2. Science
A Way of Knowing
• Systematic knowledge of the world gained through
observation and experimentation
• Systematic enterprise of gathering knowledge about
the world and organizing that knowledge into testable
laws and theories
• Any systematic knowledge that is capable of resulting
in a correct prediction or reliable outcome
• Exercise 1-1
4. Epistemological Cycle
Study of Understanding
Scientific Method
hypothesis
prediction
question
conclusion
(accept or reject)
experiment
observation (gathering data)
results
5. Scientific Method
1. Observation
Male Red-winged Blackbirds have red wing epaulet,
expose epaulet when defending territory
Question: Is the red epaulet exposed as a signal or threat
to other males?
Red-winged Blackbird
(Agelaius phoeniceus )
Male Female
6. Scientific Method
hypothesis
Hypothesis – possible explanation for the observed facts;
leads to a testable PREDICTION
question
observation
Red Epaulet as a Threat Signal
Hypothesis: Males have red wing epaulet as a signal of threat to other males
Prediction: Males without a red epaulet will not be considered
a threat to other males
7. Hypothesis: Males have red wing epaulet as a signal of threat to other males
Prediction: Males without a red epaulet will not be considered
a threat to other males
Experiment
Hansen and Rohwer (1986)
• Manipulated the size of epaulet (double, half, black, normal)
• Placed dummy bird in another bird’s territory
• Counted the number of times the territorial male hit the dummy
bird (hitting dummy bird, signaled the dummy bird was a threat)
Double Half Normal Black
8. hypothesis
Scientific Method
prediction
question
experiment
observation (gathering data)
Experiment – designed to test the prediction
1. Define Variables
independent variable - variable that is manipulated/changed in the experiment
dependent variable – variable being measured, counted, or observed;
changes according to the level of the other variable
control variables – variables kept constant during the experiment
2. Outline a Procedure
Sequence of steps for the experiment
(can be designed from published work, collaborations, novel ideas)
Replication of the procedure
Include a Control – independent variable is held at an established level or omitted
9. Hypothesis: Males have red wing epaulet as a signal of threat to other males
Prediction: Males without a red epaulet will not be considered
a threat to other males
Experiment
Hansen and Rohwer (1986)
• Manipulated the size of epaulet (double, half, black, normal)
• Placed dummy bird in another bird’s territory
• Counted the number of times the territorial male hit the dummy
bird (hitting dummy bird, signaled the dummy bird was a threat)
Double Half Normal Black
10. Types of Observation /Description
• Good science depends very heavily on careful
observations and accurate descriptions.
• Qualitative vs. quantitative descriptions
– Qualitative – can be biased, subjective, influenced by
opinion or prior experience (examples – color, smell,
general size description such as “big”)
– Quantitative – can be verified by anyone, objective,
nothing left to judgment (example – exact size
measurements, weight, facts about distinguishing
marks)
• Exercise 1-2
11. hypothesis
prediction
Scientific Method
question
experiment
observation (gathering
data)
Results – organization and summary of data collected
results - Present data collected in tables and figures
- help in analyzing and interpreting your results
- help a reader or viewer understand your results
- no overlap of information among table and figures
- Summary of data should be written precisely and
accurately, NO fluff
Tables and Figures
Data Points
Title
Figure or Table # (with a caption describing content)
Y-axis & X-axis labeled (include units if appropriate)
Legend (if appropriate)
12. Results – Red-winged Blackbird Experiment
Response to Wing Epaulet Size
8
6
Number of Hits
(per ten minutes)
Table 1.1 Number of hits on mounted red-winged blackbird
by territory owner in relation to the size of the red epaulet
4
of the mount
Size of Epaulet Number of Hits
2
Double 7
Normal 4
Half 2.2 0
Double Normal Half Black
Black 1.8
Wing Epaulet Size
Figure 1. Number of hits on mounted red-winged
blackbird by territory owners in relation to the size
of the red epaulet of the mount.
