This document discusses the prediction and impacts of volcanic eruptions. It describes methods for long-term and short-term prediction of eruptions based on monitoring factors like gas emissions, surface tilting, and earthquake activity. The impacts discussed include hazards from lava flows, ash falls, pyroclastic flows, lahars, nuée ardentes, landslides, volcanic gases, tsunamis, and potential effects on global climate. Examples of historically deadly eruptions like Mount Pelée and Krakatoa are provided. The document also introduces the concept of supervolcanic eruptions ejecting over 1,000 cubic km of material.
A amp B 3 The term tephra defines all pieces of rock fra.pdfsanjaychauhan1530
#A & B
3) The term tephra defines all pieces of rock fragments ejected into the air by an erupting volcano.
Most tephra falls back onto the slopes of the volcano, enlarging it. But, billions of smaller and
lighter pieces less than 2mm in diameter (less than one-tenth of an inch), termed ash, are carried
by winds for thousands of miles. Falling ash, even in low concentrations, can disrupt human
activities hundreds of miles downwind, and drifting clouds of fine ash can endanger jet aircraft
thousands of miles away. When it has settled on and near the ground, volcanic ash threatens the
health of people and livestock, damages electronics and machinery, and interrupts power
generation, water and transportation systems, and telecommunications (USGS) The Eyjafjallajkull
volcano in Iceland erupted spectacularly in April 2010. The heat from the lava beneath the crater
of the glacier-covered summit quickly melted and vaporized the glacier ice above. Mud, ice, and
meltwater running off the volcano swelled local rivers and streams, flooding farmland and
damaging roads. Expanding gasses from the rapid vaporization of ice caused explosions that
resulted from the contact of water and magma. The hydro-phreatic explosions sent a plume of
steam and ash almost 7 miles (11km) into the atmosphere. The plume was driven southeast,
across the North Atlantic Ocean to northern Europe, by the prevailing winds. Fearing the damage
to commercial aircraft and potential loss of life that could result from flying through the ash cloud,
many European countries closed their national airspace and grounded flights for several days.
(after Britannica)Image left: 2010 ash plume from Eyjafjallajkull eruption. Image right: Composite
map of the volcanic ash cloud spanning 14-25 April 2010. View looking down onto the North Pole.
Source: Wikipedia a) Heat from magma can change water suddenly to steam, which can expand
to more than a thousand times the original volume of water. The sudden expansion results in an
explosive force that can blast a volcano to pieces and create large amounts of volcanic ash. Name
the type of explosion produced when water in groundwater, seawater, or even melting glacial ice
or snow comes into contact with magma. b) Referring to the ash plume map above, estimate the
percentage of the planet's circumference the ash plume traveled in the first 2 weeks of April 2010.
(Hint: Count the wedge-shaped sections that show dark and light gray ash. Divide the number of
sections with ash by the total number of sections. For example, 6 sections with ash divided by 24
total sections =6 divided by 24=.25 or 25% of the globe. Do not use these numbers. Count the
sections on the image above and show your calculations..
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
A amp B 3 The term tephra defines all pieces of rock fra.pdfsanjaychauhan1530
#A & B
3) The term tephra defines all pieces of rock fragments ejected into the air by an erupting volcano.
Most tephra falls back onto the slopes of the volcano, enlarging it. But, billions of smaller and
lighter pieces less than 2mm in diameter (less than one-tenth of an inch), termed ash, are carried
by winds for thousands of miles. Falling ash, even in low concentrations, can disrupt human
activities hundreds of miles downwind, and drifting clouds of fine ash can endanger jet aircraft
thousands of miles away. When it has settled on and near the ground, volcanic ash threatens the
health of people and livestock, damages electronics and machinery, and interrupts power
generation, water and transportation systems, and telecommunications (USGS) The Eyjafjallajkull
volcano in Iceland erupted spectacularly in April 2010. The heat from the lava beneath the crater
of the glacier-covered summit quickly melted and vaporized the glacier ice above. Mud, ice, and
meltwater running off the volcano swelled local rivers and streams, flooding farmland and
damaging roads. Expanding gasses from the rapid vaporization of ice caused explosions that
resulted from the contact of water and magma. The hydro-phreatic explosions sent a plume of
steam and ash almost 7 miles (11km) into the atmosphere. The plume was driven southeast,
across the North Atlantic Ocean to northern Europe, by the prevailing winds. Fearing the damage
to commercial aircraft and potential loss of life that could result from flying through the ash cloud,
many European countries closed their national airspace and grounded flights for several days.
