This document provides information on tribal populations in India. It begins with definitions of tribes and scheduled tribes as recognized by the Indian constitution. It then lists the major tribes found in each Indian state, providing some key facts and characteristics. Several specific tribes are highlighted, including the Bhils, Meena, Santhals, Chenchus, and Lepchas. The document also discusses the history of tribal communities in India and policies aimed at their welfare and development. It concludes with discussing basic safeguards for scheduled tribes provided in the Indian constitution.

1. Study on tribal population in India
1 cover page
2 certificate
3 acknowledgement
4 index
5 tribe A tribe is a group of people who share a common religion,
history, language, or culture. Each tribe is unique and often will
have its practices, many of which differ from other tribes.
6 scheduled tribes The tribal communities in India have been
recognized by the Indian Constitution under ‘Schedule 5’ of the
constitution. Hence the tribes recognized by the Constitution are
known as ‘Scheduled Tribes’. Article 366 (25) defined scheduled
tribes as “such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups
within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article
342 to be Scheduled Tribes for this constitution”.
o Characteristics: According to Lokur Committee (1965), the
essential characteristics are: Indication of Primitive
Traits
o Distinctive Culture
o Shyness of Contact with the Community at Large
o Geographical Isolation
o Backwardness
7 tribes according to the states
Andhra Pradesh: Sadhu Andh, Bhil, Chenchus (Chenchawar), Gadabas,
Gond, Goundu, Jatapus, Kammara, Kattunayakan, Kolawar, Kolam, Konda,
Manna Dhora, Pardhan, Rona, Savaras, Dabba Yerukula, Nakkala, Dhulia
Arunachal Pradesh: Apatanis, Abor, Dafla, Galong, Momba, Sherdukpen,
Singpho, Nyishi, Mishmi, Idu, Taroan, Tagin, Adi, Monpa, Wancho
Assam: Chakma, Chutiya, Dimasa, Hajong, Garos, Khasis, Gangte,
Karbi, Boro, Borokachari, Kachari, Sonwal, Miri, Rabha, Garo
Bihar: Asur, Baiga, Birhor, Birjia, Chero, Gond, Parhaiya, Santhals,
Savar, Kharwar, Banjara, Oraon, Santal, Tharu

2. Chhattisgarh: Agariya, Bhaina, Bhattra, Biar, Khond, Mawasi,
Nagasia, Gond, Binjhwar, Halba, Halbi, Kawar, Sawar,
Goa: Dhodia, Dubia, Naikda, Siddi, Varli, Gawda.
Gujarat: Barda, Bamcha, Bhil, Charan, Dhodia, Gamta, Paradhi,
Patelia, Dhanka, Dubla, Talavia, Halpati, Kokna, Naikda, Patelia,
Rathawa, Siddi.
Himachal Pradesh: Gaddis, Gujjars, Khas, Lamba, Lahaulas, Pangwala,
Swangla, Beta, Beda Bhot, Bodh.
Jammu and Kashmir: Bakarwal, Balti, Beda, Gaddi, Garra, Mon,
Purigpa, Sippi, Changpa, Gujjar.
Jharkhand: Birhors, Bhumij, Gonds, Kharia, Mundas, Santhals, Savar,
Bedia, Ho, Kharwar, Lohra, Mahli, Parhaiya, Santal, Kol, Banjara.
Karnataka: Adiyan, Barda, Gond, Bhil, Iruliga, Koraga, Patelia,
Yerava, Hasalaru, Koli Dhor, Marati , Meda, Naikda, Soligaru.
Kerala: Adiyan, Arandan, Eravallan, Kurumbas, Malai arayan, Moplahs,
Uralis, Irular, Kanikaran, Kattunayakan, Kurichchan, Muthuvan.
Madhya Pradesh: Baigas, Bhils, Bharia, Birhors, Gonds, Katkari,
kharia, Khond, Kol, Murias, Korku, Mawasi, Pardhan, Sahariya,
Maharashtra: Bhaina, Bhunjia, Dhodia, Katkari, Khond, Rathawa,
Warlis, Dhanka, Halba, Kathodi, Kokna, Koli Mahadev, Pardhi, Thakur,
Manipur: Naga, Kuki, Meitei, Aimol, Angami, Chiru, Maram, Monsang,
Paite, Purum, Thadou, Anal, Mao, Tangkhul, Thadou, Poumai Naga.
Meghalaya: Chakma, Garos, Hajong, Jaintias Khasis, Lakher, Pawai,
Raba, Mikir.
Mizoram: Chakma, Dimasa, Khasi, Kuki, Lakher, Pawi, Raba, Synteng,
Lushai
Nagaland: Angami, Garo, Kachari, Kuki, Mikir, Nagas, Sema, Ao,
Chakhesang, Konyak, Lotha, Phom, Rengma, Sangtam,

