater Treatment Plants on Global Climate Change, by
Bassin et al. discusses the role of different processes in greenhouse gas (GHG) production.
Operational strategies to minimize GHG emissions from WWTP are also addressed,
including the control of several variables within the plants facilities, such as dissolved
oxygen concentration, applied load, temperature, pH, hydraulic (HRT) and solids retention
time. Treatment approaches for GHG streams that are inevitably produced and innovative
processes, such as Anammox, CANDO and co-cultures of bacteria and microalgae, capable
of generating less GHG and allowing better use of wastewater resources, are also described.
Finally, the effects of climate change and its associated consequences (e.g., increased
rainfall intensity and temperature), on the performance and operation of current wastewater
treatment systems are presented.
Chapter 17, Changing Climate and Depleting Water Resources in the Mountains with a
Case Study from the Himalayas, by Choudhury et al. is mainly focused on highlighting the
intricate relationship between growing issue of climate change and diminishing water
sources, the significant sources and patterns of utilization of water in the hilly regions and
the matters of water wastage, public attitude, consequences, and conservation strategies
with the help of a case study.
We sincerely do expect that the insights from this book on various aspects related to
climate change for water resources and adaptation would be quite useful for scientists
working in this field all across the globe.
xxiv Preface

26. Biographies
Dr. Binota Thokchom is a DST-Inspire faculty member at the Center for Nanotechnology,
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati and Department of Forestry and Environmental
Science Manipur University, India. She completed her Doctoral Degree at Korea
University, Seoul. Her research interests reach across several environmental issues
including water related crises tied to nanomaterials, water treatment using AOPs,
nanomaterial synthesis, electrode synthesis, environmental monitoring, and assessment, as
well as simulation and prediction of environmental impacts across models.
Dr. Pengpeng Qiu is an assistant professor in the State Key Laboratory for Modification of
Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering in
Donghua University. He completed his doctoral degree from korea university and did
postdoctoral fellow from Fudan University, Shanghai. His research interests include the
design and synthesis of porous materials for catalysis, sensing and energy related fields. He
has more than 20 publications to date.
Dr. Pardeep Singh is an assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Studies,
PGDAV College University of Delhi, New Delhi, India. He completed his doctoral degree
from Indian Institute of Technology, BHU. The areas of research include degradation of
organic pollutants through various indigenous isolated microbes and by using various types
of photocatalysts. He has published more than 40 publications in the international journals
in the field of waste management
Dr. Parameswar K. Iyer received the Ph.D. degree in chemistry from the CSIR-CSMCRI-
Bhavnagar, India, in 1999. He was a postdoctoral researcher with Technion, Haifa, Israel,
from 1999 to 2001, University of California Santa Barbara, CA, USA, from 2001 to 2003,
and Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA, from 2003 to 2004. In 2004,
he joined the Department of Chemistry, IIT Guwahati, India, as an assistant professor, and
has been promoted to a full-time professor in 2013. His research interest includes
nanomaterials synthesis, design and development of sensors and kits for medical and
environmental applications.
xix

27. C H A P T E R 1
Impact of climate change and water quality
degradation on food security and
agriculture
Priyanshu Gupta1
, Janhavi Singh1
, Sunita Verma1
, Amit Singh Chandel2
and
Rajeev Bhatla3
1
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
2
Center of Environmental Sciences, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 3
Department of
Geophysics, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
1.1 Introduction
The earth system is like a complex organization with various abiotic and biotic components,
representing the vital segments that are interlinked with each other, thus altering even a single
link of this organization will lead us one step closer to the fall of existing system. This dynamic
system has been uninterruptedly supporting life for at least 3.8 billion years. The forensic
investigation of the strata has shown that the Earth’s climatic system generally exhibits very long-
term stability along with maintenance of complex interaction between the spheres of life viz., the
biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere and lithosphere (Zalasiewicz & Williams, 2016).
This natural system is self-sufficient in buffering the alterations induced by anthropogenic
activities, but changes are occurring at a much faster pace than the healing process of nature.
With rapidly growing global population, climate change is likely to affect agricultural
sector and food security at local, regional, global levels. Climate change drastically alters
the food availability; induce changes in precipitation pattern and lowers down the water
quality. Extreme temperatures and precipitation associated with climate change can
significantly affect crop growth, development and productivity. Furthermore, the degrading
water quality causes impact on agricultural sector enhancing the issue of global food
insecurity. Therefore, agriculture productivity may be declined by combined effect of
climate change and reduction in irrigated water availability.
Climate change and water resource quality are two parameters of the natural system that are
closely associated with each other and both will unleash higher degrees of adverse impacts
1
Water Conservation in the Era of Global Climate Change.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820200-5.00006-3
© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

28. on the natural system if altered in negative ways beyond a certain limit. With the
advancement in science and technology, the human mind is becoming more and more
anthropocentric. Earth Planet was there before came into existence and will remain even if
we perish. It is time to make a choice whether we want the human race to exist in the
history of the earth or create a future sustaining all life-forms including us. In the current
chapter, the nature and impacts of water quality degradation and climate change in
agricultural systems and food security have been discussed.
1.2 Climate change
Long-term changes in the weather pattern over a period of time define climate change. It causes
significant changes in weather events, global precipitation, temperature, wind patterns, and other
phenomena of climate over a comparable period of time. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) has described climate change as a deviation from the prevailing
regional or global climate patterns, which are taken into consideration over a long period of
time, decades or longer (Stocker et al., 2013). Different statistical test can be used to identified
the changing state of climate, that is, changes by variability and mean of its properties.
According to UNFCC, climate change refers to as any alteration in the composition of global
atmosphere through direct and indirect interference of human activities beyond the variability of
the natural climate over a period of time.
When we discuss about climate change, our first priority is global warming which is
further interlinked with the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is the manifestation
of the abnormalities in radiation budget, that is, the amount of light the earth receives and
the amount of light and heat it reflects. It is actually a natural phenomenon which has
been accelerated due to various anthropogenic activities and so is the process of climate
change which in turn leads to global warming. Thus it needs to be realized that global
warming is not climate change itself, but it is one of the major contributing factor to the
changing climate.
1.2.1 Precursors of climate change
Anything that causes a continuous change in the amount of energy coming in or out can
lead to a change in climate. Different factors apply to different time scales, and not all of
those factors that contributed to climate change in the past are relevant to existing climate
change. The changes in the global climatic conditions can be attributed to natural as well as
anthropogenic sources (Fig. 1.1). Natural factors such as oceanic currents, continental drifts,
the earth’s axis slant, volcanic eruptions and celestial objects (comets, asteroids, meteorites,
etc.) have played significant roles in the process of climate change since the origin of the
earth (Shankar and Shikha, 2018). Apart from the aforementioned causes, the earth’s
2 Chapter 1

29. climate is changing rapidly in response of numerous anthropogenic activities (deforestation,
industrialization, urbanization, change in land use patterns, agricultural activities, pollution,
etc.) contributing to the enhanced emissions of all greenhouse gases (Gillett et al., 2012;
Stott et al., 2016).
1.2.2 Current scenario of global climate change
The evidences presented in support of the changing climate patterns are enthralling. The
global temperature rise, warming of the atmosphere and oceans, changing precipitation
patterns, extreme events, ocean acidification, shrinking ice sheets and glacial snow
cover retreats escalating sea levels are all clear indications that the problem of climate
change is real.
Since the 1950s, many prodigious changes have been observed over decades to millennia,
thus rendering the warming of the climate to be unmistakable (IPCC’s Fifth Assessment
Report). The recent IPCC assessment report estimates the planet’s mean combined
terrestrial and oceanic surface temperature has reached 14.6
C by an increase of 0.84
C,
between 1880 and 2012 (IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report). The increase in global warming
can be attributed to enhanced emission rates of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, since the
preindustrial era, which was recorded to be highest from 2000 to 2010 within the earth’s
history (IPCC, 2014). The atmospheric CO2 (the largest greenhouse gas holding a global
warming potential of 1) concentration has increased from 280 ppm in 1750 (IPCC) to
412 ppm in 2019 (Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii). Apart from CO2, two other
greenhouse gases viz. CH4 and N2O has also been found to be increasing in the atmosphere
Drivers of climate change
Natural factors Anthropogenic factors
Continental drifts
Celestial objects
Earth axis tilt
Volcanic eruption
Oceanic current
Change in Land-use
Industrialization
Pollution
Urbanization
Deforestation
Agriculture
Figure 1.1
Factors affecting the climatic system of the earth.
Impact of climate change and water quality degradation on food security and agriculture 3

30. since 1750, and the concentration was recorded to be 1803 ppb and 324 ppb, respectively
for the year 2011 (IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report).
Although global warming is the most illuminating effect of climate change, other impacts
associated directly or indirectly with warming of the earth have also been discussed. The
uppermost stratum of the oceans absorbs ambient CO2 by 2 billion tons per year (Sabine et al.,
2004, The Copenhagen Diagnosis: Climate Science Report) of the total emitted anthropogenic
carbon dioxide, 30% is being absorbed by the oceans leading to ocean acidification (IPCC’s
Fifth Assessment Report). The acidity of surface marine waters has amplified from the
beginning of the industrial revolution which is clearly indicated by the decrease of 0.1 in pH
levels corresponding to 26% increment in the hydrogen ion concentration (IPCC’s Fifth
Assessment Report). On the other hand, the oceans have also been found to be absorbing much
of the extended heat of the earth system, with the uppermost 700 meters of seawater exhibiting
warming of greater than 0.4
F since 1969 (Levitus et al., 2017). An eight-inch rise in the
world’s oceans was recorded in the last century and degrees in the last two decades have nearly
doubled in the last century and are increasing slowly with each passing year (Nerem et al.,
2018). As per the IPCC AR5, global mean sea level has increased by 0.19 during the period
1901 to 2010. Lastly, the two enormous ice sheets viz. Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets have
subsided in mass. It has been reported that in the last decade, the degree of Antarctic ice-mass
depletion has increased by three-fold. The major impacts of climate change have been
summarized in Fig. 1.2.
Considering the pace at which climate is changing, it is recognized as consistent increase in
global problem. But the main concern remains that how much more climate change will be
there and what impacts will ensue the earth system.
1.3 Water quality degradation
Water is one of the major resources affected by the drastic alterations in the natural system.
It has a number of properties that are critically important to life and the environment.
Besides, the utilization of water by the human race, it is also an essential requirement for
the maintenance of life on earth. It plays vital role in photosynthetic process, supports
aquatic life, and it is also a crucial dietary component for every living organism on earth.
In case of water pollution, one extreme definition would be to say that unless water is
100% pure in the general chemical sense, but up to some extent it is polluted. The quality
of natural waters at any point of landscape is a resultant of the collective effects of various
processes along water routes (Peters Meybeck, 2000). When the number and/or
concentration of the chemicals enter in an aquatic or freshwater system exceeded a certain
limit and altered the natural qualities of water and make polluted. Apart from the dissolved
impurities, suspended matter is also hazardous and degraded the water qualities.
4 Chapter 1