(after Britannica)Image left: 2010 ash plume from Eyjafjallajkull eruption. Image right: Composite
map of the volcanic ash cloud spanning 14-25 April 2010. View looking down onto the North Pole.
Source: Wikipedia a) Heat from magma can change water suddenly to steam, which can expand
to more than a thousand times the original volume of water. The sudden expansion results in an
explosive force that can blast a volcano to pieces and create large amounts of volcanic ash. Name
the type of explosion produced when water in groundwater, seawater, or even melting glacial ice
or snow comes into contact with magma. b) Referring to the ash plume map above, estimate the
percentage of the planet's circumference the ash plume traveled in the first 2 weeks of April 2010.
(Hint: Count the wedge-shaped sections that show dark and light gray ash. Divide the number of
sections with ash by the total number of sections. For example, 6 sections with ash divided by 24
total sections =6 divided by 24=.25 or 25% of the globe. Do not use these numbers. Count the
sections on the image above and show your calculations..
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
2. Prediction of Volcanic Eruptions
Identify volcanoes and the frequency and style of their
eruptions (a geological problem).
Long Term Prediction
Establish the level of risk based on historic and geologic
record.
Establish probabilities of eruption, style and location for
individual volcanoes.
E.g., for individual volcanoes: determine most likely routes
for lahars, nuees ardentes, lava flows, etc., and avoid
construction in those areas.
3. Short-term prediction
Based on the recognition of a pattern of events prior to
previous eruptions.
Gas emissions: rates of emission and type of gas changes in
some volcanoes.
Important gases include sulfur dioxide (SO2) and carbon
dioxide (CO2)
Changes in concentration may reflect movement of the
magma up the vent.
4. Surface tilting: recognition of changes in the land
surface due to building pressure in the conduit.
A surface bulge appeared on Mt. St. Helens prior to its
eruption.
April 26 May 2
April 8, 1980
5. Earthquakes: generated as the magma moves up the
feeder conduit to the vent.
When viscous magma becomes stuck in the conduit strain
energy builds as more magma tries to push out.
Movement takes place in a series of “jerks” as the rock
material breaks. Each “jerk” produces an earthquake.
Magnitudes generally less than 5 M.
The more earthquakes the further the magma has moved.
6. Mount Spurr, Alaska:
The 1992 Eruption of Crater Peak Vent
USGS
Black bars: earthquake
frequency.
Red lines: volcanic eruptions.
7. A combination of approaches is likely the key to short-term prediction.
9. Volcanic Hazards
Damage limited to the vicinity in the immediate area of the
volcano.
Lava flows
Commonly destroy property in Hawaii and Iceland.
Fatalities rare due to slow
speed of advancing lava
flow.
10. Ash fall
Extensive property damage and fatalities can result from
heavy ash falls.
Significant ash in the upper atmosphere can circle the
globe in a matter of weeks.
Mt. St. Helens’
ash cloud
More than 80 commercial jets have been damaged by
flying through volcanic ash clouds.
11. Pyroclastic flows
Lahars can also dam rivers and which can lead to
extensive flooding.
Lahars are fast moving mudflows that can inundate
urban areas that are nearby the eruption.
12. Lahars can be the most devastating outcome of many
volcanoes.
Water and debris rushed down the slopes, picking up more
debris along the way.
A relatively small eruption of Nevada del Ruiz, Columbia,
in 1985, generated a lahar when the volcano melted a 2.5
km2 area of snow and ice.
13. A 5 metre wall of
water and debris
slammed into the town
of Amero, 72 km from
the volcano.
The lahar killed
28,700 people and
destroyed over 5,000
structures in the city.
14. Nuée ardentes destroy life and property in their paths.
60 people, thousands of animals and fish, and
hundreds of acres of lumber were destroyed by ash
flows from Mt. St. Helens.
A Nuée Ardent killed 20,000 people when Mt. Vesuvius
exploded and shed a pyroclastic flow across the village
of Pompeii in 79 AD.
16. Landslides
Landslides can be generated when a volcano collapses
during an eruption.
During the Mt. St. Helens eruption 2.3 km3 of debris slid
down the mountain at speeds up to 240 km/hr.
The slide traveled over 24 km and left a 45 m deep deposit.
