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Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition 8 -1
Chapter 8
File Management
At a Glance
Instructor’s Manual Table of Contents
• Overview
• Objectives
• Teaching Tips
• Quick Quizzes
• Class Discussion Topics
• Additional Projects
• Additional Resources
• Key Terms

Lecture Notes
Overview
The File Manager controls every file in the system. The chapter begins with an introduction
to this file management system. This is followed by a presentation on definitions for
commonly used terms. The chapter explains how files are organized logically, how they are
stored physically, how they are accessed, and who is allowed to access them. The chapter
also describes the interaction between the File Manager and the Device Manager. The
efficiency of the File Manager depends on how the system’s files are organized (sequential,
direct, or indexed sequential); how they are stored (contiguously, noncontiguously, or
indexed); how each file’s records are structured (fixed-length or variable-length); and how
access to these files is controlled. The chapter concludes with a discussion on data
compression.
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to describe:
• The fundamentals of file management and the structure of the file management system
• File-naming conventions, including the role of extensions
• The difference between fixed-length and variable-length record format
• The advantages and disadvantages of contiguous, noncontiguous, and indexed file
storage techniques
• Comparisons of sequential and direct file access
• The security ramifications of access control techniques and how they compare
• The role of data compression in file storage
Teaching Tips
The File Manager
1. Provide students with an overview of the File Manager, outlining its responsibilities.
Note that the File Manager is also called the file management system. Explain that it is
software responsible for creating, deleting, modifying and controlling access to files.
Point out that it also manages the resources used by the files.
2. Explain how the File Manager provides support for libraries of programs and data to
online users for spooling operations and for interactive computing.
3. Explain that the File Manager performs its functions in collaboration with the Device
Manager.

Teaching
Tip
Refer to the following Web site in order to learn more about File Manager tasks:
http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/iseries/v5r2/ic2924/index.htm?info/ddm/rbae5mst
02.htm
Responsibilities of the File Manager
1. Discuss how the File Manager’s responsibilities are quite complex and involve the
physical components and information resources of the system, as well as its policies
for storing and distributing files.
2. Outline the four tasks that the File Manager follows to carry out its responsibilities:
a. Keep track of where each file is stored.
b. Use a policy that will determine where and how the files will be stored, making
sure to efficiently use available storage space and provide efficient access to files.
c. Allocate each file when a user has been cleared for access to it, and then record
its use.
d. Deallocate the file when the file is to be returned to storage, and communicate its
availability to others who may be waiting for it.
3. Point out that the File Manager’s policy determines where each file is stored and how
the system and users will be able to access them through commands that are
independent from device details.
4. Discuss the two factors the File Manager’s policy utilizes to determine who may have
access to what material: flexibility of access to the information and its subsequent
protection. Explain that the File Manager allows access to shared files, provides
distributed access, and allows users to browse through public directories. Additionally,
the operating system must protect its files against system malfunctions and provide
security checks through account numbers, passwords, and lockwords to preserve the
integrity of the data and safeguard against tampering.
5. Describe the steps involved in the file allocation and deallocation processes.
Definitions
1. Define the term field: a group of related bytes that can be identified by the user with a
name, type, and size.
2. Define the term record: a group of related fields.
3. Define the term file: a group of related records that contains information used by
specific application programs to generate reports.
4. Use Figure 8.1 on page 253 in the text to illustrate these terms.

5. Discuss how a database appears to the File Manager to be a type of file. Emphasize that
databases are more complex, because they are actually groups of related files that are
interconnected at various levels to give users flexibility of access to the stored data.
6. Explain that a program file contains instructions and a data file contains data.
7. Discuss how directories are special files with listings of filenames and their attributes.
Teaching
Tip
Point out that the File Manager treats all files exactly the same way as far as
storage is concerned.
Interacting with the File Manager
1. Explain how the user communicates with the File Manager. There are two methods. The
first is to embed commands in the user’s program. The second is to submit them
interactively.
2. Provide examples of embedded commands (OPEN, CLOSE, READ, WRITE
MODIFY). Note that OPEN and CLOSE pertain to the file availability for the program
working on it. READ and WRITE are Input/Output (I/O) commands. MODIFY is a
specialized command.
3. Provide examples of interactive commands (OPEN, DELETE, RENAME, COPY).
Note that files may be created with other system-specific terms and provide examples.
4. Use Figure 8.2 on page 255 in the text to demonstrate common interactive commands.
5. Emphasize that these commands are designed to be simple and devoid of detailed
instructions required to run the device. Note that the details are found in the device
driver so the commands are device independent.
6. Discuss how due to device independence and command simplicity, the user does not
need to know a file’s exact physical location on the disk pack, the medium type, or
network specifics.
7. Explain how logical commands are broken down into a sequence of lower-level signals.
These signals trigger the systematic actions performed by the device. These signals also
supervise the progress of the operation by testing the device status.
8. Review the example on page 255 of the decomposed steps taken when a user program
issues a READ command.
9. Describe the need for error checking and how the File Manager handles this on behalf
of the user for every device. Emphasize that this is important because users do not have
to include these error checking instructions for every possible device (terminal,
keyboard, printer, disk drive, etc.) within their own programs.

Typical Volume Configuration
1. Provide students with an overview of the concept of a volume, which is a secondary
storage unit (removable or non-removable). Explain the concept of multifile volumes.
Explain the concept of multivolume files.
2. Explain the volume descriptor using Figure 8.3 on page 256 in the text. Note that it is
stored at the beginning of each volume and includes the volume name and other vital
information about the storage unit.
3. Discuss briefly the master file directory (MFD), which is stored immediately after the
volume descriptor. Outline what it lists. Point out the fact that early operating systems
supported only a single directory per volume.
4. Outline the disadvantages of a single directory per volume as supported by early
operating systems, using the bullet points listed on pages 256 and 257 in the text as a
guide.
About Subdirectories
1. Discuss how in newer File Manager components, the MFD for each volume contains
entries for both files and subdirectories. Explain that a subdirectory is created when the
user opens an account to access a computer. Note that this subdirectory is treated as a
file in the MFD and the entry is flagged to indicate that this file is really a subdirectory
and has unique properties. Specifically, its records are filenames pointing to files.
2. Emphasize that this is an improvement from a single directory scheme but still
precludes users from grouping their files in a logical order to improve the accessibility
and efficiency of the system.
3. Provide an overview of the subdirectories created by today’s File Managers. Point out
that this structure is an extension of the previous two-level directory organization and is
implemented as an upside-down tree. Use Figure 8.4 on page 258 in the text to illustrate
this concept.
4. Outline the information that is included in the file descriptor following the bullet points
listed on page 258 in the text.
Teaching
Tip
Today’s sophisticated File Managers allow their users to create their own
subdirectories so related files can be grouped together. Many computer users call
these subdirectories “folders.”
File-Naming Conventions
1. Explain to the students that there are two components comprising a filename: a relative
filename and an extension. Review the difference between the complete filename
(absolute filename) and the relative filename.

2. Discuss different types of extensions. Explain that an extension identifies a file type or
its contents. Provide examples. Note that if an extension is not known, the system asks
the user for intervention. Use Figure 8.5 on page 259 in the text to demonstrate this.
3. Point out that every operating system has specific rules that affect the length of the
relative name and the types of characters allowed. Illustrate with the operating systems
presented on page 260, and note how the names tend to grow in length as the File
Managers grow in flexibility.
File Organization
1. Provide students with an overview of file organization. Remind students that all files are
composed of records and that when a user gives a command to modify the contents of a
file, it is actually a command to access the records within the file.
Record Format
1. Explain to students that within each file, records are all presumed to have the same
format. They may be (1) fixed length or (2) variable length. Use Figure 8.6 on page 261
in the text to illustrate these two types pictorially.
2. Discuss the two types of record formats and the characteristics of each. Note that these
records, regardless of their format, can be blocked or not blocked. Use examples as
shown in Figure 8.4 on page 258 in the text to explain both fixed-length and variable-
length records.
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of fixed-length and variable-length records.
Provide examples to show where these are useful. For example, fixed-length records are
ideal for data files, whereas the variable-length formats are used in files accessed
sequentially (text files, program files), or in files that use an index to access records.
Physical File Organization
1. Discuss the physical organization of a file, which involves how records are arranged,
and the characteristics of the medium used to store it.
2. Remind students of the ways in which files can be stored on magnetic disks, such as
sequential, direct, or indexed sequential. Discuss practical characteristics that the
programmer or analyst usually considers when selecting the ideal file organization.
3. Discuss sequential record organization, pointing out how records are stored and
retrieved in this scheme. Explain how selecting a key field speeds up the record
searching process. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this scheme. For
example, it is easy to implement; however, it complicates maintenance algorithms, as
the original order must be preserved every time records are added or deleted.

4. Discuss the direct record organization, which uses direct access files that can be
implemented only on direct access storage devices. Explain how records are identified
in direct record organization. Discuss the concepts of relative address, logical address,
and hashing algorithms. Note that the problem with hashing algorithms is that several
records with unique keys (such as customer numbers) may generate the same logical
addresses, and then there’s a collision. Use Figure 8.7 on page 264 in the text to
illustrate the collision problem with the hashing algorithm.
5. Discuss the advantages of direct record organization over sequential record
organization. For example, it allows accessing of any record in any order without having
to begin the search from the beginning of the file, and the files can be updated more
quickly than sequential files.
6. Discuss the indexed sequential record organization, which is created and maintained
through an Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM) software package. Point out the
advantages of using this software package.
7. Explain how records are retrieved in the indexed sequential record organization. Discuss
its advantages over the previous two organizations, including that it does not create
collisions, the overflow area can be used to store records added during the lifetime of
the file, and it allows both direct access to a few requested records and sequential access
to many records.
Teaching
Tip
Refer to the following Web site to learn more about file organization:
www.cim.mcgill.ca/~franco/OpSys-304-427/lecture-notes/node53.html
Quick Quiz 1
1. Which of the following is an embedded command?
a. Create
b. Delete
c. Copy
d. Open
Answer: d
2. Which of the following information is contained in the volume descriptor? (Choose all
that apply.)
a. Creation date
b. User’s name
c. File system code
d. Volume length
Answer: a and c

3. Which of the following organization schemes uses a hashing algorithm?
a. Direct record organization
b. Sequential record organization
c. Indexed sequential record organization
d. Indexed direct record organization
Answer: a
Physical Storage Allocation
1. Provide students with an overview of physical storage allocation. Remind students that
the File Manager works with files not just as whole units, but also as logical units or
records. Be sure to mention that records within a file must have the same format;
however, they can vary in length. Also mention that file storage actually refers to record
storage.
2. Use Figure 8.8 on page 266 in the text to explain the most common record formats.
Contiguous Storage
1. Explain the contiguous storage scheme, which was used in early operating systems.
Discuss its advantages and disadvantages, such as that it is easy to implement but files
cannot be expanded easily, and that it leads to fragmentation.
2. Use Figure 8.9 on page 266 in the text to illustrate contiguous file storage.
Noncontiguous Storage
1. Explain the noncontiguous storage scheme, outlining its advantages over a contiguous
storage scheme.
2. Use Figure 8.10 on page 267 and Figure 8.11 on page 269 in the text to explain the two
ways through which file extents are usually linked. These include linking occurring at
the storage level and at the directory level. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
these two methods.
Indexed Storage
1. Explain the indexed storage scheme, which allows direct record access by bringing
together the pointers linking every extent of that file into an index block.
2. Use Figure 8.12 on page 269 in the text to illustrate the concept of an index storage
allocation with one block.
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this scheme. Point out that it supports both
sequential and direct record access; however, it does not necessarily improve the use of
storage space because each file must have an index block.