31. 1.3.1 Basic parameters of water quality
If a pollutant can be defined as a toxic substance or effect that have a tendency to adversely
alter the physical, chemical and biological aspects of the environment through disrupting the
food chain, altering the growth and development rate of species, or interfering with the health,
property value, and amenities of human beings, then it becomes critical to put a check on the
sources, types and concentration of pollutants by setting up standards and guidelines, and also
for indicating that the water whose properties exceeds the standard limits, may result in a
specific environmental alteration. This definition too has limitations, because in order to define
standards, information regarding toxicity and other factors are required. The guidelines for
quality of water assessment are based on the following parameters:
1. Physical properties (odor, color, temperature, and turbidity).
2. Chemical properties (hardness, pH, BOD, salinity, detergents, etc.).
3. For specific elements, organic compounds and complex ions; for radiological
properties, that is, levels of radioactivity because of particular isotopes.
4. Biological characteristics with pathogenic microbes, cyanobacteria, and water quality
proxies (Delpla et al., 2009).
Climate
change
Global
temperature
rise
Waming
oceans
Shrinking
ice sheets
Glacial
retreat
Decreased
snow cover
Sea level
rise
Declining
arcc sea
ice
Extreme
Events
Figure 1.2
Major impacts of climate change.
Impact of climate change and water quality degradation on food security and agriculture 5

32. Lastly, decisions regarding the particular standards will depend on the end use of the water.
For drinking water stringent requirements are necessary, including properties related to
esthetics such as color, taste, and odor. For industrial and irrigation purposes, quality
standards may be less severe.
1.3.2 Precursors and adverse effects of water quality degradation
The quality of natural waters in a region is influenced not only by the local climatic factors,
but it is a resultant of both global changes in the climatic conditions as well as regional
anthropogenic activities. For example, changes in the precipitation pattern over a region
will affect the availability of water and can also affect the quality of the natural water
reservoirs. As far as anthropogenic interference is concerned, there are numerous activities
contributing to the degrading water quality. For example, industrial operations produce
large quantities and a wide range of waste disposal products that are usually distributed to
river basins. The overall factors influencing the global water availability and quality along
with the intended effects of water quality degradation has been summarized in Fig. 1.3.
1.3.3 Current status of global water quality degradation
Water quality degradation is one of the most challenging problems that human beings can face
throughout the 21st century, endangering human health, hindering with economic growth,
disturbing ecosystem functionality as well as contributing to the crisis of food insecurity
(UNESCO). Degradation of water quality directly gets converted into environmental, economic,
and social issues. The major source behind water pollution is the disposal of enormous amounts
of inadequately treated or untreated, sewage and effluents into lakes, rivers, coastal waters, and
aquifers. Two million tons of sewage and other effluents gutter into the global water system
each day (UNESCO). In developing countries, 90% of sewage is dumped straight into the
bodies of water without any treatment (Connor, 2015). The countless nonpoint water pollution
sources arising from urban and semiurban regions as well as from agricultural system
frequently adds up to the total pollutant load with a generous contribution coming from
industrial and sewage plants as a point source pollution. An estimation of 300 to 400 megatons
of refuse gets discharged into water bodies every year by the various industries (UNESCO).
Additionally, wastewater reuse for irrigation comes associated with frequent supply of
carbon-based microcontaminants, such as pharmaceuticals and other synthetic organics in soils
and crops (Malakar et al., 2019). But, we cannot exploit the ground water resource for
irrigation because increasing dependence on groundwater adds up to the possibility for higher
levels of natural geogenic heavy metal adulterants such as arsenic and selenium in irrigation
water system (Malakar et al., 2019). Thus a clear understanding of the introduction of these
new contaminating agents in agricultural system and their fate should be given utmost
importance which can further aid in preventing the effects to modern agricultural products.
6 Chapter 1

33. Furthermore, emerging novel contaminants and changing climate patterns aggravates the
problem and presents a new water quality challenge with indefinite influences. These
emerging pollutants can be broadly classified metals, industrial and household chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, pesticides, personal care products, and industrial chemicals.
Some of the important findings of the World Water Quality Assessment: Snapshot of
World’s Water Quality: Toward a Global Assessment (GEM/Water Program, UNEP) on
global water degradation have been listed below (UNEP, 2016):
• About one-third of all rivers in Asia, Latin America, and Africa are affected by severe
pathogenic pollution. Hundreds to millions of the rural inhabitants on these continents
are being exposed to unsafe surface waters.
Climac factors
(Climate change, precipitaon
paerns, droughts, floods, sea
level rise, ocean acidificaon,
glacial retreats, shrinking ice
sheets, temperature, CO etc.)
Anthropogenic factors
Developmental drivers
(socioeconomic
development, GDP,
populaon explosion,
urbanizaon, land use
change, etc.)
Water demand changes
in various sectors
(municipal, industrial,
agriculture, energy, etc.)
and polluon
Global water quality degradaon
Imapcts
Food
insecurity
Adverse
effects on
aquac
habitats
Increased
health
risks
Ecosystem
instability
Disrupon
of
hydrological
cycle
Figure 1.3
Major drivers of water quality degradation and its impacts.
Impact of climate change and water quality degradation on food security and agriculture 7

34. • About one-seventh of all rivers in Asia, Latin America, and Africa are affected by high
levels of biological pollution and area major concern to the freshwater fishery.
• Approximately one-tenth of the entire rivers in Asia, Africa, and Latin America are
suffering from moderate to severe levels of salinity pollution, thus damaging the
potential water resource for irrigation, industrial and other applications.
As far as freshwater quality is concerned several localized studies have also been conducted.
The results are indicative of changing hydrological patterns along with degradation of
freshwater quality around the globe. A few of the studies are enlisted in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Observed hydrological changes and their causes, not all of which are anthropogenic.
Observed impacts Caused by References
1 Changes in the global river
runoff (1960 94)
Majorly due to climate change,
and to a minor extent by
increase in CO2 and land use
change
Alkama et al. (2011);
Gerten et al. (2008);
Piao et al. (2007)
2 Yellow River exhibits continual
reduction in runoff (China)
Rise in temperature; merely
35% decline is caused by
anthropogenic withdrawals
Piao et al. (2010)
3 Russian Arctic shows earlier
yearly peak discharge
(1960 2001)
Earlier spring thaw and rising
temperature
Shiklomanov et al. (2007)
4 Early annual peak discharge
shown by Columbia River
(Western United States,
1950 99)
Human-induced warming Hidalgo et al. (2009)
5 Water yield due to glacier melt is
higher in 1910 40 than in
1980 2000 (European Alps)
Glacier recession caused by
analogous warming rates in the
two periods
Collins (2008)
6 Decrease in dry-season average
discharge (Peru, 1950s 90s)
Glacial retreat in the absence
of a definite trend in rainfall
Baraer et al. (2012)
7 Disappearance of Chacaltaya
Glacier (Bolivia, 2009)
Ascent of freezing isotherm at
50 m per decade,
1980s 2000s
Rosenzweig et al. (2007)
8 Intensified precipitation
extremes in the Midlatitudes
and Norther tropics
(1951 99)
Anthropogenic emissions of
greenhouse gas
Min et al. (2011)
9 20% increment in the risk of
flooding in autumn (England
and Wales, 2000)
Extreme rainfall caused by
human-induced greenhouse
radiation
Pall et al. (2011)
10 Decrease in the water recharge
to the karst aquifers (Spain,
20th century)
Decrease in rainfall, and
probably rise in temperature;
several other confounding
elements
Aguilera and Murillo (2009)
(Continued)
8 Chapter 1

35. 1.4 Global food security
Natural resources are the basic assets of food assembly, sustainable development, rural
development and human well-being. In fact, in many parts of the world there is
increasing pressure on natural resources, as well as concerns about their widespread
use, protection and control of adverse effects that contribute to economic growth.
Food being our major energy source when limited to access causes impact on health in
multiple ways. Taking world into consideration there are roughly one billion
individuals who are food deprived and malnourished to meet their dietary needs
(Barrett and Lentz, 2010). Malnutrition is an umbrella term that involves over
nutrition (high energy intake), under nutrition (lack of macronutrients and energy),
and micronutrient deficiencies (inadequate micronutrients such as iodine, vitamin B
and iron). About 20 nations in Asia, Africa, Middle East, and the Western Pacific
accounts for 80% of the malnourished people globally. Around 3.5 million children
under the age of five die each year in these areas and deaths result from malnutrition-
related illnesses.
Table 1.1: (Continued)
Observed impacts Caused by References
11 Reduction in ground water
recharge (Kashmir,
1985 2005)
Reduction in winter rainfall
events
Jeelani (2008)
12 Upland lakes shows increment
in dissolved organic carbon
(United Kingdom, 1988 2003)
Rise in precipitation events and
temperature; several other
confounding elements
Evans et al. (2005)
13 Amplified anoxia in Sau
reservoir, moderate during El
Nino Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) events (Spain,
1964 1991 and 1994 2007)
Decrease in runoff which is
attributable to increased
evaporative demand and
decrease in rainfall
Marcé et al. (2010)
14 Saltwater wetland
demonstrates inconsistent fecal
pollution (California,
1969 2000)
Fluctuating storm runoff; 70%
of the coliform variability is
caused by inconsistent rainfall
Pednekar et al. (2005)
15 Reduced eutrophication in
reservoirs and swamp (North
Carolina, 1978 2003)
Attributable to Hurricanes Paerl et al. (2006)
16 Western Victorian lakes shows
increment in nutrient
concentration (Australia,
1984 2000)
Rise in water and air
temperatures
Tibby and Tiller (2007)
Reference: Freshwater Resources IPCC Report.
Impact of climate change and water quality degradation on food security and agriculture 9

36. Food security can be portrayed as a mind-set of why and how malnutrition comes from
and how it can be prevented. It is also a measure of food availability and the
individual’s ability to obtain it. In 1974 the World Food Conference described “food
security” as, all-time availability of adequate, nutritious, varied, balanced and moderate
dietary supplement to support the continued growth of food consumption and avoid
product and price fluctuations.
Later in 1996, the World Food Summit expressed, “Food security exists when all people, at
all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet
their dietary needs and food preferences for a vigorous and healthy life.” Every human has
right to food security. Universal Declaration of Human Rights article 25 in 1948 states:
“Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of
himself and his family, including food” (FAO, 2016). Over time the concept of food safety
is becoming more widespread to incorporate a variety of factors that influences
malnutrition. Food safety is usually measured by the amount of calories taken by per person
per day, which is available in the home budget.
At present, the purpose of indicators and measures of food safety is to consider its key
elements: availability, access, use, and durability; even though some see stability as an
alternative cross cutting factor. Food security exists if all above mentioned components are
present. (Fig. 1.4).
1.4.1 Components of food security
The four main components of food security are defined as:
1.4.1.1 Availability of food
Availability being one of the important component of food security denotes supply. The
term refers to the physical flow and existence of nutritious and nontoxic food at a particular
Food
security
Availability
Access
Utilization
Stability
Figure 1.4
The four components of food security.
10 Chapter 1