350,000 years ago Mt. Shasta experienced a similar
eruption and landslide that was 20 times greater than that
of Mt. St. Helens.
17. Volcanic Gases
In addition to making magma more explosive, volcanic eruptions also
include gases that can be deadly to all life.
CO2, SO2 and CO are the most abundant of harmful gases.
18. Volcanoes release more than 130 to 230 million tonnes of
CO2 into the atmosphere every year
Humans add CO2 at the rate of approximately 22 billion
tonnes per year (150 times the rate of volcanic production)
Human CO2 production is equal to that if 17,000 volcanoes
like Kilauea were erupting every year.
SO2 emissions can have direct effects on life in the vicinity
of a volcano.
An eruption in 1783 of Laki Crater (Iceland) produced a
sulfurous haze that lasted for 9 months and killed 75% of
all livestock and 24% of the Icelandic population.
19. Mammoth Mountain is
a relatively young
volcano that is emitting
large volumes of CO2.
Gas concentrations in the soil in
some areas near the mountain are
high enough to kill trees and small
animals.
20. If the air that we breath has more than 10% CO2 it
becomes deadly because it displaces the Oxygen that we
need for respiration.
Lake Nios, Cameroon, is a very deep lake within a volcanic
crater.
The lake is so deep that hydrostatic pressure forces CO2 to
remain at the lake bottom.
When the pressure of the CO2 exceeds a certain limit the
gas rapidly bubbles up out of the lake and flows as an
invisible gas cloud down the adjacent slopes.
On August 61, 1986 such a gas release flowed 19 km
suffocating 1,700 people along its route.
21. The fountain in the
background lifts CO2
up to the surface so
that it no longer
accumulates.
Lake Nyos 10 days after
the 1986 eruption
22. Tsunamis
Caused by the displacement of seawater by eruptions
of volcanic islands and submarine volcanoes.
Krakatoa (1883 eruption) killed 36,000 people by the
tsunami, alone (the most deadly outcome of the
eruption).
This is the newly forming
summit of Krakatoa, growing
where the 1883 eruption blew
the top off of the original
volcano.
23. Global Climate Change
Due to ash and gas that may spend years in the upper
atmosphere; reduces incoming solar radiation.
SO2 from an eruption forms tiny droplets of sulfuric acid
in the upper atmosphere.
The droplets significantly increase global albedo…..a
negative radiative forcing that leads to cooling.
Mt. Pinatubo (1991) released 22 million metric tons of SO2
and reduced the Earth’s average temperature by 0.5
degrees Celsius in the year following the eruption.
24. Tambora (1815 eruption) was followed in 1816 by the
“year without a summer”.
Average global temperature is estimated to have been
reduced by 3 degrees Celsius.
A series of eruptions of Tambora (Indonesia) extruded up
to 150 km3 of magma (solid equivalent), much of it into the
atmosphere.
25. Food shortages and starvation are attributed to the deaths
of 80,000 people.
In June of 1816 there was widespread snowfall throughout
the eastern United States.
The normal growing season experienced repeated frosts
as cold air extended much more southerly than normal.
The global population was about 1 billion people in 1816.
Our current population is a little over 6 billion.
The 1816 fatality rate would have resulted in a death toll of
nearly 500,000 people due to starvation.
27. Deadly Historic Volcanic Eruptions
A stratovolcano along
the Caribbean trench.
Mt. Pelée
(West Indes)
VEI = 4
28. Lava domes are constructed of
viscous lava and are prone to
collapse, unleashing a violent
pyroclastic flow.
An eruption in 1902 following the
growth of a lava dome on the side
of the mountain.
29.
30. The nuée ardente that was generated
when Mt. Pelée erupted swept 6 km
downslope through the town of St.
Vincent.
31. Almost the entire
population of 30,000
people were killed
within minutes of
inhaling the hot gases
and ash.
There were only two
survivors; one was in a
dungeon!
32. Tambora (1815) VEI = 7
The largest eruption of historic time.
Greatest impacts from pyroclastic flows and
ash and gas eruptions.
Approximately 150 km3 of ash was erupted
with the explosions.
10,000 people were killed by bomb impacts, tephra falls and
pyroclastic flows.
By far the largest impact was on the Earth’s atmosphere.
The eruption plume reached 44 km above the earth, loading the
stratosphere with ashes and gases.
33. The concentration mercury
in ice cores from glaciers in
Wyoming record a peak in
atmospheric mercury that
corresponds to the Tambora
eruption.