Teaching
Tip
Refer to the following Web site in order to learn more about physical storage
allocation:
www.unet.univie.ac.at/aix/aixprggd/genprogc/file_space_allocation.htm
Access Methods
1. Provide students with an overview of access methods. Point out that access methods are
dictated by a file’s organization. That is, a file that has been organized in sequential
fashion can support only sequential access to its records and these records can be of
either fixed or variable length.
2. Explain how the File Manager uses the address of the last byte read to access the next
sequential record. Therefore, the current byte address (CBA) must be updated every
time a record is accessed.
3. Use Figure 8.13 on page 270 to illustrate the difference between the storage of fixed-
length and of variable-length records.
Sequential Access
1. Explain how the CBA is updated for sequential access of fixed-length records and
sequential access of variable-length records.
Direct Access
1. Explain how the CBA is updated for direct access with fixed-length records.
2. Explain why it is virtually impossible to access a record directly if the file is organized
for direct access with variable-length records. Discuss the alternatives.
3. Explain how an indexed sequential file can be accessed. Point out that the index file
must be searched for the pointer to the block where the data is stored.
Levels in a File Management System
1. Explain that the efficient management of files cannot be separated from the efficient
management of the devices housing them. Note that for an I/O system to perform
efficiently, there are a wide range of functions that have to be organized and managed.
Point out that hierarchies are used to perform these functions.
2. Discuss the levels in a file management system, and explain how information is passed
from the File Manager at the top of the hierarchy to the Device Manager at the bottom.

3. Use Figure 8.14 on page 272 in the text to illustrate the typical modules of the file
management system. Point out that the highest-level module is called the “basic file
system,” and it passes information to the logical file system, which, in turn notifies the
physical file system, which works with the Device Manager.
4. Explain that each level of the file management system is implemented using structured
and modular programming techniques that set up the hierarchy. Explain that in the
hierarchy, higher-level modules pass information to the lower-level modules, and the
process continues down the chain until the lowest module that communicates with the
physical device and interacts with the Device Manager is reached.
5. Note that each module is subdivided into tasks that are more specific. Walk through the
example provided on page 273 with the students to follow an I/O instruction through the
file management system. Refer to Table 8.1 on page 273 of the text.
6. Discuss the various levels at which verification occurs in the file management system.
First, verification occurs in the directory level. Second, verification occurs in the access
control verification module. Third, it happens in the logical file system. Fourth,
verification occurs in the device interface module. Emphasize the coordinated effort
required by every part of the file management system for correct operation.
Access Control Verification Module
1. Provide students with an overview of the need for an access control verification module,
discussing early operating systems and today’s operating systems from the file-sharing
capabilities point of view. Note that all files may be shared. Point out the advantages
and disadvantages of file sharing and the need for access control.
2. Outline five possible actions that can be performed on a file. They include the ability to
READ only, WRITE only, EXECUTE only, DELETE only, or some combination of the
four. Point out that each file management system has its own method to control file
access.
3. Outline the four methods to control file access. They include the access control matrix,
access control lists, capability lists, and lockword control.
Access Control Matrix
1. Explain the access control matrix method using Table 8.2 on page 275 and Table 8.3 on
page 276 in the text. Discuss the advantages of this method, such as the fact that it is
easy to implement and works well for systems with few files and few users. Discuss the
disadvantages, noting that as the number of files and users increases, the matrix
becomes larger, perhaps too large to fit into main memory. In addition, it results in
wasted space because of null entries.

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Access Control Lists
1. Explain the access control lists method using Table 8.4 on page 276 in the text. Point
out that this method requires less storage space than an access control matrix and that it
explicitly names each user allowed access to each file.
2. Explain how some systems shorten the access control list even more by putting every
user into different categories. Examples of categories include system, owner, group, and
world. Explain each of these categories briefly as described on page 277 in the text.
Capability Lists
1. Explain the capability lists method using Table 8.5 on page 277 in the text. Point out its
advantages. For example, it requires less storage space than an access control matrix,
and it is easier to maintain than an access control list when users are added or deleted
from the system. Moreover, it can control access to devices as well as to files.
Lockwords
1. Provide students with an overview of the use of a lockword, a protection technique
similar to a password. Note that it protects a single file. Discuss its advantages and
disadvantages. For example, it requires the smallest amount of storage for file
protection; however, it can be guessed by hackers or passed on to unauthorized users.
Moreover, it does not control the type of access to a file. That is, anyone who knows the
lockword can read, write, execute, or delete the file.
Data Compression
1. Explain data compression techniques briefly, which are used to save space in files.
Text Compression
1. Discuss different methods that are used in text compression. These include compressing
text records with repeated characters, with repeated terms, or by using a front-end
compression scheme. Provide examples as shown in the text on page 278 to clarify each
of these methods.
2. Point out that there is always a trade-off in data compression. For example, storage
space is gained but processing time is lost. Be sure to mention that for all data
compression schemes, the system must be able to distinguish between compressed and
uncompressed data.
Other Compression Schemes
1. Inform the students that there are other compression standards for large files such as
video, music, and photograph files. Explain to the students that the International
Organization for Standardization has a mission to issue standards that all systems and
users may abide by when working with these files.

Teaching
Tip
Refer to the following Web site to learn more about data compression
techniques: www.vectorsite.net/ttdcmp.html
Teaching
Tip
For more on the International Organization for Standardization, go to
www.iso.org.
Quick Quiz 2
1. Which of the following storage allocation schemes results in the problem of
fragmentation?
a. Contiguous storage
b. Noncontiguous storage
c. Indexed storage
d. Direct storage
Answer: a
2. Which of the following methods can control access to files as well as to devices?
a. Capability list
b. Access control list
c. Access control matrix
d. All of the above
Answer: a
3. Which of the following data compression techniques compresses text, using symbols to
represent most commonly used words?
a. Records with repeated characters
b. Repeated terms
c. Front-end compression
d. All of the above
Answer: b
Class Discussion Topics
1. Have students discuss different types of file organization schemes. If they were
approached by a hospital to maintain the data records of the patients, which file
organization would they prefer? Why?
2. Have students discuss different access control verification methods. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each method? Which of these methods would they
prefer for a highly secure system with several files and several users? Have students
substantiate their choices with reasons.

Additional Projects
1. Have students research multiple file systems for hard disks supported in Windows, such
as MS DOS’s FAT file system, the 32-bit FAT file system, and the NTFS file
management system.
2. Have students perform research to compile a list of various data-compression
techniques that are commonly employed in today’s computer systems. Which of these
techniques provides the best efficiency – that is, the maximum gain in storage space
with the least effect on processing time?
Additional Resources
1. Microsoft.com:
www.microsoft.com
2. IBM.com:
www.ibm.com
3. A History of Operating Systems:
www.osdata.com/kind/history.htm
4. Intel.com:
www.intel.com
5. Freescale.com:
www.freescale.com
6. Sun Microsystems:
www.sun.com/
7. International Organization for Standardization:
www.iso.org
Key Terms
➢ Absolute filename: a file’s name, as given by the user, preceded by the directory (or
directories) where the file is found and, when necessary, the specific device label.
➢ Access control list: an access control method that lists each file, the names of the users
who are allowed to access it, and the type of access each is permitted.
➢ Access control matrix: an access control method that uses a matrix with every file,
every user, and the type of access each user is permitted on each file.
➢ Capability list: an access control method that lists every user, the files to which each
has access, and the type of access allowed to those files.
➢ Contiguous storage: a type of file storage in which all the information is stored in
adjacent locations in a storage medium.

➢ Current byte address (CBA): the address of the last byte read. It is used by the File
Manager to access records in secondary storage and must be updated every time a
record is accessed.
➢ Current directory: the directory or subdirectory in which the user is working.
➢ Data compression: a procedure used to reduce the amount of space required to store
data by reducing, encoding, or abbreviating repetitive terms or characters.
➢ Data file: a file that contains only data.
➢ Database: a group of related files that are interconnected at various levels to give users
flexibility of access to the data stored.
➢ Device independent: programs that are devoid of the detailed instructions required to
interact with any I/O device present in the computer system.
➢ Direct record organization: files stored in a direct access storage device and organized
to give users the flexibility of accessing any record at random, regardless of its position
in the file.
➢ Directory: a storage area in a secondary storage volume (disk, disk pack, etc.)
containing information about files stored in that volume.
➢ Extension: in some operating systems, it’s the part of the filename that indicates which
compiler or software package is needed to run the files. In UNIX and Linux, it is
optional and called a suffix.
➢ Extents: any remaining records and all other additions to the file that are stored in other
sections of the disk.
➢ Field: a group of related bytes that can be identified by the user with a name, type, and
size. A record is made up of fields.
➢ File: a group of related records that contains information to be used by specific
application programs to generate reports.
➢ File descriptor: information kept in the directory to describe a file or file extent.
➢ Fixed-length record: a record that always contains the same number of characters.
➢ Hashing algorithm: the set of instructions used to perform a key-to-address
transformation in which a record’s key field determines its location.
➢ Indexed sequential record organization: a way of organizing data in a direct access
storage device. An index is created to show where the data records are stored. Any data
record can be retrieved by consulting the index first.
➢ Key field: (1) a unique field or combination of fields in a record that uniquely identifies
that record; or (2) the field that determines the position of a record in a sorted sequence.
➢ Lockword: a sequence of letters and/or numbers provided by users to prevent
unauthorized tampering with their files.
➢ Logical address: the result of a key-to-address transformation.
➢ Master file directory (MFD): a file stored immediately after the volume descriptor. It
lists the names and characteristics of every file contained in that volume.
➢ Noncontiguous storage: a type of file storage in which the information is stored in
nonadjacent locations in a storage medium.
➢ Program file: a file that contains instructions for the computer.
➢ Record: a group of related fields treated as a unit. A file is a group of related records.
➢ Relative address: in a direct organization environment, it indicates the position of a
record relative to the beginning of the file.
➢ Relative filename: a file’s name and extension that differentiates it from other files in
the same directory.
➢ Sequential record organization: the organization of records in a specific sequence.
Records in a sequential file must be processed one after another.

➢ Subdirectory: a directory created by the user within the boundaries of an existing
directory. Some operating systems call this a folder.
➢ Variable-length record: a record that isn’t of uniform length, doesn’t leave empty
storage space, and doesn’t truncate any characters, thus eliminating the two
disadvantages of fixed-length records.
➢ Volume: any secondary storage unit, such as hard disks, disk packs, CDs, DVDs,
removable disks, or tapes.
➢ Working directory: the directory or subdirectory in which the user is currently
working.