3. Odisha: Gadaba, Ghara, Kharia, Khond, Matya, Oraons, Rajuar,
Santhals, Bathudi, Bathuri, Bhottada, Bhumij, Gond, Juang, Kisan,
Kolha, Kora, Khayara, Koya, Munda, Paroja, Saora, Shabar, Lodha.
Rajasthan: Bhils, Damaria, Dhanka, Meenas(Minas), Patelia, Sahariya,
Naikda, Nayaka, Kathodi.
Sikkim: Bhutia, Khas, Lepchas, Limboo, Tamang
Tamil Nadu: Adiyan, Aranadan, Eravallan, Irular, Kadar, Kanikar,
Kotas, Todas, Kurumans, Malayali,
Telangana: Chenchus.
Tripura: Bhil, Bhutia, Chaimal, Chakma, Halam, Khasia, Lushai,
Mizel, Namte, Mag, Munda, Riang,
Uttarakhand: Bhotias, Buksa, Jannsari, Khas, Raji, Tharu.
Uttar Pradesh: Bhotia, Buksa, Jaunsari, Kol, Raji, Tharu, Gond,
Kharwar, Saharya, Parahiya, Baiga, Agariya, Chero
West Bengal: Asur, Khond, Hajong, Ho, Parhaiya, Rabha, Santhals,
Savar, Bhumij, Bhutia, Chik Baraik, Kisan, Kora, Lodha, Kheria,
Khariam, Mahali, Mal Pahariya, Oraon,
Andaman and Nicobar: Oraons, Onges, Sentinelese, Shompens.

4. 8 Bhils
The
Bhil are one of the largest tribal groups, living in Chhattisgarh,
Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
and Rajasthan.
 The name is derived from the word ‘billu’, which means
bow.
 The Bhil are known to be excellent archers coupled
with deep knowledge about their local geography.
 Traditionally, experts in guerrilla warfare, most of them
today are farmers and agricultural laborers. They are also
skilled sculptors.
 Bhil women wear traditional saris while men are dressed
in long frocks and pajamas. The woman put on heavy
ornaments of silver, brass, and rosaries of beads and
silver coins and earrings.

5. 9 Meena , also
spelled as Mina, is a community principally found in the state
of Rajasthan. The name of this community has been derived from the
word Meen, which means fish in Sanskrit language. At the time of
British rule, the Meena tribal community had been acclaimed as the
'Criminal Tribe'. They also reside in Bharatpur district and Bayana
district and from Jaipur-Sikar in the Shekhawati region and Alwar
in the state's northeast region. The people of this community are
also found in huge numbers in Kota, Jhalawar, and Bundi including
north-western parts of Madhya Pradesh.
10 Santhals

6. Santhal, also spelled Santal, also called Manjhi, ethnic group of
eastern India, numbering well over five million at the turn of the
21st century. Their greatest concentration is in the states
of Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Orissa, in the eastern part of
the country. Some 200,000 also live in Bangladesh and more than
10,000 in Nepal. Their language is Santhali, a dialect of Kherwari,
a Munda (Austroasiatic) language.
Many Santhal are employed in the coal mines near the city
of Asansol, West Bengal, or the steel factories in Jamshedpur,
Jharkhand, while others work during part of the year as paid
agricultural laborers. In the villages, the most important economic
activity is the cultivation of rice
11 chenchus,
people
of southern India, numbering about 59,000 at the turn of the
21st century. Most Chenchu live in the state of Andhra
Pradesh. They speak variants of Telugu, the Dravidian
language of the region. Their round houses of wattle and
thatch are not unlike those used by other people of the
region. Some of the Chenchu gain their food by hunting and
by collecting the edible products of the jungle,
particularly tubers; their tools are the bow and arrow, a
metal-tipped digging stick, an ax, and a simple knife. These
Chenchu are among the aboriginal peoples of India who are
most removed from the dominant Hindu civilization. Their