37. place and time. Enough nutritive food of adequate quality must be accessible to individuals
for his or her use. Availability may be affected by:
• Production: Quantity and kind of food available through locally produced and stored
foods.
• Distribution: How, when for whom, and in what form is the food delivered.
• Exchange: The available food can be gained through the exchange process, such as
trading, buying or lending.
1.4.1.2 Access to food
Access, which is one of the four components of food security, is concerned that a person or
household can access (and consumes) accessible food. It refers to the ability to buy or
exchange grocery goods, as well as other social policies that affect the delivery and
accessibility of foods. Individuals and families should be able to obtain enough food to eat
a nutritious, healthy food, or have the resources they need to develop their own food (such
as the earth). Accessibility may be affected by:
• Affordability: Individuals, households or communities ability to bear the cost of their
food or land to produce food.
• Allocation: The economic, social and political policies that govern where, when, and
how consumers obtain food and in what terms.
• Preferences: Social, religious, and cultural values affect consumer demand for certain
food types (such as religious prohibition or the desire to adopt certain dietary practices,
such as vegetarian).
1.4.1.3 Utilization of food
Utilization is one of the four components of food safety talks about the body’s ability to
secure most of the nutrients from the diet. People need to have an adequate amount and
variety of food to meet their nutritional requirements, but also to be able to metabolize such
food properly. Use may be affected by:
• Nutritional Value: Calories, vitamins, protein and various micronutrients (e.g., calcium,
iodine, and vitamin B) are measured from the food consumed.
• Health status: The impact of disease on the ability to eat and absorb nutrients
(e.g. HIV/AIDS or diarrhea).
1.4.1.4 Stability
Stability, one of the four components of food security, crosses over and affects all other
components. Food may be available to those who can use it effectively, but to prevent
malnutrition and to make people feel insecure, the situation may be temporary or
fluctuating, should be permanent instead.
Impact of climate change and water quality degradation on food security and agriculture 11

38. 1.4.2 Assessment of food security
The assessment of food security can be done by considering the types and levels of food
security. The condition of food security differs over a spread of scales, starting from a
single person to world population.
Types of food insecurity can also be differentiated by their extent or regularity.
• Seasonal food insecurity: This is a condition that reoccurs probably, and follows the
cyclical seasonal pattern.
• Transitory food insecurity: This is a short-term and momentary condition in which the
people suffer from unstable food insecurity when there is an unexpected decline in the
capacity to harvest or obtain adequate food for a vigorous nutritious status.
• Chronic food insecurity: This is a long-term and permanent condition in which a person
suffers when they cannot meet the minimum requirements of food for a prolonged
period (about six months or more per year).
1.4.3 Factors affecting food security
Key elements of malnutrition are poverty, that requires sustainable development
mechanisms and a lot of even handed distribution of wealth, chiefly within the
agricultural sector. Climate change, especially, can have adverse effects on farming and
its capability to supply food merchandise. There will be direct effects on biophysical
progressions and economic conditions on agricultural extension programs, and also the
indirect effects on development and delivery of resources, and consequently on the need
for agricultural commerce. A number of factors affect food security and most of them
are concentrated in the region, with the exception of climate change where impacts are
felt worldwide. Some of the leading factors are: land degradation, water quality and
quantity, climate change, and overpopulation.
Climate is changing globally and there has been worry to the direction and effects of these
changes. Globally, temperatures have increased by more than 0.6
C over the past century and
are likely to rise between 1.1
C and 6.4
C by 2100 as informed by the UN-funded IPCC
(2007). Climatic conditions are expected to bring both positive and negative changes to food
patterns and different food security challenges, which can affect food status. Climate change
and climate-related events are the foremost contributors to the recent increase in world poverty
and one of the main causes of the food crisis. Extreme events, instance floods and droughts, are
said to be increasing along with climate change and global warming. From nightlong flooding
to occasional drought, this will have different effects on the agricultural area.
According to the Climate and Development Knowledge Network report, Management of
Climate Disasters and Extremes in the Agriculture Sectors: Lessons from the IPCC SREX
12 Chapter 1

39. Report, the results will contain change in productivity and livelihoods, financial losses, and
impacts on organization, marketplaces, and food security. Climate change can compound
existing food insecurity resulting in chance of food shortages. It is important to find strategies
that enable the most vulnerable groups to address the impacts of climate change. It is
imperative to produce more food; we should also take care of its value-addition and its impact
on the environment. The choice between quantity and quality is to be understood right now and
should be translated into government policies on agriculture to assure food security. In two
ways agriculture play important role for the food security: it harvests human food and delivers
the main source of living. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing are all climate sensitive. The
production methods are expected to be affected by changing in global climate. In general,
impacts are likely to be negative in tropical regions and positive in temperate regions, but there
is still ambiguity about how the estimated changes will be played out in the local environment,
and probable impacts can be reversed by adopting risk management and adaptation tactics that
enhance readiness and resilience. Change of climate has also been the reason of repeated and
more extreme weather events such as precipitation not keeping up with seasonal patterns.
Changing growth times have changed the natural outlook.
A lot of analysis has been done on the potential impact of global climate change on agricultural
production, with large-scale crop farming. About 50% of the overall crop production originates
from forests and mountains, comprising all tree crops, while only 13% of the world’s crops
grow on open cultivated arable flat land. An assessment of the impact of climate change on
agricultural production, food provision, and agricultural life should be considered in the
characteristics of the agro-ecosystem. The greenhouse fertilization effect will produce local
profit results where higher levels of atmospheric CO2 promote plant growth. The effects of
rising temperatures will be found differently, depending on the location. Moderate temperatures
(1
C to 3
C increase in temperatures) are expected to benefit the yields of crops and pasture in
warmer climates, while in hot and dry climates at times, they may have negative effects,
especially on wheat plants. Temperatures above 3
C are projected to have adverse impacts on
production across regions. The delivery of meat and other livelihood products will be affected
by crop production practices, as fodder crops accounts for about 25% of the total cropland in
world. The overall influence of climate change and water resource degradation on agro-
ecosystem and its impact on food security have been summarized in Fig. 1.5.
1.5 Impact of climate change and degrading water quality on agriculture
Previous sections dealt with the recent climate change scenarios and water resource degradation
status along with global food security. The adverse of these two factors on the ecosystem and
its services are well known to us. In the following section, we will discuss how these two
factors affect the agricultural systems of the world and thereby, the food security. Providing
livelihood for 40% of the global population, particularly for the rural households, agricultural
Impact of climate change and water quality degradation on food security and agriculture 13

40. sector has become prime employer in the world. Approximately, 500 million small farms across
the world are providing 80% of food products consumed in larger parts of the third world
nations (UN-SDG). With the consistent pressure on the agricultural sector, it has become
Extreme rainfall
Extreme temperature Extreme rainfall
Alteration in climatic measures
Agricultural
production
Socio-economic
development
livelihoods
Land degradation
Water quality
degradation
Climate change
Extreme
events
Agro ecosystems
Loss in agricultural
productivity
Changes in crop yield and
pattern
Aquac species
Culvated plants Pests
Livestock Disease
Forests
Food insecurity
Malnutrition and hunger
Pesticides,
chemicals other
anthropogenic
activities
Figure 1.5
Interrelationship between climate change, water quality, agro-ecosystem, and food security.
14 Chapter 1

41. difficult to sustain the ever-increasing human population. It is not a surprising fact that we have
lost about 75% of crop diversity since the beginning of the 20th century (UN-SDG). By the
year 2050, the population of the earth is projected to extend beyond 9 billion, while the world
population was only 2.4 billion in the year 1950. Conversely, staring from 0.52 ha per person,
the arable land of the planet is constantly tumbling which is a matter of concern (Fig. 1.6).
Further, the problem of feeding the immense growing population is aggravated by climate
change and water resource degradation. The adverse impacts these two major drivers on
sustainable agriculture are discussed below.
1.5.1 Impact of climate change on agriculture
The agricultural system is majorly influenced by climatic factors of a particular region and
due to this fact it is more vulnerable to the climate system that is changing drastically.
Majority of the crop are represented by C3 plant species. The comprehensive influence of
climate change is expected to have a positive impact on the production of crops, possibly
because of the collective effects of CO2 fertilization, radiation-use efficacy, and extended
growing seasons, which is generally pertinent to the crop species sharing C3 pathway of
photosynthesis, but not certainly in the crop species having C4 pathway (Shankar and
Shikha, 2018). The synergistic effect of global warming and increasing concentration of
atmospheric CO2 will promote growth of trees within short time duration (Krishnan et al.,
2007).
Figure 1.6
A graph representing the change in arable land with increasing population.
Impact of climate change and water quality degradation on food security and agriculture 15

42. Apparently, in the tropical arid and semiarid regions, an upsurge in the temperature will
eventually lead to a reasonable reduction in the crop production rates as the crops in these
regions have attained their maximum tolerance level. The decline envelopes the forests and
its range land and products. The characteristics, traits and properties of soil fertility will
plummet for the cultivable land areas desirable for agrarian production. Other agricultural
sectors such as fishery and poultry could also be affected by the climate sensitivity. The
overall impacts of climate change on sustainable agriculture have been further
subcategorized below.
1.5.1.1 Agriculture and shifting climate zones
The consistent increase in concentration of the greenhouse gases in atmosphere is
progressing towards shifts in climatic belts across the globe, hence affecting the
agro-ecological parameters (Son and Bae, 2015). Since, the Polar Regions are more
susceptible towards global warming than the equatorial regions; the impacts of shifting
climatic zones shall be more catastrophic with increase in altitudes. With unit increase
in global temperatures, a shift of 200 300 km is predicted in temperate regions. Our
agricultural system has developed over the years according to the present latitudinal
climatic zones; therefore the aforementioned shift will adversely impact the agro-
industries as well as livestock productions. For crops with temperature as a limiting
factor, longer cultivating seasons may be experienced, for example, the Canadian
prairies may experience an extension of almost 10 days in the overall length of the
growing season for every 1
C increment in the mean annual temperature (Stocker et al.,
2013).
1.5.1.2 Impact on agricultural soil
Soil is an essential component for successful agriculture and it is the original source that
provides nutrients to growing crops. A minor increase in global temperatures would
adversely affect the soil moisture and water-holding capacity, eventually resulting in soil
quality degradation. The alterations in former two properties of soil will disrupt the nutrient
cycling leading nutrient deficient agricultural soil. Further, the deficiency in the soil
moisture content severely impacts the agricultural productivity and reduces crop yields
(Yigini and Panagos, 2016).
Another vital component determining soil quality is the organic component of soil. It
performs the functions like soil structure conditioning, improvement of nutrient storage and
cycling, enhances water and oxygen-holding capacity of soil and improves soil stability.
Organic matter further supports an enormous variety of soil microflora and fauna. Its role is
not limited to soil conditioning only. In the age of climate change, soil organic matter
servers as one of the prominent source as well as a sink of carbon. But the amount and
composition of organic matter present in soil is extensively susceptible to the variations in
16 Chapter 1