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Next to the loin of mutton comes the shoulder, as the joint
offering the least difficulty to the carver. The knife has but to be
passed from the outer edge of the shoulder across the meat towards
the carver, until the bone is reached. Take away slice after slice in
this direction, and then resorting to the meat lying on either side of
the blade bone, according to the quantity required, in this instance
cutting lengthways of the joint. When no more can be obtained from
the upper side of the joint, it must be turned, and there are many
people who do not consider that they have had the best of a
shoulder of mutton until this side is attacked. It will now present
almost the appearance of a new joint, being quite flat, and offering a
succession of juicy slices along its entire length. These have to be
dexterously removed, very much upon the principles recommended
when flat joints were spoken of. These slices are preferred for
hashing, however, by those who think that the quality of the grain of
the meat from this part of the joint renders it inferior at the first
cooking to the upper.
It is not necessary, with one exception, to say anything about
joints of lamb, for they only have to be manipulated according to the
rules laid down for mutton. The exception is a fore-quarter of lamb.
In removing the shoulder from the breast—the first point to which
he directs his attention—hold the shoulder firmly with the fork, and
proceed with the point of the knife to cut through the smoking crisp
brown skin in a circular line, at the junction of the two joints.
Following the same line for a second time, and now thrusting the
knife farther into the meat, a very little exertion with the left hand
makes it easy to raise the shoulder from the breast, whilst a pat of
butter, a little cayenne pepper, some salt, and a good squeeze of
lemon are placed between them by the carver. When, in a moment
or two, these ingredients have assimilated with the gravy, it is
sometimes, for the sake of convenience, thought desirable to place
the shoulder upon another dish, hot, and standing ready at the
carver’s left hand, or held there by a servant. This done, inquiry is
made of those about to be helped as to their preference for brisket,
ribs, or a piece of the shoulder. The brisket should be separated

from the ribs by one long cut from left to right, and then subdivided
at the distance of one or two bones, by cuts at right angles with the
line which separated the brisket from the ribs. These again, in like
manner, are divided into chops by carving them similarly to the
shorter bones of the brisket, and upon the same principle as when
cutting up a loin of mutton.
Venison.—Those who have any experience in carving haunches or
saddles of mutton have very little to learn with regard to venison;
the principles which guide them in dealing with the former have only
to be followed out in the latter. A haunch of venison is carved exactly
like a haunch of mutton; but, being somewhat larger, it is advised by
some authorities that the broad end of the haunch, instead of the
side, should be turned towards the carver for the purpose of giving
him greater command over the joint. This system leads to an entire
disturbance of the appearance and general arrangement of the
table; and a skilled carver should be independent of such twistings
to meet his convenience, except under great emergencies. Epicures
pretend that there is a vast difference between the flavour of the
slices cut close to the vertebræ and those farther removed, and the
carver must make concessions to such notions, and give those
whom he is helping their slice from the region which they prefer.
Never either must he omit to give a dip of the rich gravy always
accumulating in the channel whence the slices are taken, nor an
ample portion of fat with the lean. Expedition, but without hurry, is
essential in carving venison, as, like mutton, it chills very rapidly:
but, as on the whole a haunch of venison is not a difficult dish to
deal with, there never should be anything to complain of on the
score of delay. As the shoulder of venison is usually sent to table
stewed and rolled, the bone having been removed, it presents no
difficulty whatever to the carver, and being, so to speak, a fat joint,
has to be dealt with according to the principles already laid down.
Sometimes, however, the shoulder is roasted, as is also the neck;
but these—with braised brisket, fillets, and steaks—do not demand
any special comment as to their carving; for what has been learned

about cutting up sheep should prove sufficient for the comparatively
rare occasions when the carver is called upon to discuss deer.
Veal.—The commonest form in which veal offers itself is perhaps a
roast breast, and if a carver has had any experience in cutting up
fore-quarter of lamb, he will at once recognise the similarity between
a breast of veal and the aforesaid joint of lamb after the shoulder
has been removed. Like it, the veal is composed of ribs and brisket,
and may be cut accordingly, that is, first, by separating in one long
incision the ribs from the brisket, and then the rib bones one by one,
after the manner of chops generally. The gristly brisket may be cut
in squarish portions, inquiring of course always of the guests
whether they prefer the latter or the former. The brown, well-cooked
parts in veal are usually most esteemed; and if the sweetbread, as it
sometimes is, be sent to table with the joint, it ought naturally to be
fairly distributed. Once more, in manipulating the roast fillet of veal,
the carver has only to remember what has been said respecting a
round of beef, with the addition that a portion of the stuffing, which
is inserted between the flap and the main bulk of the meat, be
served with each helping, and that the brown outside, or first slice,
is considered a very choice morsel.
A knuckle of veal, being in shape somewhat like the knuckle end
of a leg of mutton when it has been divided, needs but few
directions for carving. The slices from the thicker end are the best;
that would be to the right of the first incision into the meat.
The butcher is mainly responsible for the good carving of a loin of
veal, for if he have not done his jointing properly, it is hardly possible
to cut it up decently; whereas, if he has done his work well, the
carver has but to feel his way with the point of the knife, on lines
already laid down, to be able to disengage the separate portions—
never, by the way, overlooking the kidney, and the kidney fat, lying
on the under side of the joint.
It is not very easy to describe the exact method of carving calf’s
head, but a little experience and examination of its organic
development soon suggests what has to be done. When upon the

dish, the nose and mouth should be to the right of the carver, and
the first incision should be made right down to the bone, and
running all along from the back of the nearest ear down towards the
nose, and slices be cut away in the same direction. With each of
these should go a piece of what is called the sweetbread of the
throat, a substance to be found under the ear, and, so to speak, at
right angles with the line of the first incision, and it should be cut
towards the carver in the direction in which it lies. Calf’s head has a
multitude of succulent morsels, to wit, the ears, the flesh round the
eyes, and the eyes themselves. Also the palate, which, lying under
the head, is to be got at when the jaw bone is removed; and where,
likewise, some nice lean becomes accessible. On a separate dish, of
course, the tongue and brains are served, of which every one is
invited to partake.
Sheep’s head is held to be a very vulgar dish, and a lamb’s head,
perhaps, only one degree less so. Still he who is unfortunate enough
at any time to find himself with the responsibility of carving or
helping such viands may take courage if he has any knowledge of
what is demanded of him when similarly situated with a calf’s head,
the heads of the smaller animals being then very easy of
manipulation.
Pork.—Like calf’s head, a sucking pig seems at first sight to be
rather an appalling dish, and undoubtedly a little experience is
requisite before one becomes quite au fait with the business. But the
whole substance is so tender, and yields so readily to the knife, that
after a slight knowledge of the anatomy of the animal has been
acquired, all difficulties vanish. The little piglet generally appears
upon the board divided into four parts; the head, like the body,
being cloven in twain, a cheek being placed at either end of the
carcase. In dealing with the latter, the shoulder has first to be
removed by passing the knife circularly round its junction with the
body, pretty much as one does with fore-quarter of lamb. The leg is
then treated after the same fashion, when the ribs will be open to
view, for gentle division. Each side of the animal is disposed of in the
same way; the larger joints being considered, perhaps, the least

delicate (if, where all is delicacy, there can be a “least”) are usually
offered to the robuster appetites at table. As in the case of all dishes
abounding in choice morsels, the epicure is sure to have his fancies
about sucking pig—one preferring the ribs, another the neck, and a
third the meat from the shoulder.
Concerning leg of pork, really little or nothing additional has to be
said. The knife only needs to be carried straight down through the
crackling to the very bone; as each slice is taken away, such stuffing,
gravy, &c., as accompany it, is distributed either from the joint itself
or from sauceboats. Allowing for a slight difference in form, it has to
be treated like most of the leg joints that come to table, and the
same may be said of the loin. As you dispose of a loin of mutton, so
do you of a loin of pork, the due value of the crackling, fat, and
brown tit-bits being kept in mind. The butcher here again is
responsible for the jointing, and the cook for the judicious scoring of
the crackling.
Ham alone remains to be noticed in this part of our subject, and
according as one wishes to have fine or economical slices, must it be
carved. In the first case, the start is made upon the prime part at
once; in the second, from quite the lower end of the knuckle,
advancing gradually at a gentle angle towards the thicker and prime
part of the meat. A pliant, very sharp knife is indispensable, as the
slices cannot well be too thin, or too evenly and smoothly cut. It is
of little concern to the carver whether the ham be hot or cold, and
the same may be said of joints generally.
Odd Dishes.—Very little need be said about “helping” dishes of
meat, as part of the carver’s duty, even where no actual knife and
fork execution is required. A rump steak, for instance, hardly needs
to be carved, but it has to be cut and helped very neatly, and not
distributed in irregular mis-shapen hunks, but rather, as a rule, in
oblong finger-shaped pieces, with a nice modicum of fat attached, if
possible, but certainly going with each portion of lean. And because
meat pies again have to be cut and helped, not carved, the carver,
so called, must not look upon them as beneath his consideration.

If he thinks that hashes, curries, ragouts, what-not, do not give
him a fair field for the display of his skill with knife and fork, and
that, therefore, it does not signify how they are helped, he will be
grievously mistaken.
Except where a great number of portions have to be served, avoid
the use of the knife sharpener at table: it has always an eating-
house effect about it. It is disagreeable to the ear and if executed
with the flourish of dexterity, not unfrequently is likely to splash right
and left; for unless the knife be wiped previously, and this is a very
awkward and unsightly process, some of the juices of the meat
inevitably cling to it, to be scraped off against the sharpener, which
in its turn is made greasy, and therefore jeopardises the purity of the
tablecloth. If, however, a sharpener has to be brought into play, the
simplest and most efficacious is the ordinary round butcher’s steel,
always supposing the power of using it properly in conjunction with
the knife has been acquired. Short of this, the little contrivance
consisting of a series of discs overlapping each other, so as to form a
wedge-shaped socket with the finest of thin edges conceivable, into
which the edge of the knife is dropped and then pushed gently
backwards and forwards, is very useful, and may be recommended
as fully answering its purpose, and if carefully manipulated entirely
without risk. It also is cleaner, less unsightly, and creates less
unpleasant noise than the common steel, whilst a child might
manage it. At any rate, ladies should always use it in preference to
any other sharpening instrument. The habit of feebly drawing the
edge of the carving knife downwards, to and fro, against the back
edge of another knife, should only be thought of under very pressing
circumstances; it is an extremely inelegant action.
Poultry.—Once learn its anatomy and the best method of
separating its limbs, and very little more knowledge will enable you
to manipulate skilfully any of the feathered tribe. The chicken should
lie upon its back at right angles with our line of sight, and its tail end
to our left hand. The fine plump breast tempts naturally the insertion
of the fork, which should be driven firmly, but delicately, and almost
perpendicularly into it, a little to the left of the centre, a prong on

either side of the ridge of the breast bone. Secure hold should be at
once got by this process of the whole carcase, for if it be intended to
cut up the entire fowl at once it may be, and should be all but done
without once removing the fork. The next process is to separate the
wing, or both wings, and this is done by passing the knife sharply
along the line of the breast, as far outside the breast bone as will
leave a fair share of meat attached to it, and yet give an ample
portion to the wing. Thus, cutting from left to right, and downwards,
as we approach the right extremity of the bird, let the knife diverge
a little farther outwards, so as to clear the merrythought, and strike
the joint of the wing. Unless the creature be of preternatural
antiquity, the junction is easily severed, and bone and flesh come
away almost with a touch. Having removed both wings in this way,
lower the fork hand so as to cant the chicken a little on to its side,
and then pass the blade of the knife under the projecting elbow, as
we may call it, of the leg, and, forcing it outwards, disengage it too
from the body by severing with the point of the knife the joint by
which it is still slightly held. Then turn the bird bodily over on to its
other side, without removing the fork, and dispose of the second leg
in a similar fashion. Restoring then the chicken to its original
position, pass the knife transversely across the breast a little to the
right of the highest point of the breast bone. Cut down gently,
inclining the edge of the blade to the right, press outwards and
upwards slightly, and the merrythought comes away. There must be
no tearing of the skin; every incision of the knife must go clean
through that, for nothing looks worse than to see one portion with
the skin half torn away, and hanging in a long ribbon from another.
The merrythought is now disposed of by just separating the little
joints by which it is still attached when the upper end of its bone has
been separated from the breast, and having a nice clean edged
covering of skin. Again turn the carcase on to its side, and by an
action with the knife, similar to that by which you removed the legs,
force away by an upward pressure the two side bones one after the
other, that is the two bones which the removal of the merrythought
has revealed. There is nothing now to prevent the knife being swept
clean through the ribs, and so disengage breast and back. At this

