The document describes the VESA BIOS Extension (VBE) specification version 2.0, which standardizes software access to graphics display controllers supporting features beyond the original VGA standard. The VBE specification defines a set of functions that can be called from the BIOS interrupt 10h or directly by 32-bit applications to configure and access display hardware without needing knowledge of the internal hardware operations. It is intended to simplify and encourage development of graphics applications that can take advantage of evolving display technology.
Network Configuration Example: Junos OS NAT Configuration Examples for Screen...Juniper Networks
This document describes how to configure the Networks Address Translation (NAT) functionality on Juniper Networks SRX Series or J Series devices using the Junos operating system (Junos OS) command-line interface (CLI).
The document describes the Dell Latitude 5000 Series laptops. Key features include thinner and lighter designs, longer battery life enabled by Intel 4th Generation Core processors, optional touchscreens, and reliable and durable construction. The laptops also offer strong security features like encryption and authentication options. They are designed to be manageable with tools that integrate with Microsoft System Center and Dell KACE for easy deployment and maintenance of large fleets.
The Seagate Momentus 7200 FDE is the industry's first high-performance, government-grade self-encrypting hard drive. It delivers up to 320GB of secure storage and utilizes Seagate's third generation hardware-based AES encryption engine. The 7200 RPM drive provides fast performance without compromising security or transparency.
The document provides an overview of the Lenovo IdeaPad S10-3 netbook, including its key features, specifications, preloaded software, and environmental credentials. It highlights aspects like the notebook's ergonomic and trendsetting design, performance capabilities enabled by its Intel Atom processor, multimedia and connectivity features, and security utilities like OneKey Rescue System.
The document describes the Lenovo ThinkPad E470/E570 laptop. It highlights key features such as reliability, performance for business users, security features, and connectivity options. The laptop is designed for business users requiring portable performance and security features. Recommended services and accessories are also listed to support and protect the laptop investment.
Như vậy là sau những hình ảnh leak ra từ Lenovo thì họ đã chính thức giới thiệu dòng laptop doanh nhân cao cấp của mình - Thinkpad X1 Carbon Gen 9. Tìm hiểu chi tiết về mẫu laptop này trước khi quyết định ngay nhé.
Nguồn: https://laptops.vn/san-pham/lenovo-thinkpad-x1-gen-9/
This document provides specifications for the Aspire One D270 Limited Edition netbook. It has a 10.1" display, weighs 1.3 kg, and is available in a limited edition balloon carnival design. It has an Intel Atom processor, up to 2GB of RAM, integrated graphics, and a variety of storage, port, and connectivity options. It ships with Windows 7 and includes 1 year of international warranty coverage.
Laptop Lenovo ThinkPad E480 là một trong những dòng máy tính phục vụ nhu cầu văn phòng điển hình. Cùng chúng tôi tìm hiểu chi tiết về chiếc laptop Lenovo ThinkPad E480 qua bài viết dưới đây nhé!
Nguồn: https://laptops.vn/san-pham/thinkpad-e480/
Network Configuration Example: Junos OS NAT Configuration Examples for Screen...Juniper Networks
This document describes how to configure the Networks Address Translation (NAT) functionality on Juniper Networks SRX Series or J Series devices using the Junos operating system (Junos OS) command-line interface (CLI).
The document describes the Dell Latitude 5000 Series laptops. Key features include thinner and lighter designs, longer battery life enabled by Intel 4th Generation Core processors, optional touchscreens, and reliable and durable construction. The laptops also offer strong security features like encryption and authentication options. They are designed to be manageable with tools that integrate with Microsoft System Center and Dell KACE for easy deployment and maintenance of large fleets.
The Seagate Momentus 7200 FDE is the industry's first high-performance, government-grade self-encrypting hard drive. It delivers up to 320GB of secure storage and utilizes Seagate's third generation hardware-based AES encryption engine. The 7200 RPM drive provides fast performance without compromising security or transparency.
The document provides an overview of the Lenovo IdeaPad S10-3 netbook, including its key features, specifications, preloaded software, and environmental credentials. It highlights aspects like the notebook's ergonomic and trendsetting design, performance capabilities enabled by its Intel Atom processor, multimedia and connectivity features, and security utilities like OneKey Rescue System.
The document describes the Lenovo ThinkPad E470/E570 laptop. It highlights key features such as reliability, performance for business users, security features, and connectivity options. The laptop is designed for business users requiring portable performance and security features. Recommended services and accessories are also listed to support and protect the laptop investment.
Như vậy là sau những hình ảnh leak ra từ Lenovo thì họ đã chính thức giới thiệu dòng laptop doanh nhân cao cấp của mình - Thinkpad X1 Carbon Gen 9. Tìm hiểu chi tiết về mẫu laptop này trước khi quyết định ngay nhé.
Nguồn: https://laptops.vn/san-pham/lenovo-thinkpad-x1-gen-9/
This document provides specifications for the Aspire One D270 Limited Edition netbook. It has a 10.1" display, weighs 1.3 kg, and is available in a limited edition balloon carnival design. It has an Intel Atom processor, up to 2GB of RAM, integrated graphics, and a variety of storage, port, and connectivity options. It ships with Windows 7 and includes 1 year of international warranty coverage.
Laptop Lenovo ThinkPad E480 là một trong những dòng máy tính phục vụ nhu cầu văn phòng điển hình. Cùng chúng tôi tìm hiểu chi tiết về chiếc laptop Lenovo ThinkPad E480 qua bài viết dưới đây nhé!
Nguồn: https://laptops.vn/san-pham/thinkpad-e480/
This document summarizes the specifications for the Lenovo ThinkPad X390 laptop. It includes details on the processor options which range from 8th generation Intel Core i3 to 10th generation Intel Core i7. Storage includes an M.2 SSD up to 1TB and memory is soldered ranging from 4GB to 32GB. Display options are 13.3" HD, FHD non-touch or FHD touch. Connectivity includes WiFi 6, Bluetooth 5.2, optional 4G LTE and ports including USB-C and HDMI. Security features are a fingerprint reader, optional IR camera and ThinkShutter. It is EPEAT Gold certified and passes military testing.
This document is a resume for Paul L. Moreau Jr., an experienced embedded firmware, diagnostics, and software engineer seeking a position involving embedded firmware development, software development, and diagnostic engineering. It summarizes his over 35 years of experience developing firmware, diagnostics, and software across various industries for devices including disk arrays, tape drives, network adapters, and more. His experience includes work with numerous processor architectures and languages like C, C++, Python, and assembly.
HP Zbook Studio G5 được đánh giá cao trong phân khúc về thiết kế lẫn hiệu năng đáp ứng về đồ họa 2D 3D. Cùng tìm hiểu chi tiết sản phẩm trước khi quyết định nhé
Nguồn: https://laptops.vn/san-pham/hp-zbook-studio-g5/
Stuart McClure, CEO of Cylance Inc., gave a presentation on securing embedded systems and devices. He began by noting the vast number of embedded systems worldwide that were designed without security. He then demonstrated live hacks against a Samsung smart TV, a Tridium building management system, and an electronic lockbox. To conclude, he discussed countermeasures organizations can implement to prevent attacks on embedded systems, such as disabling unnecessary ports, patching vulnerabilities, restricting physical and remote access, and using firewalls, IDS systems and encryption.
SmartOS provides efficient, reliable, and high-performing cloud infrastructure through hardware and OS virtualization. It contains features that give enterprises the best tools for managing applications and data, and for troubleshooting problems. SmartOS ensures clouds never go down through its strong foundation, security and data integrity protections, and ability to scale up and out through automatic CPU bursting and fast provisioning. It also provides unprecedented observability into the software stack in real time through DTrace. SmartOS allows flexibility to run Windows and Linux applications through KVM while maintaining performance and scale.
Unlock Hidden Potential through Big Data and AnalyticsIT@Intel
Kim Stevenson, Intel's Chief Information Officer, discussed how big data and analytics are driving innovation through increased data volumes, lower computing costs, and new tools. Big data allows for improved customer experiences, more intelligent systems, and richer data analysis. Corporations are using analytics to increase efficiency, assist campaigns, and reduce costs. Intel's data platform aims to enable massive computing power, build an open ecosystem, and reduce complexity to fuel data-driven innovation. Stevenson highlighted opportunities from traffic optimization to personalized healthcare and ways analytics can provide operational efficiency, revenue growth, and cost reduction.
The document discusses Microsoft's strategy and commitment to interoperability through web services specifications and standards. It provides an overview of Microsoft's WS-* specification development process, their involvement in various standards bodies, and implementations in their products to support interoperability. It also discusses the adoption of WS-* specifications by other vendors and defines interoperability profiles to compose subsets of specifications for specific domains or environments.
Resin.io contribution to the AGILE-IoT projectAGILE IoT
This document discusses the challenges of developing and maintaining software for devices and the industrial internet. It notes that the development and update process for devices is still like it was in the 1980s, with long iteration cycles and risks of bricking devices. It introduces Resin.io as a platform that aims to apply DevOps and continuous delivery practices to devices, allowing for provisioning, deployment, development, security, and management at scale across diverse device types in a cloud-like manner. It describes Resin.io's architecture and services for building, deploying, and updating container-based software on devices in a safe and reversible way.
This document provides an overview of Azure Sphere, a new solution from Microsoft for creating highly secured, connected microcontroller (MCU) devices. It discusses the opportunity and risks of IoT, introduces the seven properties of highly secured devices, and describes the key components of Azure Sphere including the secured MCU, secured operating system, and secured cloud services. It also covers the Azure Sphere developer tools and SDK, partner ecosystem, and provides a recap of the overall solution.
1. The document discusses the open source Java ME mobile platform called phoneME which provides a CLDC/MIDP implementation and advanced CDC/FP/PBP platform for smart phones.
2. phoneME aims to bring together disjoint Java ME communities and reduce fragmentation by providing access to platform code and expertise. This benefits application developers through tools integration and reduced costs.
3. The document outlines various open source Java ME projects under the Mobile & Embedded Community including phoneME, ME framework, and projects tailored for application developers.
VxWorks - Holistic Security (Art of Testing)Aditya K Sood
The document discusses security issues related to the VxWorks operating system and firmware. It provides an overview of the VxWorks architecture and fault management system. It then analyzes vulnerabilities in the VxWorks OS security model, network stack, debugging interface, and firmware configuration. Finally, it discusses threats facing embedded devices like weak security practices.
This document provides an overview and details for a proposed network solution for 5 doctor's offices. The solution includes designing the network, purchasing hardware and software, installing all equipment, and providing ongoing support services. Key aspects of the project include installing fiber optic and Ethernet cabling, Cisco routers and switches, Dell servers and workstations, VOIP phones, and security and management software from vendors such as Microsoft and Symantec. The estimated budget for the project is $850,000.
This document provides guidance for securing video teleconferencing (VTC) systems. It discusses the types of VTC systems and connectivity options. It then describes how to secure VTC endpoints through controls for confidentiality, access, operations, administration and more. The document also recommends policies, standard operating procedures, user training and agreements to securely manage VTC systems.
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2021/08/streamlining-development-of-edge-ai-applications-a-presentation-from-nvidia/
Barrie Mullins, Director of Technical Product Marketing at NVIDIA, presents the “Streamlining Development of Edge AI Applications” tutorial at the May 2021 Embedded Vision Summit.
Edge AI provides benefits for cost, latency, privacy, and connectivity. Developing and deploying optimized, accurate and effect AI on edge-based systems is a time-consuming, challenging and complex process. In this session, you will learn how NVIDIA makes it easier for developers to build, deploy, maintain and manage embedded edge products.
NVIDIA Jetson brings accelerated AI performance to the edge in a power-efficient and compact module form factor. Together with NVIDIA pretrained models, Transfer Learning Toolkit, DeepStream and JetPack SDK, these Jetson modules open the door for you to develop and deploy innovative products across all industries.
DDGen is a software tool that automatically generates device driver code from formal specifications of the device and runtime environment. It captures details during IC design and software development to generate ANSI C code for a variety of operating systems and device classes. This helps semiconductor companies develop drivers early and reduces driver development time and costs for embedded systems. Vayavya Labs provides the DDGen tool with flexible licensing options.
This document discusses applying VoIP security and reliability using commodity services, hardware, and software. It provides an overview of solutions for availability, reliability, and security using Asterisk software run on Dell and SuperMicro servers with Polycom phones. The solutions include using quality internet providers with failover, OpenVPN for encryption, firewalls, and least privilege access. Case studies show the approach provides robust and secure communications for businesses.
The document describes Cisco's Kiosk 2.0 solution for Verizon Wireless. The kiosk allows Verizon to showcase innovations from its experience centers remotely. Key features of the solution include:
1) Real-time video conferencing and pre-recorded videos to demonstrate Verizon innovations
2) Connectivity through Cisco routers and WiFi access points using Verizon's 4G LTE network
3) An interactive virtual tour of Verizon's experience centers for remote audiences
Стас Павлов «Построение безопасной архитектуры IoT решений на примере Azure I...MskDotNet Community
MSK .NET Meetup #8
21 марта 2017
При проектировании системы важно понять, каким угрозам эта система может подвергаться, и разработать соответствующие меры защиты при проектировании и построении её архитектуры. Особенно важно с самого начала учитывать требования безопасности при проектировании продукта. Если вы понимаете, каким образом злоумышленники могут скомпрометировать вашу систему, то это поможет еще до начала работы принять соответствующие меры по снижению рисков. В докладе на примере рефренсной архитектуры Azure IoT будет рассмотрено, каким образом можно спроектировать архитектуру соответствующую необходимому уровню безопасности.
This webinar presentation gives you an overview of how to port various types of Android applications to the Series 40 platform. Join Michael Samarin of Futurice as he walks you through the basic porting tasks involved and shows you how to map Android APIs to corresponding Series 40 APIs. In live coding demonstrations, Michael will use simple hands-on examples to illustrate a step-by-step porting process. This presentation will pay special attention to UI portability and creating a consistent user experience on Series 40 phones.
Increase Profitability with WAV and Exalt SolutionsWAV Inc.
Increase your profitability with Exalt Solutions and WAV Wireless Outfitters.
Go to www.wavonline.com to learn more!
For all of your Wireless needs... WAV's Got You Covered
This document summarizes the specifications for the Lenovo ThinkPad X390 laptop. It includes details on the processor options which range from 8th generation Intel Core i3 to 10th generation Intel Core i7. Storage includes an M.2 SSD up to 1TB and memory is soldered ranging from 4GB to 32GB. Display options are 13.3" HD, FHD non-touch or FHD touch. Connectivity includes WiFi 6, Bluetooth 5.2, optional 4G LTE and ports including USB-C and HDMI. Security features are a fingerprint reader, optional IR camera and ThinkShutter. It is EPEAT Gold certified and passes military testing.
This document is a resume for Paul L. Moreau Jr., an experienced embedded firmware, diagnostics, and software engineer seeking a position involving embedded firmware development, software development, and diagnostic engineering. It summarizes his over 35 years of experience developing firmware, diagnostics, and software across various industries for devices including disk arrays, tape drives, network adapters, and more. His experience includes work with numerous processor architectures and languages like C, C++, Python, and assembly.
HP Zbook Studio G5 được đánh giá cao trong phân khúc về thiết kế lẫn hiệu năng đáp ứng về đồ họa 2D 3D. Cùng tìm hiểu chi tiết sản phẩm trước khi quyết định nhé
Nguồn: https://laptops.vn/san-pham/hp-zbook-studio-g5/
Stuart McClure, CEO of Cylance Inc., gave a presentation on securing embedded systems and devices. He began by noting the vast number of embedded systems worldwide that were designed without security. He then demonstrated live hacks against a Samsung smart TV, a Tridium building management system, and an electronic lockbox. To conclude, he discussed countermeasures organizations can implement to prevent attacks on embedded systems, such as disabling unnecessary ports, patching vulnerabilities, restricting physical and remote access, and using firewalls, IDS systems and encryption.
SmartOS provides efficient, reliable, and high-performing cloud infrastructure through hardware and OS virtualization. It contains features that give enterprises the best tools for managing applications and data, and for troubleshooting problems. SmartOS ensures clouds never go down through its strong foundation, security and data integrity protections, and ability to scale up and out through automatic CPU bursting and fast provisioning. It also provides unprecedented observability into the software stack in real time through DTrace. SmartOS allows flexibility to run Windows and Linux applications through KVM while maintaining performance and scale.
Unlock Hidden Potential through Big Data and AnalyticsIT@Intel
Kim Stevenson, Intel's Chief Information Officer, discussed how big data and analytics are driving innovation through increased data volumes, lower computing costs, and new tools. Big data allows for improved customer experiences, more intelligent systems, and richer data analysis. Corporations are using analytics to increase efficiency, assist campaigns, and reduce costs. Intel's data platform aims to enable massive computing power, build an open ecosystem, and reduce complexity to fuel data-driven innovation. Stevenson highlighted opportunities from traffic optimization to personalized healthcare and ways analytics can provide operational efficiency, revenue growth, and cost reduction.
The document discusses Microsoft's strategy and commitment to interoperability through web services specifications and standards. It provides an overview of Microsoft's WS-* specification development process, their involvement in various standards bodies, and implementations in their products to support interoperability. It also discusses the adoption of WS-* specifications by other vendors and defines interoperability profiles to compose subsets of specifications for specific domains or environments.
Resin.io contribution to the AGILE-IoT projectAGILE IoT
This document discusses the challenges of developing and maintaining software for devices and the industrial internet. It notes that the development and update process for devices is still like it was in the 1980s, with long iteration cycles and risks of bricking devices. It introduces Resin.io as a platform that aims to apply DevOps and continuous delivery practices to devices, allowing for provisioning, deployment, development, security, and management at scale across diverse device types in a cloud-like manner. It describes Resin.io's architecture and services for building, deploying, and updating container-based software on devices in a safe and reversible way.
This document provides an overview of Azure Sphere, a new solution from Microsoft for creating highly secured, connected microcontroller (MCU) devices. It discusses the opportunity and risks of IoT, introduces the seven properties of highly secured devices, and describes the key components of Azure Sphere including the secured MCU, secured operating system, and secured cloud services. It also covers the Azure Sphere developer tools and SDK, partner ecosystem, and provides a recap of the overall solution.
1. The document discusses the open source Java ME mobile platform called phoneME which provides a CLDC/MIDP implementation and advanced CDC/FP/PBP platform for smart phones.
2. phoneME aims to bring together disjoint Java ME communities and reduce fragmentation by providing access to platform code and expertise. This benefits application developers through tools integration and reduced costs.
3. The document outlines various open source Java ME projects under the Mobile & Embedded Community including phoneME, ME framework, and projects tailored for application developers.
VxWorks - Holistic Security (Art of Testing)Aditya K Sood
The document discusses security issues related to the VxWorks operating system and firmware. It provides an overview of the VxWorks architecture and fault management system. It then analyzes vulnerabilities in the VxWorks OS security model, network stack, debugging interface, and firmware configuration. Finally, it discusses threats facing embedded devices like weak security practices.
This document provides an overview and details for a proposed network solution for 5 doctor's offices. The solution includes designing the network, purchasing hardware and software, installing all equipment, and providing ongoing support services. Key aspects of the project include installing fiber optic and Ethernet cabling, Cisco routers and switches, Dell servers and workstations, VOIP phones, and security and management software from vendors such as Microsoft and Symantec. The estimated budget for the project is $850,000.
This document provides guidance for securing video teleconferencing (VTC) systems. It discusses the types of VTC systems and connectivity options. It then describes how to secure VTC endpoints through controls for confidentiality, access, operations, administration and more. The document also recommends policies, standard operating procedures, user training and agreements to securely manage VTC systems.
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2021/08/streamlining-development-of-edge-ai-applications-a-presentation-from-nvidia/
Barrie Mullins, Director of Technical Product Marketing at NVIDIA, presents the “Streamlining Development of Edge AI Applications” tutorial at the May 2021 Embedded Vision Summit.
Edge AI provides benefits for cost, latency, privacy, and connectivity. Developing and deploying optimized, accurate and effect AI on edge-based systems is a time-consuming, challenging and complex process. In this session, you will learn how NVIDIA makes it easier for developers to build, deploy, maintain and manage embedded edge products.
NVIDIA Jetson brings accelerated AI performance to the edge in a power-efficient and compact module form factor. Together with NVIDIA pretrained models, Transfer Learning Toolkit, DeepStream and JetPack SDK, these Jetson modules open the door for you to develop and deploy innovative products across all industries.
DDGen is a software tool that automatically generates device driver code from formal specifications of the device and runtime environment. It captures details during IC design and software development to generate ANSI C code for a variety of operating systems and device classes. This helps semiconductor companies develop drivers early and reduces driver development time and costs for embedded systems. Vayavya Labs provides the DDGen tool with flexible licensing options.
This document discusses applying VoIP security and reliability using commodity services, hardware, and software. It provides an overview of solutions for availability, reliability, and security using Asterisk software run on Dell and SuperMicro servers with Polycom phones. The solutions include using quality internet providers with failover, OpenVPN for encryption, firewalls, and least privilege access. Case studies show the approach provides robust and secure communications for businesses.
The document describes Cisco's Kiosk 2.0 solution for Verizon Wireless. The kiosk allows Verizon to showcase innovations from its experience centers remotely. Key features of the solution include:
1) Real-time video conferencing and pre-recorded videos to demonstrate Verizon innovations
2) Connectivity through Cisco routers and WiFi access points using Verizon's 4G LTE network
3) An interactive virtual tour of Verizon's experience centers for remote audiences
Стас Павлов «Построение безопасной архитектуры IoT решений на примере Azure I...MskDotNet Community
MSK .NET Meetup #8
21 марта 2017
При проектировании системы важно понять, каким угрозам эта система может подвергаться, и разработать соответствующие меры защиты при проектировании и построении её архитектуры. Особенно важно с самого начала учитывать требования безопасности при проектировании продукта. Если вы понимаете, каким образом злоумышленники могут скомпрометировать вашу систему, то это поможет еще до начала работы принять соответствующие меры по снижению рисков. В докладе на примере рефренсной архитектуры Azure IoT будет рассмотрено, каким образом можно спроектировать архитектуру соответствующую необходимому уровню безопасности.
This webinar presentation gives you an overview of how to port various types of Android applications to the Series 40 platform. Join Michael Samarin of Futurice as he walks you through the basic porting tasks involved and shows you how to map Android APIs to corresponding Series 40 APIs. In live coding demonstrations, Michael will use simple hands-on examples to illustrate a step-by-step porting process. This presentation will pay special attention to UI portability and creating a consistent user experience on Series 40 phones.
Increase Profitability with WAV and Exalt SolutionsWAV Inc.
Increase your profitability with Exalt Solutions and WAV Wireless Outfitters.
Go to www.wavonline.com to learn more!
For all of your Wireless needs... WAV's Got You Covered
The Right Tools for IoT Developers – Dan Gross @ Eclipse IoT Day ThingMonk 2016Benjamin Cabé
1) The document discusses tools and strategies for IoT developers, including hardware, software, cloud services, and security solutions from Samsung.
2) It introduces the ARTIK platform which aims to significantly reduce costs and time to market for IoT products through pre-integrated modules, standard protocols, SDKs, and cloud services.
3) The ARTIK platform provides tools for device onboarding, data connectivity, interoperability, analytics and more through a common architecture that connects devices, gateways, mobile apps and the cloud.
This white paper discusses best practices for testing network equipment to ensure it can handle the demands of complex enterprise networks. Such networks contain hundreds of devices that strain bandwidth, including email clients, file servers, printers, and more. The paper recommends testing network elements like routers and switches in various simulated network environments to evaluate how they perform under real-world conditions with different traffic loads. It also suggests documenting both testing practices and network configurations to help manufacturers develop equipment that can meet customer needs.
Softorix Technologies is an inventive, software and hardware-led solutions provider. With a core team of well-qualified professionals representing diverse functional areas such as Information Technology, Embedded Systems and advanced digital signal processing (DSP), we understand the students’ needs, and develop their quality of professional life by simply making the technology readily usable for them. We Practice exclusively in image processing, simulation, optimization, customization and system integration.
Our project methodology includes techniques for initiating a project, developing the requirements, making clear assignments to the project team, developing a dynamic schedule, reporting status to executives and problem solving. In today's competitive environment, students want to ensure that they are getting guidance in an organization that can meet their professional needs. With our well equipped team of solid Information Systems Professionals, who study, design, develop, enhance, customize, implement, maintain and support various aspects of Information Technology, students can be sure that Softorix is just that sort of organization.
E-Invoicing Implementation: A Step-by-Step Guide for Saudi Arabian CompaniesQuickdice ERP
Explore the seamless transition to e-invoicing with this comprehensive guide tailored for Saudi Arabian businesses. Navigate the process effortlessly with step-by-step instructions designed to streamline implementation and enhance efficiency.
SMS API Integration in Saudi Arabia| Best SMS API ServiceYara Milbes
Discover the benefits and implementation of SMS API integration in the UAE and Middle East. This comprehensive guide covers the importance of SMS messaging APIs, the advantages of bulk SMS APIs, and real-world case studies. Learn how CEQUENS, a leader in communication solutions, can help your business enhance customer engagement and streamline operations with innovative CPaaS, reliable SMS APIs, and omnichannel solutions, including WhatsApp Business. Perfect for businesses seeking to optimize their communication strategies in the digital age.
Software Engineering, Software Consulting, Tech Lead, Spring Boot, Spring Cloud, Spring Core, Spring JDBC, Spring Transaction, Spring MVC, OpenShift Cloud Platform, Kafka, REST, SOAP, LLD & HLD.
Artificia Intellicence and XPath Extension FunctionsOctavian Nadolu
The purpose of this presentation is to provide an overview of how you can use AI from XSLT, XQuery, Schematron, or XML Refactoring operations, the potential benefits of using AI, and some of the challenges we face.
A Study of Variable-Role-based Feature Enrichment in Neural Models of CodeAftab Hussain
Understanding variable roles in code has been found to be helpful by students
in learning programming -- could variable roles help deep neural models in
performing coding tasks? We do an exploratory study.
- These are slides of the talk given at InteNSE'23: The 1st International Workshop on Interpretability and Robustness in Neural Software Engineering, co-located with the 45th International Conference on Software Engineering, ICSE 2023, Melbourne Australia
Unveiling the Advantages of Agile Software Development.pdfbrainerhub1
Learn about Agile Software Development's advantages. Simplify your workflow to spur quicker innovation. Jump right in! We have also discussed the advantages.
Introducing Crescat - Event Management Software for Venues, Festivals and Eve...Crescat
Crescat is industry-trusted event management software, built by event professionals for event professionals. Founded in 2017, we have three key products tailored for the live event industry.
Crescat Event for concert promoters and event agencies. Crescat Venue for music venues, conference centers, wedding venues, concert halls and more. And Crescat Festival for festivals, conferences and complex events.
With a wide range of popular features such as event scheduling, shift management, volunteer and crew coordination, artist booking and much more, Crescat is designed for customisation and ease-of-use.
Over 125,000 events have been planned in Crescat and with hundreds of customers of all shapes and sizes, from boutique event agencies through to international concert promoters, Crescat is rigged for success. What's more, we highly value feedback from our users and we are constantly improving our software with updates, new features and improvements.
If you plan events, run a venue or produce festivals and you're looking for ways to make your life easier, then we have a solution for you. Try our software for free or schedule a no-obligation demo with one of our product specialists today at crescat.io
Using Query Store in Azure PostgreSQL to Understand Query PerformanceGrant Fritchey
Microsoft has added an excellent new extension in PostgreSQL on their Azure Platform. This session, presented at Posette 2024, covers what Query Store is and the types of information you can get out of it.
Graspan: A Big Data System for Big Code AnalysisAftab Hussain
We built a disk-based parallel graph system, Graspan, that uses a novel edge-pair centric computation model to compute dynamic transitive closures on very large program graphs.
We implement context-sensitive pointer/alias and dataflow analyses on Graspan. An evaluation of these analyses on large codebases such as Linux shows that their Graspan implementations scale to millions of lines of code and are much simpler than their original implementations.
These analyses were used to augment the existing checkers; these augmented checkers found 132 new NULL pointer bugs and 1308 unnecessary NULL tests in Linux 4.4.0-rc5, PostgreSQL 8.3.9, and Apache httpd 2.2.18.
- Accepted in ASPLOS ‘17, Xi’an, China.
- Featured in the tutorial, Systemized Program Analyses: A Big Data Perspective on Static Analysis Scalability, ASPLOS ‘17.
- Invited for presentation at SoCal PLS ‘16.
- Invited for poster presentation at PLDI SRC ‘16.
SOCRadar's Aviation Industry Q1 Incident Report is out now!
The aviation industry has always been a prime target for cybercriminals due to its critical infrastructure and high stakes. In the first quarter of 2024, the sector faced an alarming surge in cybersecurity threats, revealing its vulnerabilities and the relentless sophistication of cyber attackers.
SOCRadar’s Aviation Industry, Quarterly Incident Report, provides an in-depth analysis of these threats, detected and examined through our extensive monitoring of hacker forums, Telegram channels, and dark web platforms.
When it is all about ERP solutions, companies typically meet their needs with common ERP solutions like SAP, Oracle, and Microsoft Dynamics. These big players have demonstrated that ERP systems can be either simple or highly comprehensive. This remains true today, but there are new factors to consider, including a promising new contender in the market that’s Odoo. This blog compares Odoo ERP with traditional ERP systems and explains why many companies now see Odoo ERP as the best choice.
What are ERP Systems?
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Vbe20
1. VESA®
Video Electronics Standards Association
2150NorthFirst Street, Suite 440 Phone: (408) 435-0333
San Jose, CA 95131-2029 FAX: (408) 435-8225
VESA BIOS EXTENSION (VBE)
Core Functions
Standard
Version: 2.0
Document Revision: 1.1
Ratification Date: November 18, 1994
Purpose
Tostandardizeamodular,softwareinterfacetodisplayandaudiodevices. TheVBEinterfaceis
intendedtosimplifyandencouragethedevelopmentofapplicationsthatwishtousegraphics, video, and
audiodeviceswithoutspecificknowledgeoftheinternaloperationoftheevolvingtargethardware.
Summary
TheVBEstandarddefines aset ofextensions totheVGAROMBIOSservices. These functions can
beaccessedunderDOSthroughinterrupt 10h, orbecalleddirectlybyhighperformance32-bit
applicationsandoperatingsystems otherthanDOS.
Theseextensionsalsoprovideahardware-independentmechanismtoobtainvendorinformation, and
serveasanextensiblefoundationforOEMsandVESAtofacilitaterapidsoftwaresupport ofemerging
hardwaretechnologywithoutsacrificingbackwardscompatibility.
VBE Core Standard
4. Page iv VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
SSC/VBE Workgroup Members
Anyindustrystandardrequiresinput frommanysources. Thepeoplelistedbelowweremembers ofthe
VBEWorkgroupoftheSoftwareStandards Committee(SSC)whichwas responsibleforcombiningall
oftheindustryinputintothisproposal:
CHAIRMAN
Kevin Gillett, S-MOS Systems, Inc.,
past chairman, Rod Dewell , Excalibur Solutions
MEMBERS
David Penley, AT&T Global Information Solutions
Rebecca Nolan, Chips and Technologies, Inc.
Brad Haakenson, Cirrus Logic, Inc.
Joe Rickson, Logitech, Inc.
Aaron Leatherman, LSI Logic Corporation
Jake Richter, Panacea Inc.
Raluca Iovan, Phoenix Technologies Ltd.
Kendall Bennett, SciTech Software
Tom Ryan, SciTech Software
George Bystricky, S-MOS Systems, Inc.
Jason Li, Trident Microsystems, Inc.
Chris Tsang, ULSISystems
GregMoore, VideoElectronics Standards Association
Andy Lambrecht, VLSI Technology, Inc.
Rex Wolfe, Western Digital Imaging
5. VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0 Page v
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
Table of Contents
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY .....................................................................................................................................................iii
TRADEMARKS ...................................................................................................................................................................................iii
PATENTS............................................................................................................................................................................................iii
SUPPORT FORTHISSPECIFICATION...................................................................................................................................iii
SSC/VBE WORKGROUPMEMBERS........................................................................................................................................iv
TABLE OFCONTENTS..................................................................................................................................................................v
1.0INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1SCOPE OF THE VBESTANDARD...............................................................................................................................................1
1.2 BACKGROUNDER ........................................................................................................................................................................2
2.0 VBE OVERVIEW......................................................................................................................................................................5
2.1 VBE FEATURES...........................................................................................................................................................................5
2.2 VBE AFFECTEDDEVICES..........................................................................................................................................................5
2.3 PROVIDINGVENDORINFORMATION.......................................................................................................................................5
3.0 VBE MODE NUMBERS...........................................................................................................................................................6
4.0 VBE FUNCTIONS...................................................................................................................................................................10
4.1 VBE RETURN STATUS .............................................................................................................................................................10
4.2 PROTECTED MODE CONSIDERATIONS................................................................................................................................11
4.3 FUNCTION 00H - RETURN VBECONTROLLERINFORMATION.........................................................................................12
4.4 FUNCTION 01H - RETURN VBE MODE INFORMATION ......................................................................................................16
4.5 FUNCTION 02H - SET VBE MODE.........................................................................................................................................25
4.6 FUNCTION 03H - RETURN CURRENT VBE MODE...............................................................................................................26
4.7 FUNCTION 04H - SAVE/RESTORESTATE ............................................................................................................................27
4.8 FUNCTION 05H - DISPLAYWINDOW CONTROL.................................................................................................................27
4.9 FUNCTION 06H - SET/GET LOGICALSCANLINE LENGTH ................................................................................................28
4.10 FUNCTION 07H - SET/GET DISPLAYSTART ......................................................................................................................29
4.11 FUNCTION 08H - SET/GET DAC PALETTE FORMAT........................................................................................................30
4.12 FUNCTION 09H - SET/GET PALETTE DATA.......................................................................................................................30
4.13 FUNCTION 0AH - RETURN VBEPROTECTED MODE INTERFACE ..................................................................................31
5.0VBESUPPLEMENTAL SPECIFICATIONS......................................................................................................................34
5.1 PURPOSEOFSUPPLEMENTAL SPECIFICATIONS ................................................................................................................34
5.2 OBTAININGSUPPLEMENTAL VBEFUNCTIONNUMBERS.................................................................................................34
5.3 REQUIREDVBESUPPLEMENTAL SPECIFICATION COMPONENTS..................................................................................35
5.3.1 VBE Supplemental Specification Functions..............................................................................................................35
5.3.2 Return Status....................................................................................................................................................................35
5.3.3 Subfunction 00h - Return VBE Supplemental Specification Information ............................................................35
5.4 SUPPLEMENTAL SPECIFICATION PROTECTED MODE GUIDELINES..............................................................................38
5.5 LOADINGSUPPLEMENTAL DRIVERS ....................................................................................................................................39
5.6 IMPLEMENTATION QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................39
6. Page vi VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
5.7 KNOWN SUPPLEMENTAL SPECIFICATIONS........................................................................................................................40
5.7.1 Function 10h - Power Management Extensions (PM).............................................................................................40
5.7.2 Function 11h - Flat Panel Interface Extensions (FP)..............................................................................................40
5.7.3 Function 12h - Cursor Interface Extensions (CI).....................................................................................................40
5.7.4 Function 13h - Audio Interface Extensions (AI) .......................................................................................................40
5.7.5 Function 14h - OEM Extensions ..................................................................................................................................40
5.7.6 Function 15h - Display Data Channel (DDC) ..........................................................................................................40
5.7.7 Function 16h - Graphics System Configuration (GC).............................................................................................40
APPENDIX1-VBEQUICKREFERENCE................................................................................................................................41
APPENDIX 2 - VBE DATA STRUCTURES..............................................................................................................................47
APPENDIX 3 - VBE SUPPLEMENTAL SPECS. .....................................................................................................................61
APPENDIX4-VBEIMPLEMENTATIONCONSIDERATIONS .........................................................................................63
A4.1 MINIMUM FUNCTIONALITY REQUIREMENTS..................................................................................................................63
A4.1.1 Required VBE Services...............................................................................................................................................63
A4.1.2 Minimum ROM Implementation................................................................................................................................63
A4.1.3 TSR Implementations ..................................................................................................................................................63
A4.2 VGA BIOS IMPLICATIONS....................................................................................................................................................64
A4.3 ROM SPACE LIMITATIONS..................................................................................................................................................65
A4.3.1 Data Storage ................................................................................................................................................................65
A4.3.2 Removal of Unused VGA Fonts .................................................................................................................................65
A4.3.3 Deleting VGA Parameter Tables...............................................................................................................................66
A4.3.4 Increasing ROM Space...............................................................................................................................................66
4.3.5 Support of VGA TTY Functions....................................................................................................................................66
A4.4 IMPLEMENTATION NOTESBY FUNCTION........................................................................................................................67
A4.4.1 General Notes...............................................................................................................................................................67
A4.4.2 Function 00h - Return VBE Controller Information.............................................................................................67
A4.4.3 Function 01h - Return VBE Mode Information......................................................................................................68
A4.4.4 Function 02h - Set VBE Mode...................................................................................................................................68
A4.4.5 Function 03h - Return Current VBE Mode.............................................................................................................69
A4.4.6 Function 05h - Display Window Control................................................................................................................69
A4.4.7 Function 06h - Get/Set Logical Scan Line Length................................................................................................70
A4.4.8 Function 07h - Get/Set Display Start ......................................................................................................................70
A4.4.9 Function 08h - Set/Get DAC Palette Format.........................................................................................................70
A4.4.10 Function 09h - Set/Get Palette Data......................................................................................................................70
A4.4.11 Function 0Ah - Return VBE Function Information..............................................................................................71
A4.5 PLUGANDPLAY ISSUES ........................................................................................................................................................71
A4.6 SUPPORTING MULTIPLE CONTROLLERS..........................................................................................................................71
A4.6.1 Dual-Controller Designs............................................................................................................................................71
A4.6.2 Provision for Multiple Independent Controllers...................................................................................................71
A4.7 DISPLAYREFRESHRATES ANDINTERLACING .................................................................................................................72
A4.8 OEM EXTENSIONSTOVBE ..................................................................................................................................................72
A4.9 CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS .......................................................................................................................................73
A4.9.1 VBETest Utility.............................................................................................................................................................73
A4.9.2 Communication with VESA Office............................................................................................................................73
7. VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0 Pagevii
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
APPENDIX5 - APPLICATIONPROGRAMMING CONSIDERATIONS..........................................................................74
A5.1 APPLICATION DEVELOPER'SSAMPLE SOURCE...............................................................................................................74
C Language Module.................................................................................................................................................................74
Assembly Language Module ...................................................................................................................................................84
A5.2 IMPLEMENTATION NOTESBY FUNCTION........................................................................................................................84
A5.2.1 General Notes...............................................................................................................................................................84
A5.2.2 Function 00h - Return VBE Controller Information.............................................................................................84
A5.2.3 Function 01h - Return VBE Mode Information......................................................................................................85
A5.2.4 Function 02h - Set VBE Mode...................................................................................................................................85
A5.2.5 Function 03h - Return Current VBE Mode.............................................................................................................86
A5.2.6 Function 05h - Display Window Control................................................................................................................86
A5.2.7 Function 06h - Get/Set Logical Scan Line Length................................................................................................86
A5.2.8 Function 07h - Get/Set Display Start ......................................................................................................................87
A5.2.9 Function 08h - Set/Get DAC Palette Format.........................................................................................................87
A5.2.10 Function 09h - Set/Get Palette Data......................................................................................................................87
A5.2.11 Function 0Ah - Return VBE Function Information..............................................................................................88
APPENDIX6-DIFFERENCESBETWEENVBE REVISIONS .............................................................................................89
6.1 VBE 1.0................................................................................................................................................................................89
6.2 VBE 1.1................................................................................................................................................................................89
6.3 VBE 1.2................................................................................................................................................................................89
6.4 VBE 2.0................................................................................................................................................................................89
6.5 VBE 2.0, Rev. 1.1................................................................................................................................................................90
APPENDIX7-RELATEDDOCUMENTS.................................................................................................................................93
8. Introduction
VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0 Page1
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
1.0 Introduction
This document contains the VESA BIOS Extension (VBE) specification for standard software access to
graphics displaycontrollers which support resolutions, color depths, and frame buffer organizations
beyond the VGA hardware standard. It is intended for use by both applications programmers and
system software developers.
System software developers may use this document to supplement the System and INT 10h ROM
BIOS functions to provide the VBE services. Application developers can use this document as a guide
to programming all VBE compatible devices.
To understand the VBE specification, some knowledge of 80x86 assembly language and the VGA
hardware registers may be required. However, the services described in this specification may be
called fromanyhigh-level programming language that provides a mechanism for generating software
interrupts with the 80x86 registers set to user-specified values.
In this specification, 'VBE' and 'VBE 2.0' are synonymous with 'VBE Core Functions version 2.0'.
1.1 Scope of the VBE Standard
TheprimarypurposeoftheVESAVBE is toprovidestandardsoftwaresupport forthemanyunique
implementationsofSuperVGA(SVGA)graphicscontrollersonthePCplatformthat providefeatures
beyondtheoriginalVGAhardwarestandard. Thisis toprovideafeasiblemechanismbywhich
applicationdeveloperscantakeadvantageofthisnonstandardhardwareingraphics applications.
TheVBEspecificationoffersanextensiblesoftwarefoundationwhichallowsittoevolveasdisplayand
audiodevicesevolveovertime,withoutsacrificingbackwardsoftwarecompatibilitywitholder
implementations. Newapplicationsoftwareshouldbeabletoworkwitholderhardware, and
applicationsoftwarethathasalreadyshippedshouldworkcorrectlyonnewhardwaredevices.
VBEservicesprovidestandardaccess toall resolutions andcolordepths providedonthedisplay
controller,andreporttheavailabilityanddetailsofallsupportedconfigurationstotheapplicationas
necessary.
VBEimplementationsfacilitatethefieldsupportofaudioanddisplayhardwarebyprovidingthe
applicationsoftwarewiththemanufacturer'snameandtheproductidentificationofthedisplay
hardware.
SincegraphicscontrollerservicesonthePCaretypicallyimplementedinROM, theVBEservices are
definedsothattheyshouldbeimplementedwithinthestandardVGAROM. WhenROM
implementations ofVBEarenot possible, orwhenfieldsoftwareupgrades totheonboardROMare
necessary, theVBEimplementationmaybealsoofferedas adevicedriverorDOSTerminateandStay
Resident(TSR)program.
9. Introduction
Page2 VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
ThestandardVBEfunctions maybesupplementedbyOEM's as necessarytosupport customor
proprietaryfunctionsuniquetothemanufacturer. ThismechanismenablestheOEMtoestablish
functions that maybestandardtotheproduct line, orprovideaccess tospecial hardware
enhancements.
AlthoughpreviousVBEstandardsassumedthattheunderlyinggraphicsarchitecturewas aVGA
device,thedisplayservicesdescribedbyVBE2.0canbeimplementedonanyframebufferoriented
graphicsdevice.
ThemajorityofVBEservicesfacilitatethesetupandconfigurationofthehardware,allowing
applicationshighperformance,directaccesstotheconfigureddeviceatruntime. Tofurtherimprovethe
performanceofflatframebufferdisplaydevicesinextendedresolutions, VBE2.0provides new
memorymodelsthatdonotrequirethetraditionalframebuffer"banking"mechanisms.
VBEis expectedtoworkonall 80x86platforms, inreal and protected modes.
Sincesomemoderndisplaydevicesaredesignedwithout anyVGAsupport, twodisplaycontrollers
maybepresentinthesystem. OnedisplaycontrollerwouldbeusedforVGAcompatibility, andthe
otherusedforgraphicextensionstothebasicVGAmodes, resolutions, andframebuffermodels.
Therefore, VBEmust beableoffertheapplicationautomaticaccess totheappropriatedevicebasedon
themodeorresolutionthat is requestedbytheapplication.
CurrentlybeyondthescopeoftheVBEspecificationisthehandlingofhardwareconfigurationand
installationissues. It was originallyconsideredtobecomepart ofVBE2.0, howeverwehavedeferred
theissuestotheGraphicsConfigurationSupplementalSpecification. Inaddition,itisalsopossiblefor
anOEMtodefinetheirownextensionsusingtheOEMSupplementalSpecificationifrequired.
1.2 Backgrounder
TheIBMVGA1
has becomeadefactostandardinthePCgraphics world. Amultitudeofdifferent
VGAofferingsexistinthemarketplace,eachoneprovidingBIOSorregistercompatibilitywiththeIBM
VGA.MoreandmoreoftheseVGAcompatibleproducts implement various supersets oftheVGA
standard.Theseextensionsrangefromhigherresolutionsandmorecolors toimprovedperformanceand
evensomegraphicsprocessingcapabilities.Intensecompetitionhasdramaticallyimprovedthe
price/performanceratio, tothebenefit oftheenduser.
1
IBM and VGA are trademarks of International Business Machines Corporation.
10. Introduction
VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0 Page3
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
However, several serious problems faceasoftwaredeveloperwhointends totakeadvantageofthese
"SuperVGA"2
environments.Becausethereisnostandardhardwareimplementation, thedeveloperis
facedwithwidelydifferentSuperVGAhardwarearchitecture.Lackingacommonsoftwareinterface,
designingapplicationsfortheseenvironmentsiscostlyandtechnicallydifficult.Exceptforapplications
supportedbyOEM-specificdisplaydrivers, veryfewsoftwarepackages cantakeadvantageofthe
powerandcapabilities ofSuperVGAproducts.
TheVBEstandardwasoriginallyconceivedtoenablethedevelopmentofapplications that wishedto
takeadvantageofdisplayresolutions andcolordepths beyondtheVGAdefinition. Theneedforan
applicationorsoftwarestandardwas recognizedbythedevelopers ofgraphichardwaretoencourage
theuseandacceptanceoftheirrapidlyadvancingproduct families. It becameobvious that themajority
ofsoftwareapplicationdevelopers didnot havetheresources todevelopandsupport customdevice
levelsoftwareforthehundreds ofdisplayboards onthemarket. Thereforetherichnewfeatures of
thesedisplaydeviceswerenotbeingusedoutsideoftherelativelysmall CADmarket, andonlythen
afterconsiderableeffort.
Indeed, theneedforastandardforSVGAdisplayadapters became so important that the VESA
organizationwasformedtoseekout asolution. Theoriginal VBEstandardwas devisedandagreed
uponbyeachoftheactivedisplaycontrollermanufacturers, andhas sincebeenadoptedbyDOS
applicationdeveloperstoenableuseofnon-VGAextendeddisplaymodes.
As timewent alongVBE1.1was createdtoaddmorevideomodes andincreasedlogical line
length/doublebufferingsupport. VBE1.2was createdtoaddmodes andalsoaddedhigh color
RAMDACsupport.
Inthethreeyears sinceVBE1.2was approved we have seen the standard become widelyaccepted
andmanysuccessful programs haveembracedVBE. However, it has becomeobvious that theneed
foramorerobustandextensiblestandardexists. Earlyextensions totheVGAstandardcontinuedusing
alloftheoriginalVGAI/Oportsandframebufferaddresstocommunicatewiththecontroller
hardware. Aswe'veseen,thesupportedresolutions andcolordepths havegrown, intelligent controllers
withBITBLTandLineDrawFunctionshavebecomecommon,andnewflat framebuffermemory
models haveappearedalongwithdisplaycontrollers that arenot basedonVGAinanyway. VBE2.0
andfutureextensionswillsupportnon-VGAbasedcontrollerswithnewfunctionsforreadingand
writingthepaletteandforaccess totheflat framebuffermodels.
2
The term "Super VGA" is used in this document for a graphics display controller implementing any superset of the
standard IBM VGA display adapter.
17. VBEFunctions
Page10 VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
4.0 VBE Functions
Thischapterdescribesindetaileachofthefunctions definedbytheVBEstandard. VBEfunctions are
calledusingtheINT10hinterrupt vector, passingarguments inthe80X86registers. TheINT10h
interrupthandlerfirstdeterminesifaVBEfunctionhas beenrequested, andifso, processes that
request. Otherwisecontrol is passedtothestandardVGABIOSfor completion.
AllVBEfunctionsarecalledwiththeAHregistersetto4FhtodistinguishthemfromthestandardVGA
BIOSfunctions. TheALregisteris usedtoindicatewhichVBEfunctionis tobeperformed. For
supplementalorextendedfunctionalitytheBLregisterisusedwhenappropriatetoindicateaspecific
sub-function.
Functions00h-0FhhavebeenreservedforStandardVBEfunctionnumbers; Functions 10h-FFh are
reservedforVBESupplementalSpecifications.
InadditiontotheINT10hinterface, aProtectedModeInterfaceis availableand is described below.
4.1 VBE Return Status
TheAXregisterisusedtoindicatethecompletionstatus uponreturnfromVBEfunctions. IfVBE
supportforthespecifiedfunctionisavailable,the4FhvaluepassedintheAHregisteronentryis
returnedintheALregister. IftheVBEfunctioncompletedsuccessfully, 00his returnedintheAH
register. OtherwisetheAHregisteris set toindicatethenatureofthefailure.
VBERETURNSTATUS
AL == 4Fh: Functionissupported
AL != 4Fh: Functionisnotsupported
AH == 00h: Functioncallsuccessful
AH == 01h: Functioncallfailed
AH == 02h: Functionisnotsupportedinthecurrenthardwareconfiguration
AH == 03h: Functioncallinvalidincurrentvideomode
Note: Applicationsshouldtreatanynon-zerovalueintheAHregisterasageneral failureconditionas
laterversionsoftheVBEmaydefineadditional errorcodes.
18. VBEFunctions
00hReturnVBEControllerInformation
VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0 Page11
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
4.2 Protected Mode Considerations
VBEservices maybecalleddirectlyfrom32-bit protectedmodeonly.
For32-bit protectedmode, 2selector/segment descriptors for 32-bit code and the data segment are
needed.Thesewillbeallocatedandinitializedbythecaller.Thesegmentlimitfieldswillbeset to64k.
TheseselectorsmayeitherbeintheGDTorLDT, but must bevalidwhenevertheVBEis calledin
protectedmode. Thecallermust supplyastacklargeenoughforusebyVBEandbypotential interrupt
handlers.Thecaller'sstackwillbeactiveiforwheninterrupts areenabledintheVBEroutine, sincethe
VBEwillnotswitchstackswheninterruptsareenabled,includingNMIinterrupts. The32-bit VBE
interfacerequires a32-bit stack.
Ifthememorylocationis zero, thenonlyI/Omappedports will beusedsotheapplicationdoes not
needtodoanythingspecial. This shouldbethedefault caseforALLcards that have I/Omapped
registersbecauseit provides thebest performance.
Ifthememorylocationis nonzero(therecanbeonlyone), theapplicationwill needtocreateanew32-
bitselectorwiththebaseaddressthatpointstothe“physical”locationspecifiedwiththespecifiedlimit.
Whentheapplicationneeds tocall the32-bitbankswitchfunction,itmustthenloadtheES selector
withthevalueofthenewselectorthat has beencreated. Thebankswitchingcodecanthen directly
accessitsmemorymappedregisters as absoluteoffsets intotheESselector
(i.e., mov[es:10],eaxtoput avalueintotheregisterat base+10).
It is uptotheapplicationcodetosaveandrestoretheprevious stateofthe ESselector ifthis is
necessary(forexampleinflat model code).
WhentheVBEservices arecalled, thecurrent I/Opermissionbit mapmust allowaccess tothe I/O
ports that theVBEmayneedtoaccess. This can be found in the Sub-Table (Ports and Memory)
returnedbyVBEFunction0Ah.
Tosummarize,itistheresponsibilityofthecallingtoensuretothat it has theappropriateI/Oand
memoryprivileges, andalargeenoughstackandappropriateselectors allocated. It is alsothe
responsibilityofthecallingapplicationtopreserveregistersifnecessary.
Applicationsmustusethesameregisters fortheFunction05handFunction09hprotectedmode
interfacethattheywoulduseinarealmodecall. This includes theAXregister.
Function07hprotectedmodecalls haveadifferent format.
AX = 4F07h
BL = 00h Set DisplayCRTCStart
= 80h SetDisplayCRTCStart duringVertical Retrace
CX = Bits 0-15ofdisplaystart address
DX = Bits 16-31ofdisplaystart address
19. VBEFunctions
00hReturnVBEControllerInformation
Page12 VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
Theprotectedmodeapplicationmust keeptrackofthecolordepthandscanlinelengthtocalculatethe
newstartaddress. Ifavaluethat is out ofrangeis programmed, unpredictableresults will occur.
4.3 Function 00h - Return VBE Controller Information
Thisrequiredfunctionreturnsthecapabilitiesofthedisplaycontroller,therevisionleveloftheVBE
implementation,andvendorspecificinformationtoassistinsupportingalldisplaycontrollersinthefield.
Thepurposeofthisfunctionistoprovideinformationtothecallingprogramaboutthegeneral
capabilitiesoftheinstalledVBEsoftwareandhardware.Thisfunctionfillsaninformationblockstructure
attheaddressspecifiedbythecaller. TheVbeInfoBlockinformationblocksizeis 256bytes forVBE
1.x, and 512 bytes for VBE2.0.
Input: AX = 4F00h ReturnVBEControllerInformation
ES:DI = Pointertobufferinwhichtoplace
VbeInfoBlockstructure
(VbeSignatureshouldbeset to'VBE2'when
functioniscalledtoindicateVBE2.0information
isdesiredandtheinformationblockis 512bytes in
size.)
Output: AX = VBEReturnStatus
Note: Allotherregisters arepreserved.
Theinformationblockhasthefollowingstructure:
VbeInfoBlockstruc
VbeSignature db 'VESA' ;VBESignature
VbeVersion dw 0200h ;VBEVersion
OemStringPtr dd ? ;PointertoOEMString
Capabilities db 4 dup (?) ;Capabilitiesofgraphicscontroller
VideoModePtr dd ? ;PointertoVideoModeList
TotalMemory dw ? ; Numberof64kbmemoryblocks
; Added for VBE 2.0
OemSoftwareRev dw ? ;VBEimplementationSoftwarerevision
OemVendorNamePtr dd ? ;PointertoVendorNameString
OemProductNamePtr dd ? ; PointertoProduct NameString
OemProductRevPtr dd ? ;PointertoProductRevisionString
Reserved db 222 dup (?) ;ReservedforVBEimplementationscratch
; area
OemData db 256 dup (?) ; DataAreaforOEMStrings
VbeInfoBlockends
20. VBEFunctions
00hReturnVBEControllerInformation
VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0 Page13
DOCUMENTREVISION1.1
Note: AlldatainthisstructureissubjecttochangebytheVBEimplementationwhenVBEFunction
00his called. Therefore, it shouldnot beusedbytheapplicationtostoredataofanykind.
DescriptionoftheVbeInfoBlockstructurefields:
The VbeSignaturefieldisfilledwiththeASCIIcharacters'VESA'bytheVBEimplementation.VBE
2.0applicationsshouldpreset this fieldwiththeASCIIcharacters 'VBE2'toindicatetotheVBE
implementationthattheVBE2.0extendedinformationisdesired,andtheVbeInfoBlockis 512bytes in
size. UponreturnfromVBEFunction00h, this fieldshouldalways beset to'VESA'bytheVBE
implementation.
The VbeVersionisaBCDvaluewhichspecifieswhatleveloftheVBEstandardis implementedinthe
software.Thehigherbytespecifiesthemajorversionnumber.Thelowerbytespecifies theminor
versionnumber.
Note: The BCDvalue for VBE2.0 is 0200h and the BCDvalue for VBE1.2 is 0102h. In the past we
havehadsomeapplicationsmisinterpretingtheseBCDvalues. Forexample, BCD0102hwas
interpretedas 1.02, whichis incorrect.
The OemStringPtrisaRealModefarpointertoanullterminatedOEM-definedstring. This stringmay
beusedtoidentifythegraphicscontrollerchiporOEMproduct familyforhardwarespecificdisplay
drivers.Therearenorestrictionsontheformat ofthestring. This pointermaypoint intoeitherROMor
RAM,dependingonthespecificimplementation. VBE2.0BIOSimplementationsmustplacethisstring
intheOemDataareawithintheVbeInfoBlockif'VBE2'is preset intheVbeSignaturefieldonentryto
Function00h. Thismakes it possibletoconvert theRealModeaddress toanoffset withinthe
VbeInfoBlockforProtectedmodeapplications.
Note: ThelengthoftheOEMStringis not defined, but forspaceconsiderations, werecommenda
stringlengthoflessthan256bytes.
The Capabilities fieldindicatesthesupportofspecificfeaturesinthegraphicsenvironment.Thebits
aredefinedasfollows:
D0 = 0 DACisfixedwidth, with6bits perprimarycolor
= 1 DACwidthis switchableto8bits perprimarycolor
D1 = 0 ControllerisVGAcompatible
= 1 ControllerisnotVGAcompatible
D2 = 0 NormalRAMDACoperation
= 1 WhenprogramminglargeblocksofinformationtotheRAMDAC,
usetheblankbitinFunction09h.
D3-31 =Reserved
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BIOSImplementationNote: TheDACmust always berestoredto 6 bits per primaryas default upon
amodeset. Ifthe DAChas been switched to 8 bits per primary, the mode set must restore the DAC
to6bits perprimarytoensuretheapplicationdeveloperthat he does not have to reset it.
Application Developer's Note: IfaDACis switchable, youcanassume that the DACwill be
restoredto6bits perprimaryupona mode set. For an application to use a DAC, the application
programisresponsibleforsettingtheDACto8bits perprimarymodeusingFunction08h.
VGAcompatibilityisdefinedas supportingall standardIBMVGAmodes, fonts andI/Oports;
however,VGAcompatibilitydoesn't guaranteethat all modes whichcanbeset areVGAcompatible, or
thatthe8x14fontisavailable.
TheneedforD2=1"programtheRAMDACusingtheblankbit inFunction09h"is forolderstyle
RAMDACs,whereprogrammingtheRAMvaluesduringdisplaytimecausesa"snow-like"effect on
thescreen. NewerstyleRAMDACs don't havethis limitationandcaneasilybeprogrammedat any
time,but olderRAMDACs requirethat theybeblankedsoas not todisplaythesnowwhilevalues
changeduringdisplaytime. Thisbitinformsthesoftwarethatitshouldmakethefunctioncallwith
BL=80hratherthanBL=00htoensuretheminimizationofthe"snow-like"effect.
The VideoModePtr points toalist of modenumbers forall displaymodes supported bythe VBE
implementation. Eachmodenumberoccupies oneword(16bits). Thelist ofmodenumbers is
terminatedbya-1(0FFFFh). Themodenumbers inthis list represent all ofthepotentiallysupported
modes bythedisplaycontroller. RefertoChapter3foradescriptionofVESAVBEmode numbers.
VBE2.0BIOSimplementationsmust placethis modelist intheReservedareaoftheVbeInfoBlockor
haveitstaticallystoredwithintheVBEimplementationif'VBE2'ispresetintheVbeSignaturefieldon
entrytoFunction00h.
Note: Itisresponsibilityoftheapplicationtoverifytheactualavailabilityofanymodereturnedbythis
functionthroughtheReturnVBEModeInformation(VBEFunction01h)call.Someofthereturned
modesmaynotbeavailableduetotheactualamountofmemoryphysicallyinstalledonthedisplay
boardorduetothecapabilities oftheattachedmonitor.
Note: IfaVideoModeList is foundtocontainnoentries (starts with0FFFFh), it canbeassumed that
theVBEimplementationisa"stub"implementationwhereonlyFunction00hissupportedfordiagnostic
or"PlugandPlay"reasons. Thesestubimplementations arenot VBE2.0compliant andshouldonlybe
implementedincaseswherenospaceisavailabletoimplementtheentireVBE.
The TotalMemoryfieldindicatesthemaximumamountofmemoryphysicallyinstalledandavailableto
the frame buffer in 64KBunits. (e.g. 256KB= 4, 512KB= 8) Not all video modes can address all
thismemory,seetheModeInfoBlockfordetailedinformationabout theaddressablememoryforagiven
mode.
The OemSoftwareRev fieldisaBCDvaluewhichspecifiestheOEMrevisionlevel oftheVBE
software. Thehigherbytespecifiesthemajorversionnumber.Thelowerbytespecifies theminor
22. VBEFunctions
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VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0 Page15
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versionnumber. ThisfieldcanbeusedtoidentifytheOEM's VBEsoftwarerelease. This fieldis only
filledinwhen'VBE2'ispresetintheVbeSignaturefieldonentrytoFunction00h.
The OemVendorNamePtrisapointerto anull-terminatedstringcontainingthenameofthevendor
whichproducedthedisplaycontrollerboardproduct. (This stringmaybecontainedinthe
VbeInfoBlockortheVBEimplementation.) Thisfieldisonlyfilledinwhen'VBE2'ispresetinthe
VbeSignaturefieldonentrytoFunction00h. (Note: thelengthofthestrings OemProductRev,
OemProductNameandOemVendorName(includingterminators)summed,mustfitwithina256byte
buffer;thisistoallowforreturnintheOemDatafieldifnecessary.)
The OemProductNamePtrisapointerto anull-terminatedstringcontainingtheproduct nameofthe
displaycontrollerboard. (ThisstringmaybecontainedintheVbeInfoBlockortheVBE
implementation.) Thisfieldisonlyfilledinwhen'VBE2'ispresetintheVbeSignaturefieldonentryto
Function00h. (Note: thelengthofthestrings OemProductRev, OemProductNameand
OemVendorName(includingterminators)summed,mustfitwithina256bytebuffer;thisistoallowfor
returnintheOemDatafieldifnecessary.)
The OemProductRevPtrisapointertoanull-terminatedstringcontainingtherevisionormanufacturing
levelofthedisplaycontrollerboardproduct. (This stringmaybecontainedintheVbeInfoBlockorthe
VBEimplementation.) Thisfieldcanbeusedtodeterminewhichproductionrevisionofthedisplay
controllerboardisinstalled. Thisfieldisonlyfilledinwhen'VBE2'ispresetintheVbeSignaturefieldon
entrytoFunction00h. (Note: thelengthofthestrings OemProductRev, OemProductNameand
OemVendorName(includingterminators)summed,mustfitwithina256bytebuffer;thisistoallowfor
returnintheOemDatafieldifnecessary.)
The ReservedfieldisaspacereservedfordynamicallybuildingtheVideoModeListifnecessaryifthe
VideoModeListisnotstaticallystoredwithintheVBEimplementation. Thisfieldshouldnotbeusedfor
anythingelse,andmaybereassignedinthefuture. Applicationsoftwareshouldnot assumethat
informationinthisfieldisvalid.
The OemDatafieldis a256bytedataareathat is usedtoreturnOEMinformation returned byVBE
Function00hwhen'VBE2'ispresetintheVbeSignaturefield. TheOemVendorNamestring,
OemProductNamestringandOemProductRevstringarecopiedintothis areabytheVBE
implementation. ThisareawillonlybeusedbyVBEimplementations 2.0andabovewhen'VBE2'is
presetintheVbeSignaturefield.
26. VBEFunctions
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VBECOREFUNCTIONSVERSION2.0 Page19
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D6 = VGAcompatiblewindowedmemorymodeisavailable
0 = Yes
1 = No
D7 = Linearframebuffermodeisavailable
0 = No
1 = Yes
D8-D15 = Reserved
BitD0issettoindicatethatthismodecanbeinitializedinthepresenthardwareconfiguration. This bit is
resettoindicatetheunavailabilityofagraphicsmodeifitrequires acertainmonitortype, morememory
thanisphysicallyinstalled,etc.
BitD1wasusedbyVBE1.0and1.1toindicatethat theoptional informationfollowingthe
BytesPerScanLinefieldwerepresentinthedatastructure. Thisinformationbecamemandatorywith
VBEversion1.2andabove, soD1is nolonger used and should be set to 1. The Direct Color fields
arevalidonlyiftheMemoryModel fieldis set toa6(Direct Color)or 7 (YUV).