43. soil moisture, soil temperature, land use and management, and during the last few decades a
significant reduction in the levels of organic matter has been reported in soils further
enhanced the likelihood of soil erosion (Yigini and Panagos, 2016). Further, the problem of
nutrient deficiency is aggravated by drought incidences, as drought events favor the
removal of water-soluble nutrients from the top soil zone by erosion. Water plays important
role in nutrient transportation plant roots, hence soil deficient in moisture content hampers
with the diffusion on nutrients over short expanses and mass transportation of water-soluble
nutrients (e.g., sulfate, nitrate, calcium, magnesium, and silicon) over larger areas.
Conversely, excessive amount of precipitation may lead to loss of soil nutrients like
nitrate leaching. Heavy and frequent precipitation in regions having poorly drained soil
will result in water-logged, that is, hypoxic conditions (Otero et al., 2011). The latter is
the condition marked by low oxygen availability rendering the soil infertile. Usually in
hypoxic soil conditions, the crop yield is affected by metal toxicity and further the
synthesis of phytotoxic organic solutes damages root growth and functions. Lastly,
hypoxia may also lead to nutrient deficiency and significant nitrogen losses from the
agricultural system.
1.5.1.3 Factors influencing agriculture
Agricultural productivity can be impacted by climate change in several ways. The major
climate change factors can be roughly classified under six categories:
a. Temperature
Alterations in global temperatures may have adverse effects on irrigation water
availability, crop growth rates, soil fauna, pest resistance of crops, and supply of water
in soil and reservoirs.
b. Precipitation
Precipitation plays vital role in crop production. Slight variations in precipitation
patterns over a region will directly influence the water availability to crops.
c. Change in ambient CO2 concentration
The growth of crops and weeds in agricultural fields is influenced by change in
concentration of atmospheric CO2 as it is one of the primephotosynthetic inputs
(Stocker et al., 2013).
d. Extreme events
The crop production conditions are tremendously affected by extreme events and
disasters. Several adverse effects of natural calamities are destruction of trees and
crops, immersion of livestock, shortage or degradation water supplies, and collapse of
water-borne transportation and ports. The rise in sea level may adversely affect the
aquaculture production conditions, immerse arable land areas and impact the water-
borne transport systems of the port (Mainuddin et al., 2011).
Impact of climate change and water quality degradation on food security and agriculture 17

44. 1.5.1.4 Impact on crops
Food supply of a region is directly dependent on the agricultural capacity of that
region. Crops cultivated in every region of the world are significant for the global
food security and supply. Changes in global temperature, extreme weather conditions
and atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, may severely impact crop yield.
Increase in temperatures can have a positive as well as negative impact on the crop
yields, depending on the climatic zone experiencing the change with respect to
temperatures. Increment in temperatures positively increases the crops growth, but it
could reduce the yields.
In most of the C3 plants, elevated levels of CO2 were reported to increase the size and
dry weight of the plant components (Tripathi et al., 2016). The impact of increase in
temperature on any specific crop variety mainly depends on the optimum temperature
of that crop for reproduction and growth. For example, increase in temperature in a
particular area may benefit some of the crop varieties, but at the same time, the
possibility of crop yield decline cannot be excommunicated if the rise in temperature
exceeds the optimum temperature requirement of crops (Fig. 1.7).
1.5.2 Impact of water quality degradation on agriculture
The agricultural sector is the biggest consumer of water resource across the world, and
thus water quality is one of the major determinants of crop productivity. Water
availability and water quality degradation have historically impacted the agricultural
system which represents a potential hazard to human health. Agricultural activities in
majority of the developing nations depend on the precipitation patterns. Natural
hazards such as floods and droughts further undermine the sustainability of
agricultural system by influencing the availability and quality of irrigation water.
Impacts of
climate
change
Posive
Predicted
increase in
crop yield
CO2
Ferlizaon
Negave
Reduced
irrigaon
water
availability
Loss of soil
ferlity
Reduced
agricultural
producvity
Increased pest
infestaon in
agricultural
fields
Figure 1.7
Impact of Climate change on global agricultural sector.
18 Chapter 1

45. With growing requirement for consumable food products and other agrarian commodities,
many agriculturalists are looking interestingly at nonconventional sources of irrigation
with negligible safety, including wastewater. A promising strategy for coping with the
ever-increasing global demand for food is the irrigated agriculture’s expansion and water
sources harnessing that were previously treated effluent, saline, or desalinated water
(Qin et al., 2015). Municipal and domestic wastewater seems to be a sustainable option
as it is rich in nutrient content, particularly when conventional water resources are
lacking. If suitably treated and safely applied, wastewater can be a valuable source of both
nutrients as well as water and thereby contribute to food security and livelihood
improvement. Large quantities of plant growth nutrients are present in these reclaimed
waters (wastewaters).
Although reutilizing wastewater in a cultivation system is an essential step for
restoring the ecological balance and livelihoods, it is accompanied by grave health
hazards. The unsupervised and large-scale utilization of nonconventional irrigation
sources predominantly use of wastewater in agriculture can lead to the possible build-
up of chemical contaminants and microbiological agents in crops, agricultural soil,
and water resources and livestock products. These pollutants get into the system of
exposed farm workers and food consumers ultimately leading to severe health impacts;
it may also exacerbate antimicrobial resistance. In some regions, food quantity has
degraded and agricultural fields have been found to be contaminated with heavy metal
pollution due to wastewater irrigations. Treated wastewater may contain various types
of organic pollutants such as detergents, organic solvents, pharmaceuticals and
personal care products (PPCPs). The agricultural fields irrigated with wastewater were
reported to be contaminated with trace levels of PPCPs; and combined with the
bioaccumulation properties, continuous infusion of PPCPs may lead to notable
bio-uptake and contaminated agricultural soils (Qin et al., 2015).
Lastly, irrigation of crops with saline water or watering with salt-heavy brine often
results in water wastage, crop yield loss, poorer quality of crops, and crop failure; in
more extreme cases, it results in an environmental disaster. In some of the instances,
damaged crops ultimately leads to agricultural bankruptcy. Further, the quality and
yield of crops decline significantly afore the crop develops any discernable symptoms
of salinity damage. The utilization of salt-heavy brine for crop irrigation can reserve
the process of osmosis in plant roots. In reverse osmosis, the solution surrounding the
root cells contains higher concentrations of salt than that of the solution present inside
the root cells. This facilitates the movement of water in the opposite direction, that is,
from the crop root cells into the surrounding solution. Due to the aforementioned
reasons, the crop losses moisture content and ultimately suffers stress. The symptoms
developed by the plants suffering from high salinity damage are often similar to those
developed due to high moisture stress.
Impact of climate change and water quality degradation on food security and agriculture 19

46. Symptoms of high salt damage in plants due to irrigation with saline water include the
following:
• The plants often have yellow, peeling or cracking leaves.
• Inflorescence may turn brown or die.
• No flowers or fruits appear for a year or more.
The utilization of wastewater for crop irrigation can lead to toxicities in crops due to the
presence of higher concentrations of sodium and chloride ions. The adverse effects of
these ions can be seen on two major parts of the plant which are the roots and the
leaves. Crops, which are resilient to root uptakes of sodium ions and chloride ions, often
experience leaf burns when sprayed with saline wastewater. The damage to the crops
are severe when the ions are directly absorbed via the leaves and during hot and dry
climatic conditions as the evaporation adds to increased salt concentration on leaf
surfaces.
1.6 Conclusion
This chapter provides the overview of impact of changing climate and degraded water
quality on various aspects of food security and agriculture. Climate change and water
resource quality are two parameters of the natural system that are closely associated
with each other and both will unleash higher degrees of adverse impacts on the natural
system if altered in negative ways beyond a certain limit. Rapid increase in population,
urbanization, and industrialization may lead to variations in climate, which directly or
indirectly alter the quality of water and causes impact on agriculture, that is, the main
source of economic development. Even short-term variations of climate leads to food
insecurity, it affects all the dimensions of food including nutrition, stability, access
utilization, and availability of food. In conclusion, food security is a multifaceted topic.
It does not address food availability, but also takes into account its cost, cultural
compatibility, its protein content, fat, carbohydrate and nutrients, its source and
production practices used in farming and harvesting products, and freedom from
pollution after harvest. Food should not be only our micronutrient needs, but also it
should not harm those who eat it. They have potential to positively and negatively affect
the availability of good quality water, species distribution and habitats, length and
timing of the growing season, crop productivity, and livestock at national and global
scales.
Steps are needed to control the rapid increase of human-made activities that adversely
affect our climate and ecosystem. Various actions need to be taken for reduction of climatic
events as well water quality degradation which helps to mitigate by their negative impact
on food sectors, crop yield, and agriculture productivity.
20 Chapter 1

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22 Chapter 1

49. C H A P T E R 2
Groundwater extractions and climate
change
Rahul Sharma1,2
, Ravi Kumar1,2
, Pinki Rani Agrawal1,2
, Ittishree3
, Chankit4
and
Gaurav Gupta5
1
CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India, 2
Academy of Scientific and innovative
Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India, 3
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, M.D. University,
Rohtak, India, 4
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, Murthal, India,
5
Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
2.1 Introduction
Being the vital life support system, environment including air, water, and land is
indispensable for existence of life on Earth. Apart from basic requirements such as food,
air, water, and shelter, it acts as a “process home” for occurrence and regulation of infinite
number of natural phenomena which are critical for sustainability of life (Arora, 2018; Gill
et al., 2019; Zscheischler et al., 2020; Jaca et al., 2018; Turner-Skoff and Cavender, 2019;
Akbari et al., 2001; Bell et al., 2008; Masnavi, 2013; Hughes, 2009). Among different
environmental resources, water is a key component for sustenance of life, not only of
simplest organisms but also to the complex creatures like human beings. In fact, the
scarcity of it, for various purposes like domestic, agriculture, and industrial, is the only
recognized factor responsible for backwardness and nondevelopment of many parts of
world (Kundzewicz, 1997; Cosgrove and Loucks, 2015; Bhaduri et al., 2016; Connor, 2015;
Mugagga and Nabaasa, 2016; El-Nwsany et al., 2019). Particularly, groundwater being the
most significant natural and major source of fresh water, plays a central role in smooth
functioning of agricultural, industrial practices and ultimately in the human development.
Due to many geogenic and anthropogenic reasons in recent decades, surface water is
adequately unavailable in many countries of the world especially in the developing nations
and hence the only alternate source of good quality of water in these regions is the
groundwater (Shi et al., 2012; Gupta and Onta, 1997; Carrard et al., 2019; Shah, 2014;
Saraswat et al., 2019). Though the exploitation of groundwater resources for human use
dates from the earliest civilizations, however, in the past century they are used as massive
water resources and developed accordingly for numerous applications such as drinking
23
Water Conservation in the Era of Global Climate Change.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820200-5.00016-6
© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

50. Other documents randomly have
different content

51. concerning this singular man.—Mean while, I am, c.
[3] The same allusion, though probably Voltaire did not know
it, was long since made by Cowley—
Bacon like Moses led us forth at last
The barren wilderness he past,
Did on the very border stand
Of the blest promised land,
And from the mountain top of his exalted wit
Saw it himself, and shewed us it.