stage the fork is withdrawn from the breast, which has now become
a trim, tempting, and oblong portion; the back only remains to be
dealt with. Turning it over, press the knife firmly down upon the right
end of it, and holding it so steadily, lift the left extremity with the
fork, and the back is immediately dislocated near the centre;
complete the separation by severing with the knife such portions of
skin and flesh as may yet cause the joints still to adhere one to the
other. Arrange then all these various portions neatly on the dish, and
still assuming that the demolition of the whole bird was necessary, it
will be ready to serve, remembering that a piece of the liver should
go with that wing which has it not. On some occasions—carving for
a large number of children to wit—it may be necessary to divide
each leg into two portions by severing the thigh bone from the
drumstick, as it is called.
Boiled or roast, such is the mode of cutting up a fowl. Supposing,
however, that some special part alone is wanted, say the
merrythought, it can hardly be got at without first cutting the wing,
or wings; not perhaps disengaging them entirely, but certainly so far
as to get at the particular joint required. It ensures neatness in the
long run, and it is highly essential that a bird, if it reappears at table,
should look neither hacked nor mangled. If a fowl approach the
proportions of a capon, it will seldom be well to drive the fork into
the breast at starting, because then the first thing to be done is to
make the breast yield the utmost number of slices; these should be
cut, to begin with, from as close to the wing as possible, working
upwards on either side till the breast bone be reached. Only when
these, the choicest parts of the bird, are distributed, will it be
necessary to go into the dissection of the carcase as aforesaid; and
it must not be forgotten that under this method the wings are
reduced to what may be called a mere picking.
Very special fancies are found to predominate amongst all who
partake of poultry, and it is essential that the carver does not neglect
to consult each individual’s predilections. A very little experience,
too, will show how indispensable it is to have poultry carving knife

and fork in exquisite order. The knife must be firm and sharp-
pointed, or it will never disengage anything like stubborn joints.
Duck.—The anatomy of the fowl once mastered, that of the duck
or duckling becomes immediately patent to the most casual
observer. The slight difference which exists in their general
conformation, and which arises chiefly from the legs of the duck
being set farther back on the body, is not sufficient to require much
additional comment; but it may be said that, whereas the wing of
the “flyer” is held in the highest repute, so is the leg of the
“swimmer”; and when a very small and tender duckling is under the
knife, one wing and leg taken off together, without division, will be
no more than enough for one portion. The stuffing is got at by
cutting open at its lower end, by a semicircular incision, the little
apron of skin just below the breast. This should be done so neatly
that it falls back into its place when the spoon is withdrawn, and
must on no account be left jagged. Nevertheless, the carver should
never put any of the stuffing upon a plate without first asking
whether it will be agreeable. Some housewives, when a pair of ducks
or ducklings appear, allow only one of them to be stuffed, and this is
perhaps wise. As with a large chicken, so with a large duck, the
most must be made of its breast by cutting the utmost number of
long and delicate slices that it will yield, commencing always as close
to the wing as possible. Very marked will be the difference in the
apparent amount of separate portions which will be got off a duck
by a good and a bad carver; and it is only a little exaggeration to say
that the good one will make the bird go twice as far as the bad. All
sorts of odd out-of-the-way tit-bits can be got off the carcase by any
one who has had the wit to keep a watchful eye on a dexterous
knight of the carving knife and fork—for practical carving is learned
more thoroughly by watching an expert than by any other means.
Amongst the tit-bits of a duck some people look upon the feet as
very pretty picking, and they should always appear at table, not only
for the above reason, but as giving a character to the dish.
Turkey.—The turkey, though looked upon as the king of the poultry
yard, is not by any means a subject that calls for a very unusual

amount of skill on the part of the carver. Beyond the fact that care
should be taken to cut neatly a succession of long slices from the
breast, each with its nice little edge of untorn skin, there is really not
much for the knife and fork to do. The cutting of slices from the
breast should begin as close to the wing as possible, and proceed
upwards on both sides, to the ridge of the breast bone. Some people
prefer exactly to reverse this process; but it is not important. The
stuffing under the breast is got at precisely as in the case of duck.
The severing of the wings and legs is only on rare occasions
necessary at table, as the breast of the bird usually yields an ample
supply for an average number of guests. But in the event of the
carver being called on to disjoint a leg or wing, he will only have to
draw upon his acquaintance with the anatomy of the chicken. When,
on the following day, the remains of a turkey appear in the form of a
grill or a devil, the cook should have made any carving of the dish
unnecessary.
Goose.—Though the anatomy is similar again to that of the
chicken, the greater size and strength of the bird give greater
toughness to the joints, and call for the exercise of more force of
wrist and hand in their separation. The point of the strong sharp
blade must be made to find its way between the bones, as any
attempt to cut through them will lead to disaster. Supposing the
whole of the breast to be gone, then, and that the leg and wing
bones have to be operated on, proceed upon the principles
enunciated in the case of the chicken. Turn the bird on one side,
and, after forcing with the blade of the knife the projecting angles or
elbows of the bones back from the carcase, when coming to the leg,
separate the thigh from its socket, which will be a less easy task
than in the case of the pinion-bone of the wing. The merrythought,
if comparatively a small item for so large a bird as a goose, must be
disengaged. The dissection of the remainder of the bird, upon its
reappearance as a hash or what-not, will generally devolve upon the
cook; but, come in what guise it may, most excellent picking may be
found in every quarter. Stuffing is an element of roast goose never
to be overlooked; it is to be found and reached in the same way as

in the duck. The skin of the apron and elsewhere is, as usual, on no
account to be torn off or left ragged, particularly as with this bird it
is accounted very choice in flavour.
Guinea Fowl.—Guinea fowl, peahen, or peacock, and other such
“strange fowl” as are on rare occasions put before a carver, being in
their anatomy sufficiently similar to the turkey for all practical
purposes, may be passed over here. Boiled or roast, they must be
treated with the same discrimination.
Rabbit.—A rabbit for roasting is somewhat differently trussed to
when it is intended for boiling; in the latter case the head is placed
on the dish to the right of the carver, and in the former to the left. In
both cases, however, the back is the chief point to operate upon. If
roast, separate the back on either side from the legs and shoulders;
then divide the back into two equal parts; then disengage leg and
shoulder one from the other, jointing them according to the number
of portions required. If boiled, a very similar process may be
adopted; the knife’s point has but to be inserted where a joint
appears, and it yields to the slightest pressure. Very seldom is the
rabbit substantial enough to justify its treatment after the manner of
the hare—that is, by taking slices out of the back, and so on, down
to the limbs, without disengaging them; but where the bulk of the
animal is sufficient to allow of this, it is certainly the more tempting,
easy, and appetising method.
Pigeon.—Beyond bringing into play the strength and neatness
which are demanded whenever actual bone has to be severed, there
is little to be done with knife and fork. If the bird be divided cleanly
into two equal parts by a sharp strong cut right through everything,
as it were, from beak to tail, each portion must be further
manipulated by those before whom it is placed; the carver has no
further concern with it. But should it be necessary to divide a pigeon
into 3 portions, then 2 legs and 2 wings will make 2 out of the 3—if,
in cutting them off, the carver is careful to leave enough meat on the
breast to allow of that being presented as the third.

Game.—Woodcock.—When a woodcock is under the knife and
fork, the carver will be very careful to examine the toast, to see that
all the trail is upon it, or rather that the liver, which is the essential
element of the trail, is not still left within the body. To do this he may
with a slight touch of the knife, when he has secured the breast with
the fork, force back the legs, and so, by disengaging the back, turn
the bird as it were inside out; the liver will then fall upon the toast,
and should be spread upon it evenly, with the addition of a little pat
of butter, pepper, and salt, and a squeeze of lemon. As to cutting up
the woodcock, the task is very simple. The bird may be divided into
2 or 3—the breast for one, and each leg and wing for the second
and third portions; but, as the back is very small, and yet very
choice, it had better be reserved for the special friend, seeing that
there is not enough of it to divide; the thighs, however, are
accounted almost equal bonnes bouches.
Snipe.—Perhaps the next amongst the “trail birds” to rank with the
woodcock, who is the king of them all, is the snipe. He will generally,
upon his modicum of toast, form not too large a portion for one
good appetite; but he may be made to do for two less robust, by
splitting him exactly in twain upon the usual plan. This is a bird that
brooks no delay in the helping. He should be eaten hissing hot.
Plover.—The plover calls for no special directions. Larger than the
snipe, but smaller than the woodcock, he may be treated according
to the appetites—halved, trebled, or presented upon one plate
whole, with the toast as a matter of course. If for plover or snipe we
read “quail,” what has been said above will be all that is necessary.
The ortolan also might be included. The hints anent the disposal of
the liver, &c., on the toast, under the woodcock, may be taken to
apply, more or less, to all similar arrangements. The carver should
be careful to eliminate the little sandbag or crop, which sometimes
may be found in close proximity to the liver; otherwise, if spread
upon the toast, its grit will render the whole entirely uneatable.
Wild fowl.—Like turkey or goose, wild duck (and indeed all wild
fowl, including the teal and widgeon) offers to the carver the most

tempting of breasts, whence to cut away a succession of delicate
slices; but he may not remove these until he has inserted sparingly a
sprinkling of cayenne pepper between the scorings he has made
with his knife, and given an ample squeeze of lemon over them, to
drive the pepper well into the interstices. The breast alone is held to
be the choice portion of the bird, though there is pretty picking
elsewhere, but further dissection of him, when necessary, for
immediate or future purposes, such as hashes, &c., may be carried
on upon the oft-referred-to chicken principles.
Landrail.—The landrail, not often met with at table, may be easily
carved by treating him like a snipe; he is trussed in the same
manner, but of course is trailless.
Hare.—The hare stands pre-eminent amongst game, and is so
generally popular, and yields so much capital eating, that it should
be looked upon as a very special dish for the carver. The head on
the left of the carver and the body lying at right angles to the line of
sight, slices are cut out of the back all along its length from left to
right. Clean, neat, and regular should they be, each with its nice
little edge of brown skin; and when, from both sides of the spine, all
the meat has been cut away, both the legs must be disengaged by a
sharp incision, much after the manner in which the wing of a chicken
is removed. Then the shoulders, by a semicircular cut round the
joint, are displaced, the point of the knife feeling for the junction at
the socket of the bone. Next, in the same way, let the knife travel to
about the centre of the back, the carver feeling with its point for a
favourable nick in the vertebræ through which, with some little
exercise of strength, he may drive the blade, and so divide the body
in two. The stuffing must be served in moderation with each portion;
and, as the remnants of a hare are generally turned to good
account, it is as well, except under extraordinary circumstances, not
to serve any of the bones upon the plates, but to cut as neat-looking
slices as may be from shoulders and legs. Plenty of gravy should
also be helped from the dish by the carver, in addition to that served
separately; otherwise the portions may look unattractively dry when
first placed before the guest. All parts of a hare are so full of flavour,

that, beyond the fact that the back is usually the most tender, there
is little superiority in it. The ears and brain are amongst the extra
little tit-bits affected by the connoisseur.
Partridge.—Roast partridge usually coming, as it does, at the close
of the feast, a very small portion of bird should be served to each
guest; in this case, cut him up precisely as you would a chicken, and
all at once, without removing the fork; and, by thus making him go
as far as possible, you do as much justice to the excellence of the
bird as the vagaries of custom will allow. Of course, the choicest
morsels, the wings, the breast, and the merrythought, that is, should
go to the more delicate appetites; but that is no reason why legs
and back should be comparatively wasted, as they often are, when
accompanied on the plate by more fleshy pieces, or be left neglected
by the carver on the dish. He who knows anything of the flavour of
game will be as well contented with the head and back, or leg of a
young partridge in good condition as with any other part of it, if it
come at the customary tail end of a dinner, and when a mere taste is
all that is expected or desirable. But when the partridge appears as
a very important element at a choice repast, then hand him over
bodily one bird on a hot-water plate to each guest, and so evade all
carving responsibilities; or, short of this, cleave him in twain, fairly
from beak to tail, as a pigeon, and let no more than two discuss
him; or, once again, at the most, cut him into three, as also directed
with the pigeon.
Pheasant.—Treat the pheasant with similar deference; for, if young
and in good condition, though one part may be better than another,
there is no part open to disdain. According to the size of the bird so
may you cut him up, but, as a rule, his breast will yield a sufficient
number of slices to make it advisable to deal with him in the manner
advocated for a turkey; otherwise he has to be dissected entirely as
if he were a chicken, remembering at the same time that, according
to the position he occupies in the menu, so should your helping be
proportioned. If he represent in any way the pièce de résistance, be
fairly bountiful, not giving a slice of the breast alone to one person,
but some extra “snack” of picking with it, thus letting the choice, and