7. rituals are few and simple; religious and political
specializations are slight.
12 Lepchas Lepchā, also called Rong, people of
eastern Nepal, western Bhutan, Sikkim state, and
the Darjeeling district of West Bengal in India. They number
about 46,000 (11,000 in India; 25,000 in Sikkim; and 10,000
in Bhutan). They are thought to be the earliest inhabitants
of Sikkim but have adopted many elements of the culture of
the Bhutia people, who entered Sikkim from Tibet in the 14th
century and afterward. The Bhutia are mainly pastoralists in
the high mountains; the Lepchā usually live in the remotest
valleys. While some intermarriage has occurred between the
two groups, they tend to stay apart and speak their
languages, which are dialects of Tibetan.
13 facts about the tribes
The Khasi, Jaintia, and Garo people practice matrilineality and
create one of the largest communities in the world that believes
in this system.
 Birsa Munda, a revolutionary in the Indian Independence
Struggle, originated from the Munda tribe, found primarily
in Jharkhand.
 The Ghoomar, a folk dance of Rajasthan, was created by the
Bhil tribe.
14 history TRIFED Home to a large number of tribal people,
known as Adivasis, India has the second largest tribal population in
the world. Tribal Communities have been an integral segment of
Indian society since the days of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
The tribal people throughout the country have rich traditions,
cultures, and heritage with unique lifestyles and customs. Despite
some regional variation, the tribes share many common traits,
including living in relative geographical isolation and being
relatively more homogeneous and more self-contained than the non-
tribal social groups. The Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes
Commission appointed by the President of India on 28 April 1960
under Article 339 of the Constitution of India in its report of 14
October 1961 stated that “As these groups are presumed to form the
oldest ethnological sector of the population, the term “Adivasi”
(‘Adi’= original and ‘Vasi’= inhabitant) has become current among
certain people. The International Labour Organization has classified

8. such people as “indigenous”. The Government of India has initiated
several steps to develop socio socio-economic conditions of the
tribal population in the country. One of those initiatives led to
the formation of the Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development
Federation of India Limited (TRIFED).
TRIBES The history and origins of Indian tribal communities can be
traced back to ancient times. Many Indian tribes have lived in the
region for thousands of years, with their origins dating back to the
earliest human settlements. They are considered as original
inhabitants of the land. The tribes have their unique history,
culture, and traditions. They have their own creation stories and
beliefs. They have their own system of governance, social norms, and
customs. They have their economic system, based on hunting-
gathering, agriculture, and pastoralism.
During the colonial period, the British government’s policy towards
the tribes was that of exploitation and subjugation. They imposed
their own administrative and economic systems on the tribes, often
at the expense of traditional tribal practices and customs. This led
to the displacement and marginalization of many tribal communities.
After the independence of India, the government recognized the
rights of the tribes and implemented policies and initiatives to
promote the welfare of these communities. These policies include
reservations in education and government jobs, land rights and
forest rights, and financial assistance for economic development.
However, many tribes continue to face significant challenges such as
displacement, poverty, and loss of their traditional way of life.
Overall, the history and origins of Indian tribal communities are
rooted in ancient traditions and cultures, but their history has
also been shaped by the forces of colonization and more recent
government policies.
Additionally, during the post-colonial period, many Indian tribal
communities experienced significant changes as a result of
modernization and development. This includes the displacement of
tribes from their traditional lands due to large-scale development
projects such as dams, mines, and industrialization. The tribes have
also been affected by the government's changing political and
economic policies, which have often led to the erosion of their
traditional ways of life and the loss of their cultural heritage.
15 maternity healthcare facilities in India have made
significant strides in reducing maternal mortality, with the