52. LETTER XXX.
Geneva.
Considered as a matter, Voltaire appears in a very amiable light.
He is affable, humane, and generous to his tenants and dependants.
He loves to see them prosper; and takes part in their private and
domestic concerns, with the attention of a patriarch.—He promotes
industry and manufactures among them, by every means he can
devise: by his care and patronage alone, Ferney, from a wretched
village, whose inhabitants were sunk in sloth and poverty, is become
a flourishing and commodious little town.
That acrimony, which appears in some of Voltaire’s works, seems
to be excited only against rival wits, and contemporary writers, who
refuse him that distinguished place on Parnassus, to which his
talents entitle him.
If he has been the author of severe satire, he has also been the
object of a great deal. Who has been the aggressor, it would be
difficult to determine; but it must be confessed, that where he has
not been irritated as a writer, he appears a good-humoured man;
and, in particular instances, displays a true philanthropy.—The whole
of his conduct respecting the Calas family;—his protection of the
Sirvens, his patronage of the young lady descended from Corneille,
and many examples, which might be mentioned, are all of this
nature.
Some people will tell you, that all the bustle he made, on these,
and similar occasions, proceeded from vanity; but in my mind, the
man who takes pains to justify oppressed innocence, to rouse the
indignation of mankind against cruelty, and to relieve indigent merit,
is in reality benevolent, however vain he may be of such actions.—
Such a man is unquestionably a more useful member of society, than

53. the humblest monk, who has no other plan in life, than the working
out his own salvation in a corner.
Voltaire’s criticisms on the writings of Shakespear do him no
honour; they betray an ignorance of the author, whose works he so
rashly condemns. Shakespear’s irregularities, and his disregard for
the unities of the drama, are obvious to the dullest of modern critics;
but Voltaire’s national prejudices, and his imperfect knowledge of the
language, render him blind to some of the most shining beauties of
the English Poet; his remarks, however, though not always candid
nor delicate, are for the most part lively.
One evening, at Ferney, the conversation happening to turn on the
genius of Shakespear, Voltaire expatiated on the impropriety and
absurdity of introducing low characters and vulgar dialogue into
Tragedy; and gave many instances of the English bard’s having
offended in that particular, even in his most pathetic plays. A
gentleman of the company, who is a great admirer of Shakespear,
observed, by way of palliation, that though those characters were
low, yet they were natural (dans la nature, was his expression). Avec
permission, Monsieur, replied Voltaire, mon cul est bien dans la
nature, et cependant je porte des coulottes.
Voltaire had formerly a little theatre at his own house, where
dramatic pieces were represented by some of the society who visited
there, he himself generally taking some important character; but by
all accounts this was not his fort, nature having fitted him for
conceiving the sentiments, but not representing the actions of a
hero.
Mr. Cramer of Geneva sometimes assisted upon these occasions.—
I have often seen that gentleman act at a private theatre in that city
with deserved applause. Very few of those who have made acting
the study and business of their lives, could have represented the
characters in which he appeared, with more judgment and energy.
The celebrated Clairon herself has been proud to tread Voltaire’s
domestic theatre, and to display at once his genius and her own.

54. These dramatic entertainments at Ferney, to which many of the
inhabitants of Geneva were, from time to time, invited, in all
probability increased their desire for such amusements, and gave the
hint to a company of French comedians, to come every summer to
the neighbourhood.
As the Syndics and Council did not judge it proper to license their
acting, this company have erected a theatre at Chatelaine, which is
on the French side of the ideal line which separates that kingdom
from the territories of the Republic, and about three miles from the
ramparts of Geneva.
People come occasionally from Savoy and Switzerland to attend
these representations; but the company on which the actors chiefly
depend, are the citizens of Geneva. The play begins at three or four
in the afternoon, that the spectators may have time to return before
the shutting of the gates.
I have been frequently at this theatre. The performers are
moderately good. The admired Le Kain, who is now at Ferney, on a
visit to Voltaire, sometimes exhibits:—but when I go, my chief
inducement is to see Voltaire, who generally attends when Le Kain
acts, and when one of his own tragedies is to be represented.
He sits on the stage, and behind the scenes; but so as to be seen
by a great part of the audience. He takes as much interest in the
representation, as if his own character depended on the
performance. He seems perfectly chagrined and disgusted when any
of the actors commit a mistake; and when he thinks they perform
well, never fails to mark his approbation with all the violence of voice
and gesture.
He enters into the feigned distresses of the piece with every
symptom of real emotion, and even sheds tears with the profusion
of a girl present for the first time at a tragedy.
I have sometimes sat near him during the whole entertainment,
observing with astonishment such a degree of sensibility in a man of
eighty. This great age, one would naturally believe, might have

55. considerably blunted every sensation, particularly those occasioned
by the fictitious distresses of the drama, to which he has been
habituated from his youth.
The pieces represented having been written by himself, is another
circumstance which, in my opinion, should naturally tend to prevent
their effect on him. Some people indeed assert that this, so far from
diminishing, is the real cause of all his sensibility; and they urge, as
a proof of this assertion that he attends the theatre only when some
of his own pieces are to be acted.
That he should be better pleased to see his own tragedies
represented than any others, is natural; but I do not readily
comprehend, how he can be more easily moved and deceived, by
distresses which he himself invented. Yet this degree of deception
seems necessary to make a man shed tears. While these tears are
flowing, he must believe the woes he weeps are real: he must have
been so far deceived by the cunning of the scene, as to have forgot
that he was in a playhouse. The moment he recollects that the
whole is fiction, his sympathy and tears must cease.
I should be glad, however, to see Voltaire present at the
representation of some of Corneille or Racine’s tragedies, that I
might observe whether he would discover more or less sensibility
than he has done at his own. We should then be able to ascertain
this curious, disputed point, whether his sympathy regarded the
piece or the author.
Happy, if this extraordinary man had confined his genius to its
native home, to the walks which the muses love, and where he has
always been received with distinguished honour, and that he had
never deviated from these, into the thorny paths of controversy! For
while he attacked the tyrants and oppressors of mankind, and those
who have perverted the benevolent nature of Christianity to the
most selfish and malignant purposes, it is for ever to be regretted,
that he allowed the shafts of his ridicule to glance upon the Christian
religion itself.

56. By persevering in this, he has not only shocked the pious, but
even disgusted infidels, who accuse him of borrowing from himself,
and repeating the same argument in various publications; and seem
as tired of the stale sneer against the Christian doctrines, as of the
dullest and most tedious sermons in support of them.
Voltaire’s behaviour during sickness has been represented in very
opposite lights, I have heard much of his great contrition and
repentance, when he had reason to believe his end approaching.
These stories, had they been true, would have proved, that his
infidelity was affectation, and that he was a believer and Christian in
his heart.
I own I could never give any credit to such reports; for though I
have frequently met with vain young men, who have given
themselves airs of free-thinking, while in reality they were even
superstitious, yet I never could understand what a man like Voltaire,
or any man of common understanding, could propose to himself by
such absurd affectation. To pretend to despise what we really
revere, and to treat as human, what we believe to be divine, is
certainly, of all kinds of hypocrisy, the most unpardonable.
I was at some pains to ascertain this matter; and I have been
assured, by those who have lived during many years in familiarity
with him, that all these stories are without foundation. They
declared, that although he was unwilling to quit the enjoyment of
life, and used the means of preserving health, he seemed no way
afraid of the consequences of dying. That he never discovered,
either in health or sickness, any remorse for the works imputed to
him against the Christian religion.—That, on the contrary, he was
blinded to such a degree, as to express uneasiness at the thoughts
of dying before some of them, in which he was at that time
engaged, were finished.
Though this conduct is not to be justified upon any supposition,
yet there is more consistency, and, in my opinion, less wickedness in
it, if we admit the account which his friends give, than there would
be in his writing at once against the established opinions of

57. mankind, the conviction of his own conscience, and the inspirations
of the Deity, merely to acquire the applause of a few mistaken
infidels.
However erroneous he may have been, I cannot suspect him of
such absurdity. On the contrary, I imagine, that as soon as he is
convinced of the truths of Christianity, he will openly avow his
opinion, in health as in sickness, uniformly, to his last moment.

58. LETTER XXXI.
Geneva.
In obedience to your request, I shall give you my opinion freely
with regard to Lord ——’s scheme of sending his two sons to be
educated at Geneva.
The eldest, if I remember right, is not more than nine years of
age; and they have advanced no farther in their education than
being able to read English tolerably well. His Lordship’s idea is, that
when they shall have acquired a perfect knowledge of the French
language, they may be taught Latin through the medium of that
language, and pursue any other study that may be thought proper.
I have attended to his Lordship’s objections against the public
schools in England, and after due consideration, and weighing every
circumstance, I remain of opinion, that no country but Great Britain
is proper for the education of a British subject, who proposes to pass
his life in his own country. The most important point, in my mind, to
be secured in the education of a young man of rank of our country,
is to make him an Englishman; and this can be done nowhere so
effectually as in England.
He will there acquire those sentiments, that particular taste and
turn of mind, which will make him prefer the government, and relish
the manners, the diversions, and general way of living, which prevail
in England.
He will there acquire that character, which distinguishes
Englishmen from the natives of all the other countries of Europe,
and which once attained, however it may be afterwards embellished
or deformed, can never be entirely effaced.
If it could be proved, that this character is not the most amiable, it
does not follow that it is not the most expedient. It is sufficient, that

59. it is upon the whole most approved of in England. For I hold it as
indisputable, that the good opinion of a man’s countrymen is of
more importance to him than that of all the rest of mankind: Indeed,
without the first, he very rarely can enjoy the second.
It is thought, that, by an early foreign education, all ridiculous
English prejudices will be avoided. This may be true;—but other
prejudices, perhaps as ridiculous, and much more detrimental, will
be formed. The first cannot be attended with many inconveniencies;
the second may render the young people unhappy in their own
country when they return, and disagreeable to their countrymen all
the rest of their lives.
It is true, that the French manners are adopted in almost every
country of Europe: they prevail all over Germany and the northern
courts. They are gaining ground, though with a slower pace, in
Spain, and in the Italian states.—This is not the case in England.—
The English manners are universal in the provinces, prevail in the
capital, and are to be found uncontaminated even at court.
In all the countries above mentioned, the body of the people
behold this preference to foreign manners with disgust. But in all
those countries, the sentiments of the people are disregarded;
whereas, in England, popularity is of real importance; and the higher
a man’s rank is, the more he will feel the loss of it.
Besides, a prejudice against French manners is not confined to the
lower ranks in England:—It is diffused over the whole nation. Even
those who have none of the usual prejudices;—who do all manner of
justice to the talents and ingenuity of their neighbours;—who
approve of French manners in French people; yet cannot suffer them
when grafted on their countrymen. Should an English gentleman
think this kind of grafting at all admissible, it will be in some of the
lowest classes with whom he is connected, as his tailor, barber,
valet-de-chambre, or cook;—but never in his friend.
I can scarcely remember an instance of an Englishman of fashion,
who has evinced in his dress or style of living a preference to French