the less choice, morsels be duly blended. On the other hand, if the
pheasant come up to table at the usual conventional time, the slices
from the breast will be generally enough to go round, if the carver
allows no slice to reach the magnitude of anything beyond a taste.
He may know if a cock pheasant (cock pheasants are generally the
better) be young or old by a glance at the spurs—the short and
blunt indicating youth, sharp and long the reverse; and it is well for
the carver to note this at starting, as it will prepare him for the
amount of strength he will have to put forth in separating the joints.
Bread sauce and gravy, as with the partridge, are served separately;
but should there be a toast beneath the bird upon the dish, a piece
of the toast must go with each portion, a search for the stuffing be
entered on, and some of it dispensed.
Grouse.—Beyond putting a very strong emphasis on the value of
the back of the grouse, we need only refer to what has been said of
the partridge to know how to deal with him. He is worthy in every
way of the same high consideration, either as one, two or three
portions; but if cut up into this latter or more quantities, a piece of
the back must go with each, if the carver regard justice as a leading
element of his craft. The habit now of not sending up the bird’s head
is, some think, reprehensible; as, like that of the pheasant and
partridge, the skull if split in two offers a delicate morsel in the
shape of the brain. A piece of the toast, too, usually to be found
beneath the grouse should find its way to everybody’s plate.
Blackcock.—Being of the genus grouse, here will be the place to
say what one has to say about the blackcock; and once more a
knowledge of the chicken’s anatomy will be the key to the whole
position. The tenderness and delicacy of the flesh, however, of game
birds make them less favourable subjects for the young carver to
experimentalise upon. The thigh of this bird is held by the epicure as
the portion which attains the culminating flavour. Therefore, though
slices may be cut from the breast to begin with in the usual fashion,
they may not trench upon this tit-bit, which should be preserved
intact for the special friend or friends, since there are two thighs. To
decapitate this bird, and to send him to table headless, is to deprive

some one of an exquisite bonne bouche. When cut in two, there is
very pretty picking about the head; and whilst on the dish it serves
at once to mark this distinguished member of the feathered
community.
Capercailzie.—The capercailzie, though very seldom met with at
the ordinary English dinner table, may not be overlooked here, for,
though a very much larger bird than grouse or blackcock, it is yet to
be ranked amongst the same species. In fact, it is a woodland
grouse, and sometimes attains the size of a goodly turkey; which is
as much as to say, from our point of view, that we should treat him
accordingly.
Ptarmigan.—Ptarmigan, too, though less uncommon and smaller
than the capercailzie, would not need any especial dissection, and
has merely to be cut up according to his size; whilst of course the
buttered toast on which he is served may, or may not, be partaken
of; and it is just as well for the carver to inquire.
In dispensing any rare or unusual bird it is quite essential that the
carver should point out to those at table who are unacquainted with
its precise character what it is, and recommend this or that
particular part to their consideration. Also in the matter of toast,
when it may contain the trail of game, the carver should be very
careful not to give any of it to those who may happen to dislike it.
There are many people who will only eat game when it is quite
fresh, and who would shudder at the thought of consuming the trail.
Dinners.—To commence with the manner of eating soup. In
olden days it was customary to “drink” it out of a basin. In these
days no one “drinks” soup—it is “eaten”; whether it be mock turtle
or the clearest Julienne, it is eaten out of a soup plate at dinner, and
with a tablespoon. To use a dessertspoon for this purpose is not
comme il faut. There is a reason in this: soup is nothing if not hot;
and, as it is the custom to give but a very small help of soup—about
half a ladleful to each person—it is eaten quicker and hotter with a
large spoon. The reason for small helps of soup is that the various

courses to follow do not render it expedient to commence with a
plateful of soup. At ball suppers, when soup is served in soup plates,
it is also eaten with a tablespoon; but when served in small cups a
spoon is not used, and it is actually drunk, although fashion does not
sanction the expression “I have drunk some soup.”
For fish, the two dinner forks are now superseded by the little
silver fish knife and fork. When oysters are given, however, they
precede the soup, and are eaten with an ordinary dinner fork, and
not with the fish fork. In eating oysters the shell is steadied on the
plate with the fingers of the left hand; the oysters are not cut, but
are eaten whole. Large dinners are ordered mainly with a view to
please the palates of men with epicurean tastes; it is not expected
that ladies should eat of the most highly seasoned and richest
dishes, but should rather select the plainest. This particularly applies
to young ladies and young married ladies; and there are certain
things that young ladies are not supposed to eat of at dinner,
although handed to them in their turn—as, for instance, marrow
patties, foie gras patties, snipe with trail, woodcock with trail,
caviare, bloater cheese. Small helps of fish are always given.
Some entrées are eaten with a knife and fork, others with a fork
only. All entrées that offer any resistance to a fork being passed
through them require the aid of both knife and fork, such as cutlets,
filet de bœuf, sweetbreads, &c.; but when rissoles, patties,
quenelles, boneless curry, vol-au-vents, timbales, minces, &c., are
eaten, the fork is used and the knife is discarded. In the case of the
lighter entrées, the contact of the knife is supposed to militate
against their delicate flavour, and with regard to the pastry of patties
and vol-au-vents, it would be considered bad style were a knife to be
used in addition to the fork.
When game is eaten, it is needless to say that the old licence for
holding a bone delicately between the fingers and thumb has long
since expired. The leg of a chicken, pheasant, duck, or wild duck is
never given to a guest as a help, save on those occasions when
there are more guests present than there are helps from breasts and

wings to offer them. Under these circumstances the carver is
reduced to the necessity of falling back upon the legs; but in this
case only the upper part of the thigh is given, the drumstick being
cut off—thus a guest has little difficulty in separating the meat from
the bone. The wing of a bird, however, is a very usual help given to
a lady. Formerly it was thought a correct thing to sever the wing at
the joint, and then to cut the meat from the bone; but this required
a certain amount of strength in the wrist and dexterity of action, as,
if the bird happened to be not of the youngest, there was a chance
that a nervous or clumsy young lady would lodge one half of the
wing on the tablecloth; so the fair recipients of a wing in the present
day do not run this risk or take this trouble, but simply cut off from
the bone the meat that is easily got at, leaving those morsels about
which there is the slightest difficulty. An inexperienced carver
occasionally gives the gizzard with the wing, and some
inexperienced young ladies make an attempt to eat it; the gizzard
should not be left in the wing by the carver. In the case of small
pigeons, golden plovers, snipe, quails, larks, &c., a whole bird is
given to each help, and the proper way to eat these birds is to cut
the meat from the breast and wings, and to eat each morsel at the
moment of cutting it; the bird should not be turned over and over on
the plate, or cut in half, or otherwise dissected. The legs of Bordeaux
pigeons are not as a rule eaten, and half a bird only is given, as
there is sufficient meat on the wing and breast to satisfy an ordinary
second-course appetite; when the legs of smaller birds are eaten,
such as snipe or golden plover, the meat is cut off as from breast or
wing. Young ladies, as a rule, do not eat these birds, or any second-
course delicacy of this description; a help of chicken or pheasant, on
the contrary, is usually accepted by them.
On the subject of vegetables there is but little to be said; when
large potatoes are served in their skins, a salad plate is offered at
the same time, so this difficulty is thus provided for. When asparagus
first comes into season, it is often given in the second course instead
of in the first, in which case it is eaten as a separate dish; when it is
handed with meat or poultry, it is eaten on the same plate

containing either; and although served on toast, the toast is not
meant to be eaten, and it is merely intended to receive the
superfluous moisture from the asparagus. In eating asparagus,
elderly gentlemen still hold the stalks in their fingers; the younger
generation cut off the points of the asparagus with a knife and fork;
but asparagus tongs render helping an easy matter. Seakale is often
given in the second course when first in season; the toast on which
this is served is also not eaten. When mushrooms are served on
toast, this toast is generally eaten. Seakale is eaten with a knife and
fork. Artichokes are an awkward and untidy vegetable to eat: they
are only given in the second course as a separate vegetable. The
outside leaves are removed with the knife and fork, and the inner
leaves, which surround the heart or head of the artichoke, are
conveyed to the mouth with the fingers, and sucked dry; epicures
consider these a “dainty morsel,” but at a dinner party young ladies
would not attempt to eat them.
Savouries are not eaten by young ladies when they dine out, and
seldom in the home circle. Savouries of the description of macaroni
with cheese, cheese fondus, cheese straws, cheese soufflés,
choufleur au gratin, olives, &c.—these things are not supposed to
suit the palates of young ladies. In eating sweets, a dessertspoon is
only used for compotes of fruit or fruit tarts, or those dishes where
juice or syrup prevails to the extent of rendering a dessertspoon
necessary. But whenever it is possible to use a fork in preference to
a spoon, it is always better to do so; and jellies, creams,
blancmanges, ice puddings, &c., are always eaten with a fork.
As a matter of course, young ladies do not eat cheese at dinner
parties. The usual mode of eating cheese is to cut it in small square
pieces, and place it with the knife on a morsel of bread, and then
convey the bread to the mouth with the fingers. When celery is
given with cheese, it is cut into fair-sized mouthfuls, which are put in
the mouth with the fingers, and bites are not taken from a stick of
celery held between the fingers schoolboy fashion. Salad is always
eaten with the joint, off small salad plates, placed on the left side of
the dinner plate; it is eaten with the knife and fork.