9. maternal mortality ratio (MMR) declining from 254 in 2004–06 [1] to
167 in 2011–2013 [2]. Considerable policy attention was given to
maternal health in the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) era,
including the introduction of a national conditional cash transfer
scheme to incentivize institutional deliveries - the Janani Suraksha
Yojana (JSY) - in 2005. Health facilities in rural areas were
strengthened through the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and a
cadre of community health volunteers called Accredited Social Health
Activists (ASHAs) were introduced to support and encourage pregnant
women to deliver in public health facilities. Utilization of
maternal health care services
Maternal health care services were fully utilized by 85.7%
of tribal women compared to 100% among non-tribal
antenatal women and the difference was statistically
signifi cant (P = 0.02). Overall utilization of the 70 women
was 92.8%.
Among tribal women, 82.9% had 1
st
trimester registration
of pregnancy whereas 97.1% of non-tribal women had the
same. The difference however was signifi cant (P = 0.04). All
the non-tribal women availed of ANC services fully and only
one (2.9%) of the 35 tribal women had partial utilization of
these services. All were visited at least once at their home
for ANC by ANM and received a minimum of 100 IFA tablets.
Of the tribal antenatal women, 11.4% delivered at home
and all the home deliveries were attended by untrained
persons from the locality. All the 70 women were visited at
least twice at their home after delivery for post-natal care by
Junior Public Health Nurse (JPHN), the designation
for ANM in Kerala

10. 16 Roadmap for the future
17 basic safeguards
What are the Basic Safeguards Provided by the Indian Constitution
for Scheduled Tribes?
 The Constitution of India does not endeavor to define
the term 'tribe', however, the term Scheduled Tribe' was
inserted in the Constitution through Article 342 (i).

11. o It lays down that 'the President may, by public
notification, specify the tribes or tribal
communities or parts of or groups within the
tribes or tribal communities or parts which
shall, for this Constitution, be deemed to be
Scheduled Tribes.
o The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution provides
for the setting up of a Tribes’ Advisory
Council in each of the States having Scheduled
Areas.
 Educational & Cultural Safeguards:
o Article 15(4): Special provisions for the advancement
of other backward classes (it includes STs)
o Article 29: Protection of Interests of Minorities (it
includes STs)
o Article 46:The State shall promote, with special care,
the educational and economic interests of the weaker
sections of the people, and in particular, of the
Scheduled Castes, and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall
protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation.
o Article 350: Right to conserve distinct Language,
Script, or Culture,
 Political Safeguards:
o Article 330: Reservation of seats for STs in Lok Sabha,
o Article 332: Reservation of seats for STs in State
Legislatures
o Article 243: Reservation of seats in Panchayats.
 Administrative Safeguard:
o Article 275: It provides for the grant of special funds
by the Union Government to the State Government for
promoting the welfare of Scheduled Tribes and providing
them with a better administration.
18 issues What are the Problems Faced By Tribes in India?
 Loss of Control over Natural Resources: As India
industrialized and natural resources were discovered in
tribal inhabited areas, tribal rights were undermined and
state control replaced tribal control over natural
resources.
o With the concepts of protected
forests and national forests gaining currency,

12. the tribals felt themselves uprooted from their
cultural moorings and with no secure means of
livelihood.
 Lack of Education: In tribal areas, most schools lack
basic infrastructure, including minimal learning
materials and even minimal sanitary provisions.
o Due to the lack of immediate economic return from
education, tribal parents prefer
their children to be engaged in remunerative
employment.
o Most tribal education programs are designed
in official/regional languages, which are alien
to tribal students.
 Displacement and Rehabilitation: The acquisition of tribal
land by the government for the development process of core
sectors like huge steel plants, power projects, and large
dams led to large-scale displacement of the tribal
population.
o The tribal pockets of Chotanagpur region, Orissa,
West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh suffered the
most.
o The migration of these tribals to the urban
areas causes psychological problems for them as
they are not able to adjust well to the urban
lifestyle and values.
 Problems of Health and Nutrition: Due to economic
backwardness and insecure livelihood, the tribals face
health problems, such as the prevalence of diseases,
like malaria, cholera, diarrhea, and jaundice.
o Problems associated with malnutrition like iron
deficiency and anemia, high infant mortality
rates, etc. also prevail.
 Gender Issues: The degradation of the natural environment,
particularly through the destruction of forests and a
rapidly shrinking resource base, has an impact on the
status of women.
o The opening of the tribal belts to mining,
industries, and commercialization has exposed
tribal men and women to the ruthless operations
of the market economy, giving rise to consumerism
and commoditization of women.
 Erosion of Identity: Increasingly, the traditional
institutions and laws of tribals are coming into conflict