60. manners, who did not lose by it in the opinion of his countrymen.
What I have said of French manners is applicable to foreign
manners in general, which are all in some degree French, and the
particular differences are not distinguished by the English.
The sentiments of the citizens of Geneva are more analogous in
many respects to the turn of thinking in England, than to the general
opinions in France. Yet a Genevois in London will universally pass for
a Frenchman.
An English boy, sent to Geneva at an early period of life, and
remaining there six or seven years, if his parents be not along with
him, will probably, in the eyes of the English, appear a kind of
Frenchman all his life after. This is an inconvenience which ought to
be avoided with the greatest attention.
With regard to the objections against public schools, they are in
many respects applicable to those of every country. But I freely own,
they never appeared to me sufficient to overbalance the advantages
which attend that method of education; particularly as it is
conducted in English public schools.
I have perceived a certain hardihood and manliness of character in
boys who have had a public education, superior to what appears in
those of the same age educated privately.
At a public school, though a general attention is paid to the whole,
in many particulars each boy is necessitated to decide and act for
himself. His reputation among his companions depends solely on his
own conduct. This gradually strengthens the mind, inspires firmness
and decision, and prevents that wavering imbecility observable in
those who have been long accustomed to rely upon the assistance
and opinion of others.
The original impressions which sink into the heart and mind, and
form the character, never change.—The objects of our attention vary
in the different periods of life.—This is sometimes mistaken for a
change of character, which in reality remains essentially the same.—
He who is reserved, deceitful, cruel, or avaricious, when a boy, will

61. not, in any future period of life, become open, faithful,
compassionate, or generous.
The young mind has, at a public school, the best chance of
receiving those sentiments which incline the heart to friendship, and
correct selfishness. They are drawn in by observation, which is
infinitely more powerful than precept.
A boy perceives, that courage, generosity, gratitude, command the
esteem and applause of all his companions. He cherishes these
qualities in his own breast, and endeavours to connect himself in
friendship with those who possess them.—He sees that meanness of
spirit, ingratitude, and perfidy, are the objects of detestation.—He
shuns the boys who display any indications of these odious qualities.
What is the object of applause or contempt to his school-fellows, he
will endeavour to graft into, or eradicate from, his own character,
with ten thousand times more eagerness than that which was
applauded and censured by his tutor or parents.
The admonitions of these last have probably lost their effect by
frequent repetition; or he may imagine their maxims are only
applicable to a former age, and to manners which are obsolete.—But
he feels the sentiments of his companions affect his reputation and
fame in the most sensible manner.
In all the countries of Europe, England excepted, such a deference
is paid to boys of rank at the public schools, that emulation, the
chief spur to diligence, is greatly blunted.—The boys in the middle
rank of life are depressed by the insolence of their titled
companions, which they are not allowed to correct or retaliate.—This
has the worst effect on the minds of both, by rendering these more
insolent, and those more abject.
The public schools in England disdain this mean partiality; and
are, on that account, peculiarly useful to boys of high rank and great
fortune. These young people are exceedingly apt to imbibe false
ideas of their own importance, which in those impartial seminaries
will be perfectly ascertained, and the real merit of the youths

62. weighed in juster scales than are generally to be found in a parent’s
house.
The young peer will be taught by the matters, and still more
effectually by his comrades, this most useful of all lessons,—to
expect distinction and esteem from personal qualities only; because
no other can make him estimable, or even save him from contempt.
—He will see a dunce of high rank flogged with as little ceremony as
the son of a tailor; and the richest coward kicked about by his
companions equally with the poorest poltroon.—He will find that
diligence, genius, and spirit, are the true sources of superiority and
applause, both within and without the school.
The active principle of emulation, when allowed full play, as in the
chief schools in England, operates in various ways, and always with
a good effect.—If a boy finds that he falls beneath his companions in
literary merit, he will endeavour to excel them in intrepidity, or some
other accomplishment.—If he be brought to disgrace for neglecting
his exercise, he will try to save himself from contempt by the
firmness with which he bears his punishment.
The listlessness and indolence to be found so frequently among
our young people of rank, are not to be imputed to their education
at a public school, which in reality has the greatest tendency to
counteract these habits, and often does so, and gives an energy to
the mind which remains through life.
Those wretched qualities creep on afterwards, when the youths
become their own masters, and have enfeebled their minds by
indulging in all the pleasures which fortune puts in their power, and
luxury presents.
Upon the whole, I am clearly of opinion, that the earliest period of
every Englishman’s education, during which the mind receives the
most lasting impressions, ought to be in England.
If, however, the opinion of relations, or any peculiarity in situation,
prevents his being educated at home, Geneva should be preferred to
any other place. Or if, by some neglect, either of his own or his

63. parents, a young English gentleman of fortune has allowed the first
years of youth to fly unimproved, and has attained the age of
seventeen or eighteen with little literary knowledge, I know no place
where he may have a better chance of recovering what he has lost
than in this city. He may have a choice of men of eminence, in every
branch of literature, to assist him in his studies, a great proportion of
whom are men of genius, and as amiable in their manners as they
are eminent in their particular professions.
He will have constant opportunities of being in company with very
ingenious people, whose thoughts and conversation turn upon
literary subjects. In such society, a young man will feel the necessity
of some degree of study. This will gradually form a taste for
knowledge, which may remain through life.
It may also be numbered among the advantages of this place, that
there are few objects of dissipation, and hardly any sources of
amusement, besides those derived from the natural beauties of the
country, and from an intimacy with a people by whose conversation
a young man can scarce fail to improve.
P. S. An English nobleman and his lady having taken the resolution
of educating their son at Geneva, attended him hither, and have
effectually prevented the inconveniencies above mentioned, by
remaining with him for seven or eight years.
The hospitality, generosity, and benevolent dispositions of this
family had acquired them the highest degree of popularity. I saw
them leave the place. Their carriage could with difficulty move
through the multitude, who were assembled in the streets.—
Numbers of the poorer sort, who had been relieved by their secret
charity, unable longer to obey the injunctions of their benefactors,
proclaimed their gratitude aloud.
The young gentleman was obliged to come out again and again to
his old friends and companions, who pressed around the coach to
bid him farewel, and express their sorrow for his departure, and
their wishes for his prosperity. The eyes of the parents overflowed

64. with tears of happiness; and the whole family carried along with
them the affections of the greater part, and the esteem of all the
citizens.

65. LETTER XXXII.
Geneva.
Suicide is very frequent at Geneva. I am told this has been the
case ever since the oldest people in the republic can remember; and
there is reason to believe, that it happens oftener here, in proportion
to the number of inhabitants, than in England, or any other country
of Europe.
The multiplicity of instances which has occurred since I have been
here is astonishing. Two that have happened very lately are
remarkable for the peculiar circumstances which accompanied them.
The first was occasioned by a sudden and unaccountable fit of
despair, which seized the son of one of the wealthiest and most
respectable citizens of the republic. This young gentleman had, in
appearance, every reason to be satisfied with his lot. He was
handsome, and in the vigour of youths married to a woman of an
excellent character, who had brought him a great fortune, and by
whom he was the father of a fine child. In the midst of all these
blessings, surrounded by every thing which could inspire a man with
an attachment to life, he felt it insupportable, and without any
obvious cause of chagrin, determined to destroy himself.
Having passed some hours with his mother, a most valuable
woman, and with his wife and child, he left them in apparent good
humour, went into another room, applied the muzzle of a musket to
his forehead, thrust back the trigger with his toe, and blew out his
brains, in the hearing of the unsuspecting company he had just
quitted.
The second instance, is that of a blacksmith, who, taking the same
fatal resolution, and not having any convenient instrument at hand,
charged an old gun-barrel with a brace of bullets, and putting one

66. end into the fire of his forge, tied a string to the handle of the
bellows, by pulling of which he could make them play, while he was
at a convenient distance. Kneeling down, he then placed his head
near the mouth of the barrel, and moving the bellows by means of
the string, they blew up the fire, he keeping his head with
astonishing firmness, and horrible deliberation, in that position, till
the farther end of the barrel was so heated as to kindle the powder,
whose explosion instantly drove the bullets through his brains.
Though I know that this happened literally as I have related, yet
there is something so extraordinary, and almost incredible, in the
circumstances, that perhaps I should not have mentioned it, had it
not been well attested, and known to the inhabitants of Geneva, and
all the English who are at present here.
Why suicide is more frequent in Great Britain and Geneva than
elsewhere, would be a matter of curious investigation. For it appears
very extraordinary, that men should be most inclined to kill
themselves in countries where the blessings of life are best secured.
There must be some strong and peculiar cause for an effect so
preposterous.
Before coming here, I was of opinion, that the frequency of
suicide in England was occasioned in a great measure by the stormy
and unequal climate, which, while it clouds the sky, throws also a
gloom over the minds of the natives.—To this cause, foreigners
generally add, that of the use of coal, instead of wood, for fuel.
I rested satisfied with some vague theory, built on these taken
together:—But neither can account for the same effect at Geneva,
where coal is not used, and where the climate is the same with that
in Switzerland, Savoy, and the neighbouring parts of France, where
instances of suicide are certainly much more rare.
Without presuming to decide what are the remote causes of this
fatal propensity, it appears evident to me, that no reasoning can
have the smallest force in preventing it, but what is founded upon
the soul’s immortality and a future state.—What effect can the

67. common arguments have on a man who does not believe that
necessary and important doctrine?—He may be told, that he did not
give himself life, therefore he has no right to take it away;—that he
is a centinel on a post, and ought to remain till he is relieved;—what
is all this to the man who thinks he is never to be questioned for his
violence and desertion?
If you attempt to pique this man’s pride, by asserting, that it is a
greater proof of courage to bear the ills of life, than to flee from
them; he will answer you from the Roman history, and ask, Whether
Cato, Cassius, and Marcus Brutus, were cowards?
The great legislator of the Jews seems to have been convinced,
that no law or argument against suicide could have any influence on
the minds of people who were ignorant of the soul’s immortality; and
therefore, as he did not think it necessary to instruct them in the
one (for reasons which the Bishop of Gloucester has unfolded in his
treatise on the Divine Legation of Moses), he also thought it
superfluous to give them any express law against the other.
Those philosophers, therefore, who have endeavoured to shake
this great and important conviction from the minds of men, have
thereby opened a door to suicide as well as to other crimes.—For,
whoever reasons against that, without founding upon the doctrine of
a future state, will soon see all his arguments overturned.
It must be acknowledged, indeed, that in many cases this
question is decided by men’s feelings, independent of reasonings of
any kind.
Nature has not trusted a matter of so great importance entirely to
the fallible reason of man; but has planted in the human breast such
a love of life, and horror of death, as seldom can be overcome even
by the greatest misfortunes.
But there is a disease which sometimes affects the body, and
afterwards communicates its baneful influence to the mind, over
which it hangs such a cloud of horrors as renders life absolutely
insupportable. In this dreadful state, every pleasing idea is banished,

68. and all the sources of comfort in life are poisoned.—Neither fortune,
honours, friends, nor family, can afford the smallest satisfaction.—
Hope, the last pillar of the wretched, falls to the ground—Despair
lays hold of the abandoned sufferer—Then all reasoning becomes
vain—Even arguments of religion have no weight, and the poor
creature embraces death as his only friend, which, as he thinks, may
terminate, but cannot augment, his misery.
I am, c.
P. S. You need not write till you hear from me again, as I think it is
probable that we shall have left this place before your letter could
arrive.