13. hypothesis
prediction
Scientific Method
question
conclusion experiment
(accept of reject)
observation (gathering
data)
Conclusion – explanation of results,
accept or reject hypothesis,
discuss future research
results
We do NOT prove a hypothesis, we state that the results
support our hypothesis
Rejecting the hypothesis is just as important as finding
support for a hypothesis
14. Conclusion
Red-winged Blackbird Conclusion
Males without red epaulet are considered less of a threat to
territorial males than males with a red epaulet
Suggests that the red epaulet is used by males as a signal of threat
Red-winged Blackbird
(Agelaius phoeniceus )
15. Topic 13
(pages 127-129)
How to Write a Scientific Report
16. What is the point of a Parts of a scientific
scientific paper? paper:
• Communicate information
on your experiment in a Abstract
clear and concise way Introduction
Materials and Methods
• Present results to Results
scientific community
Discussion
and/or peers
Literature Cited
17. Abstract
• A summary of the experiment and its results
– 5-7 sentences (2-3 background, 1-2 methods, 2-3
results, 1-2 conclusions)
Introduction (2-4 WELL WRITTEN paragraphs)
• Background information
• Goal of your experiment
• State Hypothesis
• *Cite literature*
18. Materials and Methods
• Describe what you did and the materials that you
used so someone else could replicate the
experiment
• Paragraph form!! No lists!!
• Omit unnecessary information
– i.e. “We labeled the tubes, “tube 1”, “tube 2”…”
“We made graphs using Excel…”
Results
• General trends in data, NO RAW DATA!
• Don’t explain data, just present in paragraph form
• Represent data in tables and graphs
19. Graphs
• Labels: Title, x-axis, y-axis
• Key (optional and depends on the type of data)
• Legend (always, Always, ALWAYS!!)
One variable graph
Figure 1: The number of cars parked in the USM 4 th street
Exercise 1-4 parking lot on 24 August, 2011 separated by color.
20. Graphs
• Labels: Title, x-axis, y-axis
• Key (optional and depends on the type of data)
• Legend (always, Always, ALWAYS!!)
One variable graph
Figure 2: The number of cars parked in the USM 4 th street parking
Exercise 1-4 lot on 24 August, and 25 August 2011 separated by color.
21. Graphs
• Labels: Title, x-axis, y-axis
• Key (optional and depends on the type of graph)
• Legend (always, Always, ALWAYS!!)
Two variable graph
Exercise 1-4
Figure 3: Mass of 10 books on my bookshelf compared to
the number of pages in each book.
22. Discussion
• 2-4 well written paragraphs
• What do you think your results mean?
• Did you support or reject your hypothesis?
– You cannot prove a hypothesis, if you say this, you
will make me angry!
• Future questions?
• *Cite literature*
23. Literature Cited
• In the Literature Cited section:
Author, Date. Title. Journal. Volume: Pages.
Ex) Smith, A., 1995. Hogsucker diet survey. Fish
Food. 18: 25-30.
• In the text (Introduction/Discussion):
The diet of Hypentilium etowanum, the Alabama
hogsucker, consists mainly of insect larvae and small
crustaceans (Smith, 1995).
Smith (1995) found that the diet of the Alabama hogsucker
consists mainly of insect larvae and small crustaceans.
24. Literature Cited
• You must cite at least 3 references from
scientific journals in your lab report
http://www.lib.usm.edu/find_items/article_database
s.html
Other hints:
• Use the rubric to guide you
• Length is not as important as QUALITY
• Grammar and spell-check!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Have someone else read it, or read it aloud
• Make it look professional: 10/12pt, normal font choice
• PUT YOUR NAME ON IT!!!
26. Next Time...
• Graphs from Exercise 1-4, pgs 15/16 (extra credit
for computer generated graphs)
• QUIZ (Topics 1 & 13… & 2)
• Topic 2 (Hypotheses and Experiments)
• Lab Report (start on it now)
Editor's Notes
Define science. As many or as few words as you want! For our purposes, the short and sweet definition “a way of knowing” encompasses all of that. - “Way” and “Systematic” – insinuate process (scientific method)
How we obtain knowledge
Hypothesis explains the phenomenon you are interested in investigating
What is the dependent, independent, control variables, control, how replicate
What is the dependent, independent, control variables, control, how replicate
More information to help with two of the exercises later in class Way of gathering data that can be most clearly communicated, effective in getting point across, and repeatable - quantitative As scientists, we want to AVOID qualitative
Number consecutively as they appear in text, independent: x-axis, dependent: y-axis Title: Table – above / Figure - below Line graphs vs. Bar graphs
Pages 15 & 16 may be taken home and turned in next week!
Quiz – be on time! Worth 20 points! Detailed questions from this week – exercises and lecture, Vague questions from Topic 2 (pages 17 – 22) Lab report – will give handout of guidelines and suggestions. Follow it and checklists within lab manual!