13. with modern institutions which create apprehensions among
the tribals about preserving their identity.
o Extinction of tribal dialects and languages is
another cause of concern as it indicates an
erosion of tribal identity.
19 empowerment What Should be done to Empower Tribes in India?
 Improvement in Healthcare Facilities: Mobile medical camps
to improve outreach in remote tribal populations would
play a major role.
o Provision of emergency transportation for
pregnant tribal women to health facilities for
obstetric care is one of the major necessities of
the tribal women.
o Health workers from tribal communities may
become the link between the healthcare facilities
and tribal communities to guide patients, explain
doctors’ prescriptions, help patients take
advantage of welfare schemes, and counsel them on
preventive and promotive health behaviors.
 Improvement in Food and Nutrition Facility: Large-scale
opening of Mini-Anganwadis with many relaxed
norms and expansion of Village Grain Banks to tribal areas
are some of the strategies that can be adopted to `Reach
the Unreached' in the tribal areas.
 Employment and Income Generation: Employment and income
generation opportunities should be ensured for tribal
areas, either through wage or self-employment to raise
their economic status and thus liberate them from the
shackles of poverty and indebtedness.
o Efforts should also be made to extend micro-
credit for self-employment ventures and
implementation of mirror schemes of MNREGA when
no work opportunities are available.
o Collection of minor forest produce and their
marketing also needs to be encouraged.
 Management of Water Resources: There should be a more
effective operationalization of the National Water Policy
in tribal areas, to cover the extension of irrigation
facilities and provision of drinking water with a special
thrust on:
o Watershed management, rainwater harvesting, and
water-saving practices

14. o Mass education and public awareness amongst the
rural and tribal population for effective water
resource management and protecting the water
resources from pollution.
 Empowering Tribal Women: Effective measures should be
taken to improve the lot of tribal women through:
o Promoting leadership role in Joint Forest
Management and Panchayati Raj Institutions
o Legal and administrative measures to check the
practice of victimizing women suspected of
witchcraft, along with a massive campaign
for social awareness and rehabilitation of
victimized women, preferably through women's
organizations.
 Inclusion of Tribal Population:
o Cultivation of Medicinal Plants: India tops in
the world in exporting generic medicines. The
tribe should be encouraged to collaborate with
the government to identify and collect medicinal
plants from the wild and cultivate suitable
species for their self-consumption as well as for
sale.
 The Government of India has decided to
take advantage of this trade and has set
up a National Medicinal Plant Board.
o Infrastructure Development: The government can
collaborate with tribal groups for infrastructure
development in their local areas.
 Meghalaya is known as a living root
bridge. They are grown by trained Khasi
and Jaintia tribes who have mastered the
art of growing root bridges across
raised banks of streams running through
the dense woods of Meghalaya.
o Social Inclusion: Social exclusion experienced by
the tribal people is largely due to
discrimination at social and institutional
levels, it has led to their isolation, shame, and
humiliation and in turn to self-exclusion among
tribes.
 There is a strong need for awareness
among the non-tribal population of India
to recognize the ability and dignity of
tribes to ensure the unity and integrity

15. of the country and the spirit of
brotherhood.
20 social life
Tribes or indigenous peoples of India have been the focus of
scholarly attention, particularly in the fields of anthropology and
sociology, for about a century. However, even before the inception
of these disciplines, much has been written on tribes since the
establishment of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784. The social
structure of a tribe can vary greatly from case to case, the
relatively small size of customary tribes results in a social life
that usually involves relatively few significant political or
economic distinctions between individuals. As a result, social
hierarchy is uncommon, and deep bonds are made between individual
members.
A tribe often refers to itself using its own language's word for
"people", and refers to other, neighboring tribes with various words
to distinguish them as other. For example, the term "Inuit"
translates to "people".
21 Economic status
The sources of subsistence and livelihood are varied so far as the
Indian tribals are concerned. Starting from the pure and simple
parasitic habit of the nomadic hunters and food-gatherers who depend
mostly on nature for the sources of subsistence to the settled