To turn from dinner to dessert. Ices are eaten with a small gold ice
spoon. Fruits that require peeling—such as peaches, apricots,
nectarines, &c.—are peeled with a dessert knife and fork, and eaten
with a spoon and fork, as are oranges. Pears and apples are peeled
and eaten with a knife and fork, as is pine or melon; with the latter a
spoon also is required. Strawberries are also eaten with a spoon and
fork when cream is given with them, otherwise they are held by their
stalks and dipped into powdered sugar. Cherries, gooseberries,
grapes, and currants are also eaten with the fingers, and so on
down the gamut of fruit. A slice of dessert cake is broken and eaten
as bread would be, and is not cut with the knife into small pieces.
The finger glasses are used after fruit has been eaten, and the tips
of the fingers are then dipped into the water and dried on the
serviette with as little parade as possible, always bearing in mind
that the serviette is not a chamber towel or the finger glass a
washhand basin, and also that, when the serviette is used for wiping
the lips, it should be done quickly and deftly, attracting as little
notice as possible, as it is not a pretty sight to see a person
deliberately occupied in wiping their mouth or their moustache again
and again during dinner; a lady must be a very untidy eater who
requires to wipe her mouth constantly during dinner.
When liqueurs are handed with the ices, young ladies are not
expected to take them, and, as a rule, a young lady would not drink
more than half a glass of sherry with soup or fish, one glass of
champagne during dinner, or a glass of sherry if champagne is not
given, and half a glass of sherry at dessert. A married lady would
perhaps drink a glass and a half of champagne at dinner, in addition
to a glass of sherry with fish or soup. Some ladies drink less than
this, and others perhaps a little more, and if a lady does not intend
drinking more wine than remains in her glass, she should make a
little motion of dissent when the butler is about to replenish it.
Otherwise a good glass of wine is sent away untasted; and in all
cases when a lady only intends drinking half a glass of wine, it would
be no breach of etiquette for her to say to the butler at the moment
of his offering her wine, “Only half a glass, please;” good wine is a

costly luxury, and should never be unnecessarily wasted, even by a
guest at a dinner party.
Bills of Fare.—The following are selected from a very large
number, which have been published from time to time in the Queen.
For 2.—(a) Brunoise. Sole au gratin. Filets de bœuf aux
champignons. Pommes de terre sautés. Roast blackcock. Stuffed
tomatoes. Tartelettes Piémontaises. (b) Potage à la Cussy. Perches
sur le gril. Poule au riz à la Milanaise. Haricots verts en salade.
Omelette au jambon. (c) Consommé au riz. Filets de soles à la
Béchamel. Côtelettes du mouton panées aux tomates. Haricots verts
à la Lyonnaise. Parmesan. Tourte de Reine-claudes. (d) Brunoise.
Friture d’éperlans. Hachis de veau aux œufs pochés. Cailles rôties.
Salade de laitue et cresson. Gateau de pommes de terre.
For 2 or 3.—(a) Croûte au pot. Boiled salmon, fennel sauce. Roast
quails. Watercress salad. Asparagus. Cream cheese. Gooseberry
tartlets. (b) Bonne femme soup. Sole au gratin. Boiled mutton
cutlets. Carrots à la maître d’hôtel. Rice soufflé. (c) Potage aux
pointes d’asperges. Whitebait. Filet de bœuf rôti à la Française. New
potatoes au beurre. Lettuce salad. Cheese fondue. (d) Spring soup.
Red mullets in papers. Fricandeau with spinach. Asparagus. Macaroni
cheese. Iced gooseberry fool. (e) Potage à la jardinière. Saumon
grillé à la Tartare. Côtelettes de mouton aux concombres. Roast
grouse. Watercress. Salad of French beans. Greengage tartlets. (f)
Grouse soup. Fried eels. Stewed steak. Mashed potatoes. Vegetable
marrow au gratin. Macaroni cheese. Apple tart. (g) Tomato soup.
Grey Mullet. Sauce blanche. Braised loin of mutton. Potatoes à la
Lyonnaise. Stuffed vegetable marrow. Cheese fritters. Plum tart. (h)
Julienne. Fried fillets of sole, tartare sauce. Hashed venison. French
beans au beurre. Macaroni au gratin. Apricot omelet. (i) Consommé
aux haricots verts. Filets de maquereaux à l’Italienne. Croquettes de
volaille. Côtelettes de mouton à la Nivernaise. Tomates farcies.
Gruyère. Tourte aux abricots. (j) Consommé au riz. Truite saumonée
grillée à la Tartare. Grenadins de bœuf à l’Espagnole. Salade de
homard en aspic. Génoises. Compôte de framboises et groseilles. (k)

Potage au vermicelle. Rougets sauce aux câpres. Rissoles de
homard. Fricassée de poulet. Haricots verts à la Lyonnaise. Omelette
au parmesan. Salade de fruits. (l) Potage au pauvre homme.
Côtelettes de mouton, pommes de terre à la maître d’hôtel.
Asperges, sauce poivrade. Omelette au jambon. (m) Croûte au pot.
Filets de sole à l’Italienne. Braised loin of mutton. Navets glacés.
Salade de choufleurs. Cheese straws. Caramel custards. (n) Potage
au macaroni. Saumon sauté au beurre. Cuisses de poulets au riz à la
Turque. Broccoli sprout salad. Fondue au Parmesan. (o) Potage aux
œufs pochés. Croustades de volaille à la suprême. Filets de bœuf
grillés aux pommes de terre. Choufleurs au gratin. Chartreuse de
pêches. (p) One dozen oysters. Consommé de volaille aux quenelles.
Chartreuse de perdrix. Grenadins de bœuf à l’Espagnole. Petits
soufflés au Parmesan. Salade d’oranges. (q) Purée of celery. Fried
smelts. Lark, steak, and kidney pudding. Mashed potatoes. Spanish
onions stuffed. Cheese. Apple fritters. (r) Purée of lentils. Boiled
haddock and egg sauce. Hashed mutton. Mashed potatoes. Seakale.
Cheese. Ginger pudding. (s) Potage au pauvre homme. Raie au
beurre noir. Côtelettes de mouton au naturel. Purée de pommes de
terre. Omelette au Parmesan. Tartelettes de pommes. (t) Julienne.
Cabillaud à la crème. The legs of a turkey devilled, purée of
chestnuts. Cauliflower salad. Mince pies. (u) Potage au macaroni.
Sole au gratin. Civet de lièvre aux champignons. Choux de Bruxelles
à la maître d’hôtel. Mirlitons aux confitures. (v) Onion soup. Broiled
whiting. Stewed steak. Haricot bean salad. Fig pudding. (w)
Chestnut soup. Mutton croquettes and cauliflower. Roast teal. Celery
à la sauce blanche. Cheese. Sweet omelet. (x) Potage à la purée de
laitues. Vol-au-vent of cod. Epigrammes de mouton aux tomates.
Chartreuse de perdrix. Œufs au gratin. Biscuit au mocha. (y) Croûte
au pot. Côtelettes de mouton en papillote. Stewed steak. Mashed
potatoes. Vegetable marrow au gratin. New Forest cream cheese.
Pommes au beurre. (z) Purée of endives. Slices of cod, Italian sauce.
Quenelles of rabbit, with minced olives. Roast partridges. Tomatoes
stuffed with mushrooms. Fondue. Génoise pastry, with whipped
cream.

For 3 in August.—Lazagne. Rougets en papillote. Côtelettes de
mouton à la Soubise. Grenadins de chevreuil, sauce groseille.
Artichauts, sauce blanche. Roast grouse. Croûte d’ananas.
For 3 in September.—Potage à la jardinière. Filets de soles à la
cardinal. Cromesquis de perdreaux. Côtelettes de mouton à la
Soubise. Haricots verts à la poulette. Grouse. Pouding soufflé purée
de prunes.
For 3 or 4.—(a) Potage à la purée d’asperges. Whitebait.
Côtelettes d’agneau aux concombres. Cailles rôties, salade de laitue.
Macaroni au gratin. Gooseberry tartlets. (b) Potage à la jardinière.
Sea bream, sauce piquante. Fricassée de poulets. Filet de bœuf rôti
à la Française. New potatoes au beurre. Green artichokes à la sauce
blanche. Petits soufflés au Parmesan. Compote d’oranges. (c) Purée
de gibier Cabillaud à la crème. Aloyau rôti à l’Anglaise. Choux de
Bruxelles au jus. Pommes de terre au naturel. Macaroni au gratin.
Beignets de pommes. (d) Potage aux pâtés d’Italie. Filets de soles à
la Orly. Fricandeau aux épinards. Wild ducks, bigarrade sauce.
Salade pommes de terre. Stewed cheese. Rice soufflé. (e) Palestine
soup. Fried whitings. Croquettes of beef, Brussels sprouts. Roast
pheasant. Watercresses. Scolloped oysters. Omnibus pudding. (f)
Brunoise. Sole à la ravigotte. Filets de bœuf à la jardinière. Plovers
(3 or 4). Croustades aux huîtres. Beignets soufflés. (g) Oyster soup.
Baked John Dory. Mutton cutlets en papillote. Roast pheasant.
Cauliflower au gratin. Génoises au chocolat. (h) Croûte au pot.
Rouget grondin au Madère. Côtelettes de mouton, purée de pommes
de terre. Bécasses rôties (3 or 4). Chouxfleur en salade. Pommes à
la Condé. (i) Macaroni soup. Cod and oyster sauce. Roast goose,
apple sauce, potatoes, Brussels sprouts. Cheese. Damson tart.
Vanille custards. (j) Potage à la royale. Matelotte de harengs aux
champignons. Croustades de volaille. Grenadins de veau à la
macédoine. Filet de bœuf rôti à la Française. Salade de cresson.
Tomates au gratin. Gruyère. Charlotte de pommes. Omelette au
rhum. (k) Potage à la Sévigné. Oyster kromeskies. Côtelettes à la
Maintenon. Roast capercailzie. Watercress salad. Peas (preserved) à
la Française. Ramequins. Sir Watkin Wynn’s pudding. (l) Consommé

aux nouilles. Sea bream au Madère. Veal cutlets à la Milanaise.
Braised fowls à la jardinière. Fondue au Parmesan. Bakewell
pudding. Salad of oranges. (m) Celery soup. Haddock and egg
sauce. Grenadins of beef à l’Espagnole. Cauliflowers à la crème.
Potatoes sautées. Larks à la minute. Stewed cheese. Mirlitons au
cassis. (n) Brunoise. Maquereaux grillés, à la maître d’hôtel.
Fricandeau—New potatoes à la Lyonnaise. Boiled ham—Petits pois à
l’Anglaise. Œufs au gratin. Beignets d’oranges. (o) Consommé aux
pointes d’asperges. Fried fillet of soles, cold tartare sauce. Ris de
veau aux champignons. Rumpsteak au beurre d’anchois. Pommes de
terre sautées. Salade de laitue. York cream cheese. Soufflé à la
vanille.
For 4 in August.—(a) Tortue claire. John Dory, sauce Hollandaise.
Petits pâtés à la financière. Côtelettes d’agneau aux concombres.
Roast neck of venison. French beans. Tartelettes d’abricots. Gelée au
marasquin. (b) Consommé de volaille. Grilled trout, tartare sauce.
Rissoles de volaille. Timbales de foie gras aux truffes. Côtelettes de
mouton à la Réforme. Boiled chickens. Artichokes. Ices.
For 4-6.—(a) Spring soup. Broiled salmon, tartare sauce.
Whitebait. Lamb cutlets, spinach. Rump steak, fried potatoes. Roast
quails, salad. Asparagus. Macaroni cheese. Apple soufflé. (b) Clear
mock turtle. Boiled salmon, Dutch sauce. Beef olives. Roast quarter
of lamb, new potatoes, salad. Curried eggs. Cheese. Rhubarb
Tartlets. Meringues with cream. (c) Consommé au pointes
d’asperges. Codfish au gratin. Grenadins of beef à la macédoine.
Braised capons, stuffed mushrooms. New potatoes. Seakale. Cheese.
Watercress-butter. Mousseline pudding. Chartreuse of oranges. (d)
Potage printanier. Fillets of mackerel, Italian sauce. Mutton cutlets,
stewed peas. Wild duck, bigarrade sauce. Cheese fritters. Bakewell
pudding. (e) Potage crecy au riz. Fried whitings. Filets de pigeons en
caisses. Braised loin of mutton, Soubise sauce. Turnip-top salad.
Stewed cheese. Orange fritters. (f) Consommé au céleri. Salmon
grilled à la maître d’hôtel. Croquettes de volaille. Paupiettes de bœuf
à l’Espagnole. Pintade rôtie au cresson. New potatoes sautées au