69. LETTER XXXIII.
Lausanne.
The D—— of H—— having a desire to visit some of the German
Courts, we bade adieu to our friends at Geneva, and are thus far on
our intended journey. It is of peculiar advantage in Germany, above
all other countries, to be in company with a man of rank and high
title, because it facilitates your reception every where, and
supersedes the necessity of recommendatory letters.
I have met here with my friend B——n, whose company and
conversation have retarded our journey, by supplying the chief
objects of travelling, if amusement and instruction are to be ranked
among them. He is here with the M——s of L——y, a lively, spirited
young man;—one of those easy, careless characters, so much
beloved by their intimates, and so regardless of the opinion of the
rest of mankind.
Since you hold me to my promise of writing so very regularly, you
must sometimes expect to receive a letter dated from three or four
different places, when either my short stay in one place deprives me
of the leisure, or meeting with nothing uncommon in another
deprives me of materials for so long a letter as you require.
The road from Geneva to this town is along the side of the lake,
through a delightful country, abounding in vineyards, which produce
the vin de la côte, so much esteemed. All the little towns on the way,
Nyon, Rolle, and Morges, are finely situated, neatly built, and
inhabited by a thriving and contented people.
Lausanne is the capital of this charming country, which formerly
belonged to the Duke of Savoy, but is now under the dominion of
the canton of Bern.

70. However mortifying this may be to the former possessor, it has
certainly been a happy dispensation to the inhabitants of the Pays de
Vaud, who are in every respect more at their ease, and in a better
situation, than any of the subjects of his Sardinian Majesty.
This city is situated near the lake, and at the distance of about
thirty miles from Geneva. As the nobility, from the country, and from
some parts of Switzerland, and the families of several officers, who
have retired from service, reside here, there is an air of more ease
and gaiety (perhaps also more politeness) in the societies at
Lausanne, than in those of Geneva; at least this is firmly believed
and asserted by all the nobles of this place, who consider
themselves as greatly superior to the citizens of Geneva. These, on
the other hand, talk a good deal of the poverty, frivolousness, and
ignorance of those same nobility, and make no scruple of ranking
their own enlightened mechanics above them in every essential
quality.
Vevay.
The road between Lausanne and Vevay is very mountainous; but
the mountains are cultivated to the summits, and covered with
vines.—This would have been impracticable on account of the
steepness, had not the proprietors built strong stone-walls at proper
intervals, one above the other, which support the soil, and form little
terraces from the bottom to the top of the mountains.
The peasants ascend by narrow stairs, and, before they arrive at
the ground they are to cultivate, have frequently to mount higher
than a mason who is employed in repairing the top of a steeple.
The mountainous nature of this country subjects it to frequent
torrents, which, when violent, sweep away vines, soil, and walls in
one common destruction. The inhabitants behold the havoc with a
steady concern, and, without giving way to the clamorous rage of
the French, or sinking into the gloomy despair of the English, think
only of the most effectual means of repairing the loss.—As soon as
the storm has abated, they begin, with admirable patience and

71. perseverance, to rebuild the walls, to carry fresh earth on hurdles to
the top of the mountain, and to spread a new soil wherever the old
has been washed away.
Where property is perfectly secure, and men allowed to enjoy the
fruits of their own labour, they are capable of efforts unknown in
those countries where despotism renders every thing precarious,
and where a tyrant reaps what slaves have sown.
This part of the Pays de Vaud is inhabited by the descendents of
those unhappy people, who were driven by the most absurd and
cruel persecution from the vallies of Piedmont and Savoy.
I will not assert, that the iniquity of the persecutors has been
visited upon their children; but the sufferings and stedfastness of the
persecuted seem to be recompensed by the happy situation in which
their children of the third and fourth generations are now placed.
Vevay is a pretty little town, containing between three and four
thousand inhabitants. It is sweetly situated on a plain, near the head
of the lake of Geneva, where the Rhone enters. The mountains
behind the town, though exceedingly high, are entirely cultivated,
like those on the road from Lausanne.
There is a large village about half-way up the mountain, in a direct
line above Vevay, which, viewed from below, seems adhering to the
side of the precipice, and has a very singular and romantic
appearance.
The principal church is detached from the town, and situated on a
hill which overlooks it. From the terrace, or church-yard, there is a
view of the Alps, the Rhone, the lake, with towns and villages on its
margin.—Within this church the body of General Ludlow is deposited.
That steady republican withdrew from Lausanne to this place, after
the assassination of his friend Lisle, who was shot through the heart,
as he was going to church, by a ruffian, who had come across the
lake for that purpose, and who, amidst the confusion occasioned by
the murder, got safe to the boat, and escaped to the Duke of Savoy’s
territories on the other side, where he was openly protected.—This

72. was a pitiful way of avenging the death of a monarch, who, whether
justly or not, had been publicly condemned and executed.
There is a long Latin epitaph on Ludlow’s monument, enumerating
many circumstances of his life, but omitting the most remarkable of
them all. He is called, Patriæ libertatis defensor, et potestatis
arbitrariæ propugnator acerrimus, c.—But no nearer hint is given of
his having been one of King Charles the First’s judges, and of his
having signed the sentence against that ill-fated Prince.
However fond the Swiss in general may be of liberty, and however
partial to its assertors, it is presumable that those who protected
Ludlow, did not approve of this part of his story, and on that account
a particular mention of it was not made on his tomb.
There is no travelling by post through Switzerland; we therefore
hired horses at Geneva, to carry us to Basil; from whence we can
proceed by post to Strasbourg, which is the route we design to take.
We leave Lausanne the day after to-morrow.

73. LETTER XXXIV.
Bern.
On my return from Vevay to Lausanne, I found our friend, Mr. H
——y, at the inn, with the D—— of H——. His Grace inclines to
remain some time longer at that city; but desired that I might
proceed with the carriages and all the servants, except his valet-de-
chambre and one footman, to Strasbourg, which I readily agreed to,
on his promising to join me there within a few days. H——y, at the
same time, made the very agreeable proposal of accompanying me
to Strasbourg, where he will remain till our departure from thence,
leaving his chaise for the D——.
We began our journey the following day, and were escorted as far
as Payerne by Messrs. B——n and O——n, where we passed a gay
evening, and proceeded next morning to the town of Avanche, the
capital of Switzerland in Tacitus’s time[4].
No country in the world can be more agreeable to travellers during
the summer than Switzerland: For, besides the commodious roads
and comfortable inns, some of the most beautiful objects of nature,
woods, mountains, lakes, intermingled with fertile fields, vineyards,
and scenes of the most perfect cultivation, are here presented to the
eye in greater variety, and on a larger scale, than in any other
country.
From Avanche we advanced to Murten, or Murat, as it is
pronounced by the French, a neat little town, situated upon a rising
ground, on the side of the lake of the same name.
The army of Charles Duke of Burgundy, besieging this town, was
defeated, with great slaughter, by the Swiss, in the year 1476. Near
the road, within a mile of Murat, there is a little building full of
human bones, which are said to be those of the Burgundians slain in

74. that battle. As this curious cabinet was erected many years after the
battle, it may be supposed, that some of the bones of the victors are
here packed up along with those of the vanquished, in order to swell
the collection.
There are several inscriptions on the chapel.
DEO OPTIM. MAX.
CAROLI INCLITI ET FORTISSIMI BURGUNDIÆ DUCIS
EXERCITUS MURATUM OBSIDENS AB HELVETIIS
CÆSUS HOC SUI MONUMENTUM RELIQUIT, 1476
On another side is the following:
SACELLUM
QUO RELIQUIAS
EXERCITUS BURGUNDICI
AB HELVETIIS, A. 1476,
PIA ANTIQUITAS CONDIDIT.
RENOVARI
VIISQUE PUBLICIS MUNIRI
JUSSERUNT
RERUM NUNC DOMINÆ
REIPUBLICÆ
BERNENSIS ET FRIBURGENSIS
ANNO 1755.
The borders of the lake of Murat are enriched with gentlemen’s
houses, and villages in great abundance.
The dress, manners, and persons of the inhabitants of this country
indicate a different people from the Genevois, Savoyards, or the
inhabitants of the Pays de Vaud.
We dined at Murat, and remained several hours in the town. There
was a fair, and a great concourse of people.—The Swiss peasants are
the tallest and most robust I have ever seen. Their dress is very
particular.—They have little round hats, like those worn by the Dutch
skippers.—Their coats and waistcoats are all of a kind of coarse black
cloth.—Their breeches are made of coarse linen, something like

75. sailors trowsers; but drawn together in plaits below the knees, and
the stockings are of the same stuff with the breeches.
The women wear short jackets, with a great superfluity of buttons.
The unmarried women value themselves on the length of their hair,
which they separate into two divisions, and allow to hang at its full
length, braided with ribands in the Ramillie fashion.—After marriage,
these tresses are no longer permitted to hang down; but, being
twisted round the head in spiral lines, are fixed at the crown with
large silver pins. This is the only difference in point of dress which
matrimony makes.
Married and unmarried wear straw hats, ornamented with black
ribands. So far the women’s dress is becoming enough; but they
have an aukward manner of fixing their petticoats so high as to
leave hardly any waist. This encroachment of the petticoats upon the
waist, with the amazing number they wear, gives a size and
importance to the lower and hind part of the body to which it is by
no means entitled, and mightily deforms the appearance of the
whole person.
The elegant figure of the Venus de Medicis, or of the D——ss of D
——re, would be impaired, or annihilated, under such a preposterous
load of dress.—As we arrived only this afternoon, I can say nothing
of Bern. You shall hear more in my next. Meanwhile, I am, c.

76. [4] Near this town the Helvetians were defeated by Cæcina,
one of Vitellius’s Lieutenants.—Multa hominum millia cæsa, multa
sub corona venumdata. Cumque direptis omnibus, Aventicum
gentis caput justo agmine peteretur.
Taciti Historia, lib. 1. cap. 68.