16. agriculturists and the group of industrial laborers, we have the
views of different economic set-up the Indian tribals. From this
viewpoint, we can classify the Indian tribals into six broad
economic clusters:
1. Food-gatherers and hunters: The nomadic primitive tribes like
the An Japanese, Onge, Jarwa, Kadar, Kharia, Lodha, etc. are
included in this category so far as their subsistence economy
is concerned. They usually live far away from the rural-urban
way of life and possess a simple type of social organization.
2. Permanent Settled Cultivators: Like the cultivators of the
advanced societies, some of the tribals in India are resorting
to permanent settled agriculture. The Oraon, Munda, Gond,
Bhumij, Ho, and Santal, are efficient cultivators at present.
They practice wet cultivation by transplanting methods.
Artificial irrigation and the application of compost manure
are not unknown to them. The rotation of crops is within the
knowledge of these cultivators. They work in their fields as
well as in the fields of others as sharecroppers (Bhag-Chasi).
The majority of the tribal population work as agricultural
laborers. In search of jobs, these landless agricultural
laborers participate in seasonal migration to the neighboring
states. The social and religious organizations of these
settled agriculturist tribals are much developed and highly
complex. The traditional council of elders (panchayet) has to
perform a significant role in maintaining societal norms.
3. Pastoral people: The Bhotia of Almora and the Toda of the
Nilgiri hills of South India live on a pastoral economy. They
do not practice agriculture, hunting, fishing, etc. They also
live far away from the sophisticated modern world and possess
a slightly developed but non-complicated social structure.
Both of them, practice a polyandrous marriage system. They
rear buffaloes and cows, and the milk products are being
exchanged to procure the commodities of day-to-day use.
4. Shifting Hill cultivators: A section of the Gond, Naga,
Kharia, Juang, Riang, Khasi, Garo, and Savara practice such
type of primitive cultivation by “slash and burn” method. It
is known by different names in different areas. The Assam
tribes call it Jhum, the Gond Podu, etc. A hilly forested
tract is selected for this purpose may have to be abandoned
after three successive cultivating seasons as this soil likely
to lose fertility. The plants, shrubs, and undergrowths are
cut down and left for drying for a month or so. Then, they set
fire to them. The ashes serve as auto-manure to the soil. At
the onset of monsoon, the soil is slightly loosened by a
simple digging stick or hoe. Seeds of different Kharif crops,
millet like Bajra, Jowar, Kurthi, pulses, potato, tobacco, and
sugar-cane are grown in this type of cultivation. It could

17. support them partially but not wholly. They have to find out
some other vocations as supporting sources of subsistence.
5. Manual laboring group: A substantial portion of the tribals
has become landless laboring class owing to the economic
hardship which they are facing at present. They earn their
livelihood by selling their manual labor in different
vocations.
6. Craftsmen: Some of the tribals are still retaining their
traditional crafts along with the principal sources of
subsistence. The Naga and the Khasi are experts in colored
hand-loom products and the Lohar are traditional blacksmiths.
With the marginal profit in their traditional specialized
crafts, these tribals are at present, resorting to other types
of jobs. Their mixed pattern of economy reflects adversely
upon their social system.
22 Draupadi Murmu The
election of Droupadi Murmu as India’s 15th President is rich
in symbolism. She will be the first person from a tribal
background to take the office.
Ms. Murmu’s election is a milestone in the journey of tribal
empowerment. Her election to the highest office in the country
comes 101 years after two tribespeople were elected to
legislative bodies in colonial India.
Although the founding figures of the Republic of India were
acutely cognisant of the disadvantageous position of the
tribespeople and made special provisions such as
the Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Constitution, there have
been growing concerns among tribal activists about
a systematic erosion of protections accorded to
tribals, harassment, and suppression by the police, and
general intolerance towards tribal autonomy by the state.

18. 23 crimes
Profiling and
Segregation
The Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, expanded in scope through the
1920s, targeted numerous castes in colonial India. According to
Simon Cole, a professor of Criminology, Law & Society, the law
declared everyone belonging to certain castes to be born with
criminal tendencies.
Ramnarayan Rawat, a professor of History specializing in social
exclusion in the Indian subcontinent, states that the criminal-by-
birth castes under this Act included initially Gujjars and Harni
(sub-clan of Rajput) Lodhi (sub-clan of Rajput) but its enforcement