beurre. Asperges, sauce blanche. Omelette au Parmesan. Bouchées
aux confitures. Nougats à la crème.
For 6.—(a) Potage à la Sévigné. Brill au Madère. Mutton cutlets à
la Maintenon. Braised fowls à la jardinière. Cheese tartlets. Fig
pudding. Compote of oranges. (b) Potage aux nouilles. Vol-au-vent
of cod and oysters. Roast haunch of mutton. Seakale. Potatoes.
Canapés of anchovies. Cheese and celery. Rhubarb tart. Vanille
custards. (c) Potage aux ravioli. Torbay whitings à la Hollandaise.
Filets de pluviers aux truffes. Rump steak, potatoes sautés. Choux
frisés à la flamandes. Watercress-butter and cheese. Beignets
d’oranges. Caramel pudding. (d) Potage au macaroni. Baked gurnet.
Quenelles of veal à la nivernaise. Grenadins of beef with peas. Roast
partridges. Neufchâtel cheese. Watercress-butter and celery.
Mousseline pudding. Damson tartlets. (e) Tomato sauce. Grey mullet
à la maître d’hôtel. Oyster kromeskies. Mutton cutlets sautées with
French beans. Roast goose. Lettuce salad. Parmesan fondue. Tourte
of greengages. Marmalade pudding. (f) Clear oxtail soup. Boiled
salmon, sauce tartare, cucumber. Lamb cutlets with peas. Roast
ducklings. Cherry tart, cream. Anchovy toast. Cream cheese and
Gorgonzola, handed with brown biscuits. Strawberries and cherries.
(g) Clear gravy soup with peas. Salmon cutlets with piquant sauce.
Hashed duck. Roast loin of lamb boned and stuffed, mint sauce,
French beans, potatoes, purée of peas. Fresh strawberry cream,
apricot fritters. Cheese fondue, watercress sandwiches. Strawberries
and melon. (h) Giblet soup. Fillets of sole à la maître d’hôtel.
Rissoles of lamb. Roast chicken with watercress, purée of haricot
beans, potatoes, stewed vegetable marrow. Currant and raspberry
tart, whipped cream. Cheese canapés, tomato salad. Cherries and
apricots. (i) Potage à la Duchesse. Potage à la purée de levraut. Sole
à la Normande. Filets de rougets aux fines herbes. Mauviettes en
caisses au gratin. Fricassée de poulet à la chevalière. Côtelettes de
venaison aux haricots verts. Grouse. Madelienes. Pouding à la
Nesselrode.
For 6-8.—(a) Potage aux pâtés d’Italie. Saumon, sauce aux câpres.
Kromeskies de volaille. Tendrons de veau aux petits pois. Filets de

bœuf à la Béarnaise. Cailles rôties. Haricots verts à la crème.
Ramequins. Salade de fraises aux oranges. Boudin glacé à la vanille.
(b) Bisque de homards. Petites croustades aux huîtres. Filets de
soles à la Normande. Saumon, sauce au fenouil. Salade Russe. Œufs
farcis à la royale. Soufflé de riz à la vanille. Mirlitons au marasquin.
Bouchées aux confitures. (c) Bouillabaisse. Friture d’éperlans.
Turbot, sauce Hollandaise. Macaroni aux tomates. Fonds d’artichauts
à la sauce blanche. Salade de choufleurs. Fondue au Parmesan.
Charlotte de pommes. Petits choux à la crème. (d) Potage à l’oseille.
Turbot, lobster sauce. Poulet sauté à l’estragon. Boudins de veau aux
truffes. Filet de bœuf braisé à la jardinière. Haricots verts en salade.
Fondue au Parmesan. Chartreuse à l’ananas. Compote de cerises.
(e) Consommé de volaille aux quenelles. Paupiettes de soles à la
crème. Kromeskies de homard. Côtelettes d’agneau aux tomates.
Canetons rôtis. Petits pois au beurre. Vegetable marrow au gratin.
Tartelettes de Reine Claudes. Boudin glacé au café.
For 8.—(a) Vermicelli soup. Trout à la Genevese, salmon cutlets.
Lamb cutlets and peas. Fricasséed chicken. Roast ribs of beef. Calf’s
head, tongue, and brains; boiled ham; with vegetables. Roast ducks,
compote of gooseberries, strawberry jelly, Italian pastry, iced
pudding. Dessert and ices. (b) Julienne soup. Filleted soles, with
shrimp sauce. Croquettes de veau. Ragout of kidneys and
mushrooms. Roast turkey and sausages, with cauliflower and
potatoes. Trifle and mince pies. Grapes, preserved ginger, &c.
For 8-10.—(a) Clear oxtail soup. Boiled turbot, lobster sauce.
Stewed pigeons. Mutton cutlets, sharp sauce. Roast sirloin of beef.
Broccoli, mashed potatoes, seakale. Wild ducks. Cheese, celery,
anchovy toast. Sir Watkin Wynn’s pudding. Maraschino jelly.
Cheesecakes. Apple tartlets. (b) Clear game soup. Boiled salmon,
fennel sauce. Fricassée of fowls with mushrooms. Grenadins of veal
with spinach. Braised saddle of mutton, with carrots, turnips, and
broccoli. Roast guinea-fowl larded. Lettuce salads. Cauliflower with
cheese. Orange jelly. Charlotte Russe. Génoise pastry. Apricot
tartlets. Nesselrode pudding. (c) Croûte au pot. Two sea-breams
stewed. Fried fillets of soles, tartare sauce. Larks in cases. Grenadins

of beef with Brussels sprouts. Braised saddle of mutton. Stewed
celery. Roast woodcocks. Endive salad. Macaroni au gratin. Charlotte
Russe, mousseline pudding. Croûtes of pineapple. Génoises au
chocolat. (d) Consommé aux quenelles. Boiled turbot. Lobster sauce.
Croquettes of game. Mutton cutlets and spinach. Fresh silverside of
beef à la Napolitaine. Cauliflowers à la crème, potato sautées. Roast
wild ducks, bigarade sauce. Russian salad. Tartlettes Piémontaises.
Nougats à la crème. Jam tartlets. Venus pudding. Garibaldi cream.
(e) Potage à la Sévigné. Matelotte d’anguilles. Friture de merlans.
Croustades de volaille. Salmis de perdreaux. Fricandeau aux
tomates. Grouse rôties. Salade de cresson. Œufs farcis à la royale.
Beignets de pêches. Génoises au chocolat. Boudin glacé aux fruits.
For 10.—(a) Clear consommé aux pointes d’asperges. White soup
à la bonne femme. Small turbot, sauce tartare. Fried smelts. Larded
sweetbreads, braised and served with rich brown gravy. Fillets of
chicken à la poulette, with white button mushrooms and truffles.
Saddle of mutton. Roast pheasants or partridges. Apple charlotte,
meringues à la crème de vanille. Cheese soufflé. (b) Bouillabaisse.
Quenelles truffled. Cutlets à la J’aidit. Quails and salad. Iced
artichokes. Ham and green peas. Sardines on toast. Parmesan
omelette. Ices.
For 10-12.—(a) Oyster soup. Red mullet. Stewed pigeons. Boiled
capon and tongue (celery sauce). Curried mutton. Stewed pears and
cream. Apple jelly. (b) Tomato soup. John Dory. Oyster vol-au-vent.
Braised beef. Partridges. Trifle. Apple fritters. (c) Julienne soup.
Fillets of soles. Oyster patties. Mutton cutlets. Kromeskies. Roast
beef. Boiled turkey. Guinea-fowls. Lemon soufflé. Cabinet pudding.
Meringues. Apricot cream. Cheesecakes. (d) Spring soup. Turbot and
lobster sauce. Sweetbreads. Mutton cutlets with Soubise sauce.
Croquettes. Saddle of mutton. Chickens and tongue. Wild ducks.
Soufflé. Castle pudding. Trifle. Orange jelly.
For 12-14.—(a) Mulligatawny; clear gravy soup. Braised salmon;
stewed eels; fried smelts. Fricandeau of veal with spinach; pork
cutlets with tomato sauce; croquettes of fowl with tartare sauce;

curried lobster, rice. Boiled capon; tongue; saddle of mutton, laver,
broccoli, potatoes. Woodcocks or wild ducks. Conservative pudding,
raspberry cream, calf’s foot jelly. Cheese fondue. (b) Bisque
d’écrevisses. Petites croustades, purée de gibier. Filets de soles à la
Russe. Gigot de chevreuil, sauce poivrade. Faisans à la Bohémienne.
Timbales milanaises. Mousse à l’ananas. Dinde truffée. Salade
Italienne. Cardons à l’Espagnole. Pâté de foie gras. Suprême de
pêches. Plombière aux avelines. Dessert. (c) Potage velours. Caisses
de volailles. Saumon-sauce crevettes. Suprême de poularde à la
Maréchale. Salmis de bécasses. Aspic de foie gras au vert pré.
Sorbets au Kirsch. Dinde truffée. Salade Russe. Cêpes à la
Bordelaise. Homard, sauce remoulade. Croûte Parisienne à l’ananas.
Corbeille de fruits glacés. Dessert.
Plain Dinners for a Week.—Sunday: White soup. Turbot, sauce
Hollandaise. Braised loin of veal, potatoes and parsnips. Roast fowls.
Swiss pudding. Orange sponge. Monday: Vegetable soup. Hashed
turbot. Burdoan stew, potatoes. Minced veal, calecannon. Coconut
pudding. Caledonian cream. Boiled cheese. Tuesday: Soles. Rice and
chicken cutlet. Leg of mutton, currant jelly, Spanish onions, brown
potatoes. Sponge cake pudding. Dutch cream. Scotch woodcock.
Wednesday: Crécy soup. Cod steaks, with mock oyster sauce.
Reform cutlets, carrots. Stewed rabbit and risotto. Newcastle
pudding. Jelly. Cheese and celery. Thursday: Italian soup. Mutton
cutlets. Bouilli beef, potato and Brussels sprouts. Sir Watkin Wynn’s
pudding. Prune mould. Macaroni and cheese. Friday: Artichoke soup.
Red mullet. Mutton cooked to imitate venison, cauliflower à
l’Allemagne. Potato pears. Tapioca snow. Jelly. Anchovy toast.
Saturday: Fish, dressed cold or hot. Indian curry. Beefsteak pudding.
Brown bread pudding and jam sauce. Dutch flummery.
Lenten and Vegetarian Dinners.—(a) Bouillabaisse. Fried smelts.
Turbot, Dutch sauce. Macaroni with tomatoes. Green artichokes,
white sauce. Cauliflower salad. Parmesan fondue. Apple charlotte.
Baked fritters and custard. (b) Haricot bean soup. Cod (Brandade de
Morue). Fried soles. Turnip tops and poached eggs. Stewed
potatoes. Savoury omelet. Cheese. Pancakes. (c) Oysters (au

naturel) served with lemon. Potage maigre au lait. Fillets of sole
fried, tartare sauce. Parsnip fritters. Purée of haricots. Boiled salmon,
shrimp sauce. Potatoes mashed in shape. Lobster salad. Rhubarb
fool. Rice meringue. Anchovy toast, with eggs. Gorgonzola cheese.
Celery. Biscuits. Dessert. (d) Haricot bean soup. Lobster croquettes.
Fillets of soles with mushrooms. Red mullet, Italian sauce. Turbot,
Dutch sauce. Poached eggs with spinach. Cauliflower with cheese.
Macaroni with tomatoes. Mousseline pudding. Jam tartlets. Pineapple
toast. Chocolate cream. (e) Green pease soup. Potato omelette,
curried eggs. French beans stewed, cauliflowers and white sauce,
new potatoes plain boiled. Gooseberry tart with custard, plain rice
pudding. Cheese macaroni. Dessert. (f) Carrot soup. Mushroom pie,
broccoli and buttered eggs. Colecannon, stuffed vegetable marrow,
stewed green peas. Orange jelly, bread pudding. Cheese straws.
Dessert. (g) Palestine soup. French bean omelette, eggs baked with
parsley. Potatoes Italian fashion, baked tomatoes, green peas plain
boiled. Cherry tart, blancmange. Cheese pudding. Dessert. (h)
Vegetable marrow soup. Swiss omelette, stuffed eggs. Fried
potatoes, broad beans and parsley sauce, mushrooms stewed in
milk. Raspberry and currant tart, whipped cream; semolina pudding.
Ramakins, cheese, celery, &c. Dessert. (i) Lentil soup. Macaroni
omelette, savoury rice fritters. Potatoes baked, haricot beans,
stewed carrots. Apple tart, tapioca pudding, cheese soufflé. Dessert.
(j) Dried pease soup, vegetable pie (carrots, turnips, potatoes,
celery, eggs, &c.). Boiled haricot beans, potato shape, winter greens.
Mince pies, rice balls. Cheese omelette. Dessert. (k) Purée
d’asperges, potage à la crème de riz. Œufs à l’Indienne, omelette au
naturel, macaroni aux tomates. Pommes de terre à la maître d’hôtel,
petits pois à la Française, salsifis à la crème, concombres à la
poulette, céleri à la Chetwynd. Jelée de fraises, jelée à la Russe,
crème d’amandes, beignets d’oranges. Kluskis au fromage, soufflé
au Parmesan. Glaces—Crème de vanille, eau de fraises. Dessert. (l)
Coconut soup, brown soup, asparagus omelette, cucumber pie,
savoury eggs. New potatoes tossed in butter, celery fried in batter,
stewed tomatoes, cauliflowers with grated cheese. Apple jelly,
Charlotte Russe, Bakewell pudding (cold), almond puffs, iced