The atmospheric impact
caused the “year without a
summer” along with 80,000
deaths due to famine and
disease.
34. Krakatoa (1883)
On the Island of Rakata, Krakatoa was one of
130 active volcanoes in Indonesia (the country
with the most active volcanoes in the world).
The volcano had been inactive for almost 200
years prior to a series of small eruptions that
began in 1883.
VEI = 6
35. The volcanoes of Indonesia are due to the northeastward subduction
of the Indo-Australian plate beneath the Eurasian plate.
Stratovolcanoes with a high probability of violent eruption.
36. Krakatoa began its eruptive stage on May 20, 1883 immediately
following a strong earthquake (no sensors were there to measure it).
The first explosions were heard 160 km away and sent steam and ash
upwards to a height of 11 km.
By August 11 three vents were active on the volcano.
On August 26 several loud eruptions
took place over the course of the day
sending dust and ash to over 25 km
elevation into the atmosphere.
37. On August 27, four very large eruptions began at 5:30 am.
The last of the four was the largest and could be heard from Sri
Lanka to Australia, up to 4,600 km from the volcano.
A 23 km2 area of the island was gone following the fourth eruption.
38. Super Volcanoes
While not defined officially, lets say any eruption that ejects 1000
km3 or more of pyroclastic material (i.e., VEI 8 or more).
According to M.R. Rampino super eruptions take place, on average,
every 50,000 years. Three of the best known eruptions are compared
below.
39. Toba: the world’s largest Quaternary caldera.
The Australian Plate is subducting
beneath the Eurasian plate at a rate
of 6.7 cm/yr.
40. Today Toba is a caldera or
depression that is occupied
by Lake Toba.
It is 100 km long and 30 km
wide.
Toba last erupted about
75,000 years ago with the
largest eruption of the last 2
million years.
41. 840,000 years ago
500,000 years ago
Three eruptive events have been
recognized.
74,000 years ago
Each producing a caldera.
Samosir Island, rising 750 m above
the lake, is a dome built from lava
following the last eruption.
42. The eruption ejected 2,800 cubic km of material and the pyroclastic
flows covered an area of at least 20,000 square km.
In the immediate vicinity of the volcano ash deposits reach 600 metres in
thickness
Ash fall from the eruption covers an area of at least 4 million square km;
half the area of the continental United States.
Global cooling is estimated at between 3 and 5 degrees Celsius with
regional cooling of 15 degrees C.
Tropical plant life would have been all but eliminated
Temperate forests would loose 50% of all trees.
43. It is estimated that the growing population of homo sapiens (i.e., us) was
reduced from 100,000 individuals to as few as 3,000 individuals (97% of
all humans were lost!).
This reduction had been estimated for approximately the time of Toba’s
eruption on the basis of genetic studies and is termed the “human
population bottleneck”.
44. Yellowstone Caldera
Known for its hot springs and geysers,
Yellowstone National Park, is likely
the most popular super volcano in the
world.
The park sits on an active caldera that
rises and sinks in response to magma
movement and pressure fluctuations
within the Earth.
Over recent years the surface has risen
by as much as a metre and sunk back
by 1/3 of a metre.
Thousands of small earthquakes are
produced as earth surface moves.
45. The magma chamber is only 5 to 13 km below the land surface.
The caldera is 80 km
long and 50 km wide.
46. The caldera and its magma chamber are due to a hot spot in the mantle
that has moved several hundred kilometres over the past 12.5 million
years.
The movement is due to the drift of the north American continent over
the hot spot.
Ancient, inactive
calderas mark the path
of the hot spot.
47. The current caldera was formed with an eruption 640,000 years ago (the
Lava Creek Eruption).
This eruption ejected 1,000 km3 of pyroclastic debris.
An earlier eruption (the Huckleberry Ridge Eruption, 2 million years
ago) ejected 2,500 km3
of pyroclastic debris.
A smaller eruption
happened 1.3 million
years ago, releasing
280 km3 of debris.
48. Eruptions appear to have a 600,000 year period (that long between
eruptions) so we’re overdue for another one.
Previous eruptions spread ash over thousands of km2 across the US.
49. Heightened monitoring of the Yellowstone Caldera in recent years has
led to media concern of an impending eruption.
Government officials and geologists indicate that there have been no
clear indicators of high risk at this time.
If such an eruption were to take place, North America and the rest of the
world could experience another “Dark Ages”.