77. LETTER XXXV.
Bern.
Bern is a regular well-built town, with some air of magnificence.
The houses are of a fine white free-stone, and pretty uniform,
particularly in the principal street, where they are all exactly of the
same height. There are piazzas on each side, with a walk, raised
four feet above the level of the street, very commodious in wet
weather.
A small branch of the Aar has been turned into this street, and
being confined to a narrow channel in the middle, which has a
considerable slope, it runs with great rapidity; and, without being a
disagreeable object of itself, is of great service in keeping the street
clean.
Another circumstance contributes to render this one of the most
cleanly towns in Europe:—Criminals are employed in removing
rubbish from the streets and public walks. The more atrocious
delinquents are chained to waggons, while those who are
condemned for smaller crimes, are employed in sweeping the light
rubbish into the rivulet, and throwing the heavier into the carts or
waggons, which their more criminal companions are obliged to push
or draw along.
These wretches have collars of iron fixed around their necks, with
a projecting handle in the form of a hook to each, by which, on the
slightest offence or mutiny, they may be seized, and are entirely at
the command of the guard, whose duty it is to see them perform
their work.—People of both sexes are condemned to this labour for
months, years, or for life, according to the nature of their crimes.
It is alleged, that over and above the deterring from crimes, which
is effected by this, in common with the other methods of punishing,

78. there is the additional advantage, of obliging the criminal to repair
by his labour the injury which he has done to the community.
I suspect, however, that this advantage is overbalanced by the
bad effects of habituating people to behold the misery of their
fellow-creatures, which I imagine gradually hardens the hearts of the
spectators, and renders them less susceptible of the emotions of
compassion and pity;—feelings, which, perhaps of all others, have
the best influence upon, and are the most becoming, human nature.
Juvenal says,
—— mollissima corda
Humano generi dare se natura fatetur,
Quæ lachrymas dedit: hæc nostri pars optima sensûs.
Wherever public executions and punishments are frequent, the
common people have been observed to acquire a greater degree of
insensibility, and cruelty of disposition, than in places where such
scenes seldom occur.—I remember, while I was at Geneva, where
executions are very rare, a young man was condemned to be
hanged for murder, and there was a general gloom and uneasiness
evident in every society for several days before and after the
execution.
The public buildings at Bern, as the hospital, the granary, the
guard-house, the arsenal, and the churches, are magnificent. There
is a very elegant building just completed, with accommodations for
many public amusements, such as balls, concerts, and theatrical
entertainments. There are also apartments for private societies and
assemblies. It was built by a voluntary subscription among the
nobility; and no societies, but of the patrician order, are allowed
there.
Theatrical entertainments are seldom permitted at Bern; none
have as yet been performed at this new theatre.
The walk by the great church was formerly the only public walk,
and much admired on account of the view from it, and the

79. peculiarity of its situation, being on a level with the streets on one
side, and some hundred feet of perpendicular height above them on
the other. But there is now another public walk, at some distance
without the town, which has been lately made upon a high bank by
the side of the Aar, and is the most magnificent I ever saw belonging
to this or any other town. From it there is a commanding view of the
river, the town of Bern, the country about it, and the Glaciers of
Switzerland.
I have visited the library, where, besides the books, there are a
few antiques, and some other curiosities. The small figure of the
priest pouring wine between the horns of a bull, is valuable only
because it illustrates a passage in Virgil, and has been mentioned by
Addison.
An addition was lately made to this library by a collection of
English books, magnificently bound, which were sent as a present by
an English gentleman; who, though he has thought proper to
conceal his name, has sufficiently discovered his political principles
by the nature of the collection, amongst which, I distinguished
Milton’s works, particularly his prose writings; Algernon Sidney on
Government, Locke, Ludlow’s Memoirs, Gordon’s translation of
Tacitus, Addison’s works, particularly The Freeholder; Marvel’s works,
Steel’s, c. They were the largest and finest editions, and might be
about the value of 200l.—This gentleman made a present of the
same nature to the public library at Geneva.
I happened to open the Glasgow edition of Homer, which I saw
here, on a blank page of which was an address in Latin to the
Corsican General, Paoli, signed James Boswell. This very elegant
book had been sent, I suppose, as a present from Mr. Boswell to his
friend the General; and, when that unfortunate chief was obliged to
abandon his country, fell, with other of his effects, into the hands of
the Swiss officer in the French service, who made a present of the
Homer to this library.
The arsenal I could not have omitted seeing had I been so
inclined, as the Bernois value themselves on the trophies contained

80. in it, and upon the quantity, good condition, and arrangement of the
arms.
Nothing interested me so much as the figures of the brave
Switzers, who first took arms against tyranny, and that of William
Tell, who is represented aiming at the apple on his son’s head. I
contemplated this with an emotion which was created by the
circumstances of the story, not by the workmanship; for, at that
moment, I should have beheld with neglect the most exquisite
statue that ever was formed of Augustus Cæsar.
Surely no characters have so just a claim to the admiration and
gratitude of posterity, as those who have freed their countrymen
from the capricious insolence of tyrants: And whether all the
incidents of Tell’s story be true or fabulous, the men (whoever they
were) who roused and incited their fellow-citizens to throw off the
Austrian yoke, deserve to be regarded as patriots, having
undoubtedly been actuated by that principle, so dear to every
generous heart, the spirit of independence,
“Who with the gen’rous rustics fate,
“On Uri’s rock, in close divan,
“And wing’d that arrow sure as fate,
“Which ascertain’d the sacred rights of man.”
Mr. Addison observes, that there is no great pleasure in visiting
arsenals, merely to see a repetition of these magazines of war; yet it
is worth while, as it gives an idea of the force of a state, and serves
to fix in the mind the most considerable parts of its history.
The arms taken from the Burgundians, in the various battles which
established the liberty of Switzerland, are displayed here; also the
figure of the General of Bern, who, in the year 1536, conquered the
Pays de Vaud from Charles III. Duke of Savoy:—And, if they have no
trophies to shew of a later date, I am convinced it is because they
are too poor and too wise to aim at any extension of dominion:—And
because all the neighbouring powers are at length become sensible,
that the nature of their country, and their personal valour, have

81. rendered the Swiss as unconquerable, as, from political
considerations, they are averse to attempt conquests.

82. LETTER XXXVI.
Bern.
The different cantons of Switzerland, though united together by a
common bond, and all of a republican form of government, differ in
the nature of that form, as well as in religion.
The Roman Catholic religion being favourable to monarchy, one
would naturally imagine, that, when adopted by a republic, it would
gradually wind up the government to the highest pitch of aristocracy.
The fact nevertheless is, that those cantons, which are in the
strongest degree democratical, are of the Popish persuasion; and the
most perfect aristocracy of them all is established in this Protestant
canton of Bern, which is also indeed the most powerful. In extent of
country, and number of inhabitants, it is reckoned nearly equal to all
the others taken together.
The nobility of Bern are accused of an extraordinary degree of
pride and stateliness. They affect to keep the citizens at a great
distance; and it is with difficulty that their wives and daughters will
condescend to mix with the mercantile families at balls, assemblies,
and such public occasions, where numbers seem essential to the
nature of the entertainment; by which means a nobility ball loses in
cheerfulness what it retains in dignity, and is often, as I am told, as
devoid of amusement as it is solemn.
The whole power of the government, and all the honourable
offices of the state, are in the hands of the nobility. As it is not
permitted them to trade, they would naturally fall into poverty
without this resource: But by the number of places which the nobles
enjoy, and to which very considerable pensions are annexed, the
poorest of them are enabled to support their families with dignity.

83. The bailliages, into which the whole canton and the conquered
territories are divided, form lucrative and honourable establishments
for the principal families of Bern. The bailiff is governor and judge in
his own district, and there is a magnificent chateau in each for his
accommodation. An appeal may be made from all subordinate courts
to him; as also from his decision, to the council at Bern.
The nobility of Bern, though born to be judges, are not always
instructed in law. It has therefore been thought requisite, to appoint
a certain number of persons, as their assessors, who have been bred
to the profession. But in case the judge should differ from those
assessors, and retain his own opinion in spite of their
remonstrances, as nobility has the precedency of law, the decision
must be given according to the will of the judge.
This office remains in the hands of the same person for the term
of six years only. I have been informed, that in some of these
bailliages, the governor may live with proper magnificence, and lay
up, during the period of his office, two or three thousand pounds,
without extortion, or unbecoming parsimony. There is no law against
his being afterwards named to another bailliage.
The executive power of the government, with all the lucrative and
honourable offices, being thus in the hands of the nobility, it may be
imagined, that the middle and lower ranks of people are poor and
oppressed. This, however, is by no means the case; for the citizens,
I mean the merchants and trades-people, seem, in general, to enjoy
all the comforts and conveniencies of life. And the peasantry is
uncommonly wealthy throughout the whole canton of Bern.
The Swiss have no objection to their nobles being their judges,
and to the principal offices of government remaining in their hands.
They look upon the nobility as their natural superiors, and think, that
they and their families ought to be supported with a certain degree
of splendor:—But the power of direct taxation is a different question,
and must be managed with all possible caution and delicacy. It is a
common cause, and the conduct of the nobles in this particular is
watched with very jealous eyes. They are sufficiently aware of this,

84. and use their power with moderation. But lest the nobles should at
any time forget, a very good hint is given in a German inscription in
the arsenal, implying, That the insolence and rapacity of high rank
had brought about the liberty of Switzerland.
A people who have always arms in their hands, and form the only
military force of the country, are in no danger of being oppressed
and irritated with taxes.
It has been considered by some as a pernicious policy in the
Swiss, to allow so many of their inhabitants to serve as mercenaries
in the different armies of Europe. There are others, who consider
this measure as expedient, or less pernicious in the Swiss cantons,
than it would be in any other country.
They who support this opinion, assert, that every part of
Switzerland, which is capable of cultivation, is already improved to
the highest degree; that, after retaining a sufficient number of hands
to keep it always in this condition, and for the support of every
manufactory, still there remains a surplus of inhabitants, which forms
the troops that are allowed to go into foreign services. They add,
that these troops only engage for a limited number of years, after
the expiration of which, many of them return with money to their
native country; and all of them, by stipulation, may be recalled by
the state on any emergency.—By this means, they retain a numerous
and well-disciplined army on foot; which, so far from being a
burden, in reality enriches the state:—an advantage which no other
people ever possessed.
There is still another motive for this measure, which, though it be
not openly avowed, yet, I suspect, has considerable weight: The
council are perhaps afraid, that if the young nobility were kept at
home, where they could have but few objects to occupy them, they
might cabal and spread dissentions in the state; or perhaps, through
idleness and ambition, excite dangerous insurrections among the
peasants. For, although the laws are severe against state crimes,
and easily put in execution against ordinary offenders, it might be
difficult and dangerous to punish a popular young nobleman.

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