The document discusses three major discoveries in psychology:
1. The realization that the brain, not the heart, is the seat of consciousness. Ancient Egyptians believed the heart housed consciousness, but by 1550 BCE some texts acknowledged a role for the brain. It took until the Greeks for this view to be more widely accepted.
2. The development of introspection as a tool for exploring the contents of consciousness. Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in 1879, pioneering the experimental study of the mind through introspection.
3. The emergence of behaviorism as a dominant force in psychology in the early 20th century. John Watson argued psychology should focus on observable behavior rather than internal mental states. Behavior
Conceptualizations Of Major Depressive Disorder (Melancholia) Throughout HistoryDMFishman
This document provides a historical overview of conceptualizations of major depressive disorder (MDD) from ancient times to the present. It describes accounts of depression-like symptoms in ancient Egyptian and biblical texts from around 1500 BCE. It then discusses conceptualizations from Classical Greece, including Hippocrates' description of "melancholia" and accounts of Marcus Tullius Cicero exhibiting MDD symptoms. The document outlines a shift during the Middle Ages in Western Europe towards supernatural explanations for mental illness, while the Byzantine and Islamic worlds preserved classical understandings. It traces evolving understandings over time.
The document discusses the history and conceptual development of the unconscious. It describes how the concept originated in ancient times and was explored by philosophers like Augustine, Descartes, and Leibniz. It evolved from being seen as a hidden intellect to a mechanical information processing system without true intellect. During the Romantic period, artists emphasized emotions and the individual unconscious mind as a vast realm more capable than consciousness.
Taoists believe that wisdom is realizing our unity with nature and living in harmony with the natural cycle of life and death (the Tao). Though individuals pass away, the Tao is eternal. The Taoist soul is like a drop of water in a stream, being part of the greater flow of the Tao even after death of the individual. Democritus expanded on the atomic theory, believing all things are made up of indivisible atoms and that the cosmos follows discernible natural laws.
2 historical and contemporary views of abnormal behaviorlear.docxrhetttrevannion
2 historical and contemporary views of abnormal behavior
learning objectives 2
· 2.1 How has abnormal behavior been viewed throughout history?
· 2.2 What effect did the emergence of humanism have on abnormal psychology?
· 2.3 What developments led to the contemporary view of abnormal psychology?
An Artist in Bedlam The most famous patient committed to the historic Bethlem Hospital in England (better known as Bedlam) during its long existence was a well-known and talented young artist, Richard Dadd (1817–1886). Dadd was born in Chatham, England, in 1817. His father was a successful chemist. Dadd attended the Kings School in Rochester and also studied art at the Royal Academy School in London. He showed a strong aptitude for drawing and painting and was admitted to the prestigious Royal Academy of Arts at the early age of 20. When he was 25, he was invited to accompany Sir Thomas Phillips, the former mayor of Newport, on a grand tour through Europe, Greece, Turkey, Syria, and Egypt to serve as the draftsman and painter for the expedition. During the trip, Dadd produced a number of exceptional paintings of people and places he encountered on the journey, many of which are in museums today. The journey was reportedly difficult and stressful, and at one point, during a trip up the Nile River, Dadd underwent a remarkable personality change, becoming delusional and increasingly aggressive and violent toward people he met. He was reported to have expressed an urge to kill the Pope. He experienced delusional beliefs—for example, that he had come under the influence of the Egyptian god Osiris.
When he returned from the trip in 1843, he was diagnosed as being mentally unsound because of his hallucinations and his strange, delusional beliefs. In an effort to restore him to health, his family took him to recuperate in a countryside village in Kent, England. The records indicate that one day he came to the conclusion that his father was the Devil in disguise, and on a walk in the countryside Dadd killed his father with a knife. He attempted to escape by fleeing to France; however, his aggressive behavior continued, and he attempted to kill another tourist with a razor. He was arrested by the police and was eventually returned to England. He was committed to Bethlem Royal Hospital, where he was held in the criminal ward for dangerous inmates. He remained in Bethlem Hospital for almost 20 years but was transferred to Broadmoor Hospital, where he died in 1886. During his stay in both the Bethlem and Broadmoor hospitals he was allowed and encouraged to paint by the staff as part of his treatment. During this time he produced a number of paintings, many of which can be seen today in art museums.
Although he appears to have experienced symptoms of a mood disorder including acute mania (see Chapter 7) it is likely that Dadd suffered from paranoid schizophrenia (see Chapter 14 for further discussion). Interestingly, two of his siblings appeared to suffer f.
The document provides a brief history of the human brain from ancient times to modern neuroscience. It discusses early Egyptian and Greek theories that localized intelligence and the soul to different parts of the body. Important figures like Galen, Descartes, and Willis contributed to understanding that the brain is the center of intelligence. Advances in staining, brain imaging, and studying brain injuries have led to greater knowledge of brain anatomy and function. Modern neuroscience uses techniques like MRI, EEG, and connectomics to map brain structure and activity.
This document provides an overview of an introductory neuroscience course. It outlines the course details including the instructor, text book, quizzes, exams, and lab component. The tips for success section emphasizes attendance, participation, understanding concepts from lectures and practicing questions. The document then reviews the syllabus for the course including topics that will be covered in lectures and labs.
Chapter 1. Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy.docxsleeperharwell
Chapter 1. Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy
Chapter 1
Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy
Copyright by Paul Herrick, 2020. For class use only. Not for distribution. The chapters you are about to read online this quarter are excerpted from a textbook that will be published later this year. This chapter: 28 pages of reading.
Part 1. How Philosophy Began
1.1 From Mythos to Logos
In all ages of recorded history, human beings around the world have asked fundamental questions. Why are we here? Why does the universe exist? What is truth? How do we distinguish knowledge from opinion, reality from illusion, right from wrong? What is justice? Universal questions like these are fundamental in the sense that the answers we give to many other questions depend on the answers we have already given to these. The “fundamental questions of life,” as they are sometimes called, are important because the answers we give form the foundation of our worldview—our general understanding of the universe and our role within it. And whether we realize it or not, the choices we make in life all reflect, to one degree or another, our worldview.
At the beginning of the sixth century BC, most people around the world turned to their society’s myths (from the Greek root mythos) for answers to the fundamental questions of life. The ancient myths presented authoritative answers in the form of colorful, easily memorized stories that could be handed down orally from generation to generation. Here are three, from ancient Egypt, China, and Africa, respectively.
· A god named Khnemu, depicted as a man with a ram’s head, built an egg. When the egg hatched, the sun popped out. Khnemu then “sculpted the first man on a potter’s wheel.” This is the origin of man.[endnoteRef:2] [2: . “Khnemu (Khnum),” Ancient Egypt: The Mythology, last updated April 11, 2017, http://www.egyptianmyths.net/khnemu.htm.]
· In the beginning “there was darkness everywhere, and Chaos ruled. Within the darkness there formed an egg, and inside the egg the giant Pangu came into being. For aeons, safely inside the egg, Pangu slept and grew. When he had grown to a gigantic size he stretched out his huge limbs and broke the egg. The lighter parts of the egg floated upwards to form the heavens and the denser parts sank downwards, to become the earth. And so was formed earth and sky, Yin and Yang.”[endnoteRef:3] [3: . “Chinese Myths: Pangu and the Creation of the World,” Living Myths, last updated April 12, 2016, http://www.livingmyths.com/Chinese.htm.]
· In the beginning there was