19. expanded by late 19th century to include most Shudras and
untouchables such as Chamars, as well as Sanyasis and hill tribes.
To learn more about the Governor Generals of Bengal and India, visit
the linked article.
The colonial authorities prepared an extensive list of criminal
castes residing in various parts of India. Those who were members of
such tribes were restricted in terms of movement and people they
could socialize with.
In certain regions of British India, entire caste groups were
presumed guilty by birth, arrested, children separated from their
parents, and held in penal colonies or quarantined without
conviction or due process.
The criminal-by-birth laws against targeted castes were enforced
from the early 19th century through the mid-20th century, with an
expansion of the criminal castes list in West and South India from
the 1900s to the 1930s. Hundreds of Hindu communities were brought
under the Criminal Tribes Act. By 1931, the colonial government
listed 237 criminal castes and tribes under the act in the Madras
Presidency alone.
24 Literacy Ministry of Tribal Affairs
has been implementing a separate Central Sector Scheme ‘Eklavya Model
Residential Schools’ (EMRSs) from 2019-20. 285 EMRSs are currently
functional across the country.
As per Census 2011, the literacy rate of Scheduled Tribes (STs) was
59% whereas the overall literacy rate was 73% at all Indian levels.
As per the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) report 2017-18
published by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation,
the literacy rate for STs is 67.7% and the corresponding figure overall
is 76.9%. The PLFS 2018-19 report reveals an improvement in the
literacy rate of STs at 69.4% as compared to 78.1% overall.
GOVERNMENT SCHEMES / PROGRAMMES INTER-ALIA BEING IMPLEMENTED TO
INCREASE THE LITERACY RATES AND EDUCATION LEVEL OF STS

20. i. Ashram Schools: Funds are provided to States for setting up
residential schools for STs for primary, middle, secondary, and
senior secondary levels of education.
ii. ST Hostels: Central assistance is given to
States/UTs/Universities for the construction of new hostel
buildings and/or extension of existing hostels.
iii. Scheme of Strengthening Education among ST Girls in Low Literacy
Districts: 100% Grant-in-Aid is given to NGO / Voluntary
Organizations for running and maintenance of educational
complexes for ST girls.
iv. Post-Matric Scholarship and Pre-Matric Scholarship for ST
students studying in classes IX & X.
v. Funds are provided under Special Central Assistance to Tribal
Sub-Scheme (SCA to TSP), Grants under Article 275 (1) of the
Constitution, and Scheme for Particularly Vulnerable Tribal
Groups (PVTG) for various interventions relating to the
improvement of education including the construction of hostels,
schools, construction of boundary walls in schools, construction
of playground, toilets and arrangement of drinking water,
kitchen garden in schools etc.
vi. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), a Centrally Sponsored Scheme is
also being implemented in conjunction with the Right of Children
to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 for the
universalization of elementary education for all children in the
6-14 age group.
vii. The National Council for Education Research and Training (NCERT)
in the National Curriculum Framework, 2005 (NCF) makes it clear
that language and culture are important to all children's
learning including Scheduled Tribes. SSA aims to develop
context-specific interventions.
viii. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas (KGBVs) are residential
schools from class VI to XII for girls belonging to disadvantaged
groups such as SC, ST, OBC, Minority, and Below Poverty Line
(BPL). The objective behind establishing KGBVs is to ensure
access to quality education for girls from disadvantaged groups
by setting up residential schools and reducing gender gaps at
all levels of school education.
ix. States are also advised to expand of scope of education for
Tribal children to include sports, physical education,
vocational education, Tribal Art, painting, crafts, health,
hygiene and nutrition, traditional food (minor millet) in school
meals, etc, to make the school education useful, relevant and
interesting for the children and tribal communities.

21. 25 housing
Mahatma Gandhi is often quoted as having said: "India lives in the
villages." However, not all villages meet the human needs for
adequate, safe, and dignified housing even though it is considered
by many to be a fundamental human right. Therefore, the Rural
Housing Project's prime objective is to construct 21 weather-proof
houses as well as sanitation facilities in the Narangamoola village
to the values, traditions, and needs of South India's indigenous
population: the Adivasi.
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 200616 (Forest Rights Act)
recognizes the rights of Scheduled Tribes and other traditional
forest dwellers who have been residing in forests for generations
and provides a framework for recording their rights concerning
forestland. The Act acknowledges the historical injustice suffered
by tribal and other forest-dwelling communities in India who are
integral to the survival and sustainability of the forest ecosystem,
but many of whom have been displaced and forced to relocate, as a
result of the state’s purported development interventions. According
to the Forest Rights Act, communities belonging to the Scheduled
Tribe category or the Other Traditional Forest Dwellers category can
file claims for different activities, including residence,
agriculture, and collection of minor forest produce. As a result of
the lacunae in documenting the number and nature of rejections in
each category of claims, the notion of these communities being
‘illegal encroachers’ on forestland often dominates the current
state discourse. In many places, forest-dwelling communities have
not been issued Schedule Tribe certificates, thereby making it
difficult for them to get their rights recognized under the Forest
Rights Act.
The long-term sustainability of this project will be ensured because
skills and knowledge are transferred to the Adivasi community to
enable them to continue the project and, henceforth, build the
houses on their own. Having a safe and solid home and close-by
sanitation units will improve the overall living and socio-economic
conditions as well as the health situation for one of India's