pudding. Cheese fondue, devilled biscuits. Ices—Strawberry cream,
lemon water. Dessert. (m) Purée de tomates, potage à la Jenny Lind.
Œufs farcis aux champignons, omelette aux fines herbes, riz à la
Milanaise. Pointes d’esperges à la Colbert, artichauts à la
Hollandaise, pomme de terre à l’Italienne, épinards au velouté.
Crème au caramel, macédoine de fruits, meringues à la crème, gelée
de cerises. Canapés au fromage, crème de fromage. Glaces—Crème
de framboises, eau de mille fruits. Dessert. (n) Chestnut soup, curry
soup. Raised savoury pie, carrot fritters, egg patties. Potato balls,
braised celery, brown sauce, turnips with white sauce, stewed
beetroot. Plum pudding, coffee cream, Punch jelly, lemon sponge.
Cheese macaroni, savoury rice. Ices—Orange cream, Noyeau water.
Dessert. (Eliot James.)
Christmas Dinners.—(a) Clear game soup. Boiled turbot, lobster
sauce. Braised turkey. Roast sirloin of beef. Mashed potatoes.
Brussels sprouts. Stewed celery. Plum pudding. Mince pies. Almond
cheesecakes. Punch jelly. Scotch woodcock. Cheese straws. (b)
Oxtail soup. Codfish, oyster sauce. Pork cutlets, sharp sauce. Beef
olives. Roast turkey. Potatoes. Jerusalem artichokes. Broccoli. Plum
pudding. Mince pies. Meringues. Charlotte Russe. Cheese. Celery. (c)
Potage à la Nivernaise. Turbot, sauce Hollandaise. Kromeskies à la
purée de gibier. Filets de bœuf à la Macédoine. Dinde truffé à la
braise. Bécassines. Salade de cresson. Chouxfleurs au gratin.
Ramequins. Plum pudding. Petits choux à la gelée. Nougats à la
crème. Parfait au café. (d) Consommé de volaille. Boudins de
merlan. Filets de soles à la Orly. Chartreuse de perdreaux. Côtelettes
de mouton à la Soubise. Aloyau rôti à l’Anglaise. Pommes de terres
soufflées. Choux de Bruxelles sautés. Bécasses rôties. Salade Russe.
Fondue au Parmesan. Plum pudding. Crème au chocolat. Gelée au
Marasquin. Savarin au rhum. (e) Clear game soup. Turbot, tartare
sauce. Stewed beef. Roast turkey. Boiled ham. Mashed potatoes.
Brussels sprouts. Cheese. Plum pudding. Mince pies. Curaçoa jelly.
Vanilla cream. Tipsy puddings. Charlotte Russe. (f) Gravy soup.
Boiled turbot. Lobster and Dutch sauces. Fillets of rabbit. Larks in
cases. Braised turkey. Roast sirloin of beef. Brussels sprouts. Mashed

potatoes. Plum pudding. Chartreuse of oranges. Mince pies. Stewed
pears. Cheese, biscuits, and dessert. (g) For Children. Clear soup
with custard. Fillets of sole, béchamel sauce. Roast turkey. Boiled
ham. Mashed potatoes, Brussels sprouts. Plum pudding. Mince pies.
Orange jelly. Charlotte Russe. (h) Family Dinner. Gravy soup.
Codfish, oyster sauce. Game Kromeskies. Stewed kidneys. Braised
beef, with vegetables (à la jardinière). Roast turkey and sausages.
Spinach. Jerusalem artichokes. Potato snow. Anchovy toast. Stilton
cheese. Plum pudding. Mince pies. Pineapple jelly. Chocolate cream.
Wines.—The question of drinks is much debated. Generally 2, or at
most 3, kinds, of wine should suffice. With soup, fish, and sweets,
either sherry, chablis, sauterne, or hock; with the rest of the dinner,
claret or Burgundy and champagne. It has become the fashion of
late years to serve this last-named wine rather profusely, with more
regard to quantity than quality, but mediocrity is not tolerable in the
matter of champagne. To second or even third class clarets or
Burgundies there can be no objection; they may not possess the
bouquet of the finest brands, but they are quite drinkable of their
kind, whereas inferior champagne is simply an abomination. The
same, in a lesser degree, perhaps, applies to Madeira and port. It is
a mistake to suppose that first-rate port wine and Madeira are not to
be had for love or money, but in many instances such wretched stuff
is put on the table under those names that people have been scared
by it, and there are but few who are bold enough to help themselves
to either wine. There is, however, no particular obligation to have
port wine at dessert. A bottle of first-class Burgundy can well take its
place, and it is an easier matter to procure the latter than the
former.
All wines, but more particularly clarets and Burgundies, require
some care during their transit from the cellar to the dinner table,
especially in cold weather. In the majority of private houses the wine
cellars are no better than they should be, and more fitted to store
coals than wine. Delicate wines are quite unfit to drink when they
come out of most private cellars. To restore wines to their right
condition many persons adopt such rough means as plunging the

bottle in a bucket of hot water or putting it in front of the fire in the
fender, proceedings which have the double effect of warming the
wine and utterly spoiling it. The proper way to set to work is to bring
up the day before or in the morning all the wine that is wanted for
one day, and to place the bottles standing in a room in which there
is a fire, but nowhere near the fire; the wine will then gradually
recover its proper temperature and tone and be fit to drink. When
bottles have stood for half a day or more there will be no difficulty in
decanting the wine bright, whereas it is almost an impossibility to
get wine otherwise than foul if it is decanted the moment it is taken
from the bin.
Breakfasts.—There is an almost endless variety of dishes suited
to the breakfast-table. The following may be mentioned as
examples:—
Trout or mackerel split open and broiled; scrambled eggs on
anchovy toast; buttered eggs with tomato sauce; fried soles with cut
lemon; kidneys stewed or fried; kidney toast; ham toast; omelets;
kedgeree; kromeskies; curried fowl or rabbit; rissoles; potted meat;
lobster or salmon cutlets; potted pig’s head; poached eggs; boiled
ham; hard-boiled eggs curried; wet devil; brawn; broiled chicken and
mushrooms; stewed mushrooms; grilled kidney; savoury rice;
sheep’s brains; boiled pig’s feet; baked eggs; fish pudding; fish
cakes; fish scallops; Scotch woodcock; lobster toast; pressed beef;
chicken pie; veal and ham pie; sardines on toast; potted meat;
bloaters on toast; egg paste; Brighton toast; devilled eggs; veal
cake; eel pie; sausage patties; bacon omelet; sweetbreads; fried
ham and egg; salt-fish.
Luncheons.—Excepting in very rare and ceremonious cases,
luncheon is a decidedly informal meal, and no long invitations are
given. In the country it is a pleasant mode of seeing friends who live
at too great a distance to drive over for a morning visit with the
uncertainty of finding any one at home, or who do not like a long
drive in the dark to dinner. In London many ladies give it to be

understood by their intimate friends that they are always to be found
at home at luncheon time; but this is of course a somewhat
expensive mode of life, necessitating the daily preparation of a
luncheon sufficient for an uncertain number of guests. It is an
excellent method of seeing friends who may be merely passing
through the town to invite them to luncheon, as their evening hours
are frequently engaged. Also it is a convenient form of hospitality in
small households, as, the meal being less formal, less is expected in
the way of preparation, decorations, and attendance. Soup is not
customary at luncheon, and fish is not necessary; though there is no
objection to its appearance in the form of an entrée. There may be
cold dishes, both of meat and sweets, which of course economises
labour where the kitchen establishment is small; and champagne is
not offered, sherry, claret, and port being sufficient. The table is not
elaborately decorated with flowers as it is for a dinner party; and
though there is most frequently a little fruit, no great expense is
incurred for dessert, and it is not customary to have ices or liqueurs.
There is no necessity as at a dinner party to have an equal number
of gentlemen and ladies, for it is not usual to go down to luncheon
arm-in-arm—in fact, everything is calculated to make the gathering
as little formal as possible. It is by no means necessary at an
ordinary luncheon party that the master of the house should be at
home; in his absence one of the daughters of the family would take
the foot of the table and carve, the hostess of course taking the
head of the table. If there are no grown-up daughters, the
governess, if there is one, often carves, or the hostess asks any
gentleman who may be present to do so. Some people profess to
prefer a luncheon party where the servants are sent out of the room
as soon as they have removed the covers, alleging that conversation
is more unrestrained. This may be the case, but it generally results
in the guests having to go without what they require. If they attempt
to get up and help themselves there is always a fuss and a rush to
get what they require for them; and generally they prefer doing
without vegetables or the second glass of wine which they want
rather than give trouble and disturb their entertainers. It is much
better to let the servants wait as they would at dinner; it is very

disagreeable for the guests to have to change their own plates, and
still more so to see the dirty plates either left on the table or piled up
on dumb-waiters at the corners. Any dishes of hot meat should be
removed when they are done with, as they are not appetising to
look at when getting cold, and their places should be filled with
whatever sweets there may be. Serviettes are quite as much needed
at luncheon as at dinner; but finger-glasses and doyleys are not
used, even when fruit and cake conclude the repast. The invitations
to luncheon are generally either verbal or contained in friendly
notes; formal cards are not used. The general hour is 1.30 or 2, the
latter being most common in London, and the former in the country,
more especially in winter. The guests usually arrive about ¼ hour
before the time named, and the hostess always asks the ladies
whether they will like to go upstairs and take off their hats and
jackets. Sometimes they do so, but often prefer merely leaving any
warm wraps in the drawing-room; elderly ladies especially often do
not care to remove their bonnets. After luncheon is over the party
returns to the drawing-room. There is no arbitrary rule as to when
the guests take their leave, as it depends on intimacy and many
other circumstances; but the average time is ¼-½ hour. Neither tea
nor coffee is offered. These remarks, of course, apply only to private
and informal luncheon parties. When there is any great state
occasion, such, for instance, as a luncheon given on the opening of
a church, the laying of a stone or anything else of a public character,
the entertainment is more of the nature of a dinner partaken of at
an early hour—ceremonious invitations are issued, each lady is
escorted by a gentleman as at dinner, and champagne is invariably
given.
Teas.—Afternoon tea is not in fashionable circles regarded as a
meal; but merely as a light refreshment, to break what would
otherwise be a 6 hours’ abstinence between a 2 o’clock luncheon,
and an 8 o’clock dinner. Tea is served, or brought into the drawing-
room at 4-5 o’clock, but not later than 5; it is not served in the
dining-room, save when an “at home” or large 5 o’clock tea is given.
The housekeeper, lady’s maid, cook, or whoever may be acting as

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