BitD2indicateswhetherthevideoBIOShassupport foroutput functions likeTTYoutput, scroll, etc.
inthismode. TTYsupport is recommendedbut not requiredforall extendedtext andgraphicmodes.
Ifbit D2is set to1, thentheINT10hBIOSmust support all ofthestandardoutput functions listed
below.
AllofthefollowingTTYfunctionsmustbesupportedwhenthisbitisset:
01 Set CursorSize
02 SetCursorPosition
06 ScrollTTYwindowuporBlankWindow
07 ScrollTTYwindowdownorBlankWindow
09 Writecharacterandattributeat cursorposition
0A Writecharacteronlyat cursorposition
0E Writecharacter and advance cursor
Bit D3is set toindicatecolormodes, andclearedformonochromemodes.
Bit D4is set toindicategraphics modes, andclearedfortext modes.
Note: Monochromemodes maptheir CRTCaddress at 3B4h. Color modes map their CRTCaddress
at3D4h.Monochromemodeshaveattributesinwhichonlybit 3(video)andbit 4(intensity)ofthe
attributecontrolleroutputaresignificant.Therefore,monochrometextmodeshaveattributesofoff,
video,highintensity,blink,etc.Monochromegraphics modes aretwoplanegraphics modes andhave
attributesofoff,video,highintensity,andblink.Extendedtwocolormodes that havetheirCRTC
address at 3D4h, arecolormodes withonebit perpixel and one plane. The standard VGAmodes, 06h
and11h, wouldbeclassifiedas colormodes, whilethestandardVGAmodes 07h and 0Fh would be
classifiedasmonochromemodes.
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Bit D5is usedtoindicateifthemodeis compatiblewiththeVGAhardwareregisters andI/Oports. If
this bit is set, thenthemodeis NOTVGAcompatibleandnoassumptions shouldbemadeabout the
availabilityofanyVGAregisters. Ifclear, thenthestandardVGAI/Oports andframebufferaddress
definedinWinASegmentand/orWinBSegmentcanbeassumed.
BitD6isusedtoindicateifthemodeprovides WindowingorBankingoftheframebuffer intothe
framebuffermemoryregionspecifiedbyWinASegmentandWinBSegment. Ifset,thenWindowingof
theframebufferis NOTpossible. Ifclear, thenthedeviceis capableof mappingtheframebufferinto
thesegmentspecifiedinWinASegmentand/orWinBSegment. (Thisbitisusedinconjunctionwithbit
D7,seetablefollowingD7forusage).
BitD7indicatesthepresenceofaLinearFrameBuffermemorymodel. Ifthis bit is set, thedisplay
controllercanbeputintoaflatmemorymodelbysettingthemode(VBEFunction02h)withtheFlat
MemoryModelbitset.(ThisbitisusedinconjunctionwithbitD6, seefollowingtableforusage)
D7 D6
Windowed frame buffer only 0 0
n/a 0 1
Both Windowed and Linear
4 1 0
Linear frame buffer only 1 1
The BytesPerScanLine fieldspecifieshowmanyfullbytesareineachlogicalscanline.Thelogical
scanlinecouldbeequaltoorlargerthanthedisplayedscanline.
The WinAAttributes and WinBAttributes describethecharacteristics oftheCPUwindowingscheme
suchaswhetherthewindowsexistandareread/writeable, as follows:
D0 = Relocatablewindow(s)supported
0 = Singlenon-relocatablewindowonly
1 = Relocatablewindow(s)aresupported
D1 = Windowreadable
0 = Windowis not readable
1 = Windowisreadable
D2 = Windowwriteable
0 = Windowisnotwriteable
1 = Windowiswriteable
D3-D7 = Reserved
4
Use D14 of the Mode Number to select the Linear Buffer on a mode set (Function 02h).
28. VBEFunctions
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Evenifwindowingis not supported(bit D0=0forbothWindowAandWindowB), then an
applicationcanassumethatthedisplaymemorybufferresidesatthelocationspecifiedby
WinASegmentand/orWinBSegment.
WinGranularityspecifiesthesmallestboundary, inKB, onwhichthewindowcanbeplacedinthe
framebuffermemory.ThevalueofthisfieldisundefinedifBitD0oftheappropriateWinAttributesfield
is not set.
WinSizespecifiesthesizeofthewindowinKB.
WinASegment and WinBSegmentaddress specifythesegment addresses wherethe windows are
located in the CPUaddress space.
WinFuncPtrspecifiesthesegment:offsetoftheVBEmemorywindowingfunction.Thewindowing
functioncanbeinvokedeitherthroughVBEFunction05h,orbycallingthefunctiondirectly.Adirect
callwillprovidefasteraccesstothehardwarepagingregistersthanusingVBEFunction05h, andis
intendedtobeusedbyhighperformanceapplications.Ifthis fieldis NULL, thenVBEFunction05h
mustbeusedtoset thememorywindowwhenpagingis supported. This direct call methoduses the
sameparametersasVBEFunction05hincludingAXandforVBE2.0implementationswillreturnthe
correct ReturnStatus. VBE1.2implementationsandearlier,didnotrequiretheReturnStatus
informationtobereturned. Formoreinformationonthedirect call method, seethenotes inVBE
Function05handthesamplecodeinAppendix5.
The XResolution and YResolutionspecifythewidthandheightinpixelelementsorcharacters forthis
displaymode.Ingraphicsmodes,thesefieldsindicatethenumberofhorizontalandverticalpixelsthat
maybedisplayed.Intextmodes,thesefieldsindicatethenumberofhorizontal andvertical character
positions. Thenumberofpixelpositionsfortextmodesmaybecalculatedbymultiplyingthereturned
XResolutionandYResolutionvaluesbythecharactercellwidthandheightindicatedintheXCharSize
andYCharSizefieldsdescribedbelow.
The XCharSize and YCharSizespecifythesizeofthecharactercellinpixels. This valueis not zero
based(e.g. XCharSizeforMode3usingthe9point font will haveavalue of9).
The NumberOfPlanes fieldspecifiesthenumberofmemoryplanesavailabletosoftwareinthat mode.
Forstandard16-colorVGAgraphics, this would be set to 4. For standard packed pixel modes, the
fieldwouldbeset to 1. For 256-color non-chain-4 modes, where you need to do bankingto address
allpixels,thisvalueshouldbesettothenumberofbanksrequiredtogettoallthepixels (typicallythis
would be 4 or 8).
The BitsPerPixel fieldspecifiesthetotalnumberofbits allocatedtoonepixel. Forexample, astandard
VGA4Plane16-colorgraphics modewouldhavea4inthis fieldandapacked pixel 256-color
graphicsmodewouldspecify8inthisfield.Thenumberofbits perpixel perplanecannormallybe
derivedbydividingtheBitsPerPixelfieldbytheNumberOfPlanesfield.
29. VBEFunctions
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The MemoryModel fieldspecifiesthegeneraltypeofmemoryorganizationusedinthismode. The
followingmodelshavebeendefined:
00h = Textmode
01h = CGAgraphics
02h = Herculesgraphics
03h = Planar
04h = Packedpixel
05h = Non-chain 4, 256 color
06h = DirectColor
07h = YUV
08h-0Fh = Reserved, to be defined byVESA
10h-FFh = To be defined byOEM
VBEVersion1.1andearlierdefinedDirectColorgraphicsmodes withpixel formats 1:5:5:5, 8:8:8, and
8:8:8:8 as aPackedPixel model with16, 24, and32-bits perpixel, respectively. In VBEVersion 1.2
andlater, theDirect Colormodes usetheDirect Colormemorymodel andusetheMaskSize and
FieldPositionfieldsoftheModeInfoBlocktodescribethepixelformat.BitsPerPixelisalways definedto
bethetotalmemorysizeofthepixel, inbits.
NumberOfBanks.Thisisthenumberofbanksinwhichthescanlines aregrouped. Thequotient from
dividingthescanlinenumberbythenumberofbanksisthebankthatcontains thescanlineandthe
remainderisthescanlinenumberwithinthebank. Forexample, CGAgraphics modes havetwobanks
andHercules graphics modehas fourbanks. Formodes that don't havescanlinebanks (suchas VGA
modes 0Dh-13h), this fieldshouldbeset to 1.
The BankSize fieldspecifies thesizeofabank(groupofscanlines)inunits of1KB. For CGAand
Hercules graphics modes this is 8, as eachbankis 8192bytes inlength. For modes that do not have
scanlinebanks (suchas VGAmodes 0Dh-13h), this fieldshouldbeset to0.
The NumberOfImagePages fieldspecifiesthe"totalnumberminusone(-1)"ofcompletedisplay
imagesthatwillfitintotheframebuffermemory.Theapplicationmayloadmorethanoneimageintothe
framebuffermemoryifthisfieldisnon-zero,andmovethedisplaywindowwithineachofthosepages.
Thisshouldonlybeusedfordeterminingtheadditionaldisplaypageswhichareavailabletothe
application;todeterminetheavailableoffscreenmemory,usetheOffScreenMemOffset and
OffScreenMemSizeinformation.
Note: IftheModeInfoBlockis foranIBMStandardVGAmodeandtheNumberOfImagePages field
containsmorepagesthanwouldbefoundina256KBimplementation, theTTYsupport describedin
theModeAttributes must beaccurate. i.e., iftheTTYfunctions areclaimedtobesupported, theymust
besupportedinallpages,notjustthepagesnormallyfoundinthe256KBimplementation.