22. poorest ethnic minorities. It helps to break the cycle of poverty in
a remote tribal village.
26 questionnaire + analysis
27 Conclusion The Tribes of
India and their culture are a mythical form of human social
organization. They have political integration, traditions of
plunge, language, and ideology. In the past, many tribal
groups were forced into the dominant culture of India. People
loved the way tribes developed their economies. The wide
range of activities, agriculture, and mining impress
tourists. Once in your lifetime, everyone should explore the
tribes of India.
Moreover, Indian tribal communities have also been subject to
various forms of discrimination and marginalization based on their
ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other factors. This has often
resulted in limited access to education, healthcare, and other basic
services, as well as higher rates of poverty and unemployment.
28 did you know Who were called criminal tribes and why?
The term was coined by the British to identify the most aggressive
breed of nomadic criminals who were known as thugs. The idea of
labeling them as criminal tribes was to provide them with a
permanent dwelling place and help uplift their socioeconomic
background
There is no widow in the Gond tribe as they follow the
tradition of remarrying them so that the woman does not have
to face the evils and the bad circumstances of society.
The Ghoomar, which is a traditional folk dance of Rajasthan,
has come from the Bhil tribe. Interestingly, during
marriages, it is the men who have to pay a dowry of sorts (10
goats) to be able to marry an eligible woman!

23. The roots of the Ficus elastica tree are strong enough to be
able to support the weight of fifty people at the same time.
The Khasi people saw this and now whenever they need to cross
a river, they simply grow their bridges!
29 Importance of study of tribal societies (rural) in India:
rural society is the subject matter of rural sociology. It is a
field of sociology associated with the study of social life in rural
society. Rural social institutions, social structure, social change,
rural life, etc. are important topics analyzed in rural sociology.
Rural sociology is the scientific study of rural society and it is
the holistic study of rural social settings. Rural sociology became
prominent during the late Industrial Revolution in France, Ireland,
Prussia, Scandinavia, and the US. The systematic origin of rural
sociology is in the 19th century in America. The period of 1890-1920
in America saw rural societies facing many socio-economic problems
which attracted the attention of the intelligentsia thus
establishing the study of rural society as an academic discipline.
The appointment of the Country Life Commission by Theodore Roosevelt
was an important landmark in the history of rural sociology. It has
been argued that the Second World War caused heavy destruction and
damage to human society which needed immediate reconstruction. As a
result, rural sociology got an impetus in the USA. The main concern
of rural sociology came to be the understanding and diagnosing of
the social and economic problems of farmers. More emphasis was
placed on issues such as the internal structures of community life
and the changing composition of rural populations than on their
relationships with land or the social aspects of agricultural
production.
Rural sociology is the scientific study of rural society. As a
science, Rural sociology has certain characteristics which are given
below: 1. Rural sociology is multi-dimensional: Owing to the
orientation of Rural sociology to sociology and social Anthropology,
Rural sociology is multi-dimensional. It has different traditions in
the US, Europe, and Asia. It draws subject matter, scientific

24. nature, and methodology from sociology and social Anthropology. 2.
Rural sociology is interdisciplinary: Rural sociology is
interdisciplinary in its design and functioning. It draws freely
from the sister disciplines of Economics, Political Science,
Sociology, and Social Anthropology. 3. It studies interactions and
interaction systems: Rural sociology deals with the study of
interactions and interaction systems. When this perspective is
applied to the analysis of rural society it becomes rural sociology.
4. It studies small places: Rural sociology is the study of small
places like villages and tribal habitations etc. The empirical
abstractions made out of the little or small places help to School
of Distance Education Rural and Tribal Societies in India Page 9
construct theoretical constructions. The studies made by Malinowski,
Boas, Radcliff Brown, Levi Strauss, etc. made various empirical
studies about the people living in highlands, forests, and small
villages.
2 bibliography
https://Tribalism.com
https://society.com
https://tribesindian.com
https://vibesindia.com
the dynamics of tribal developments

25. tribal life in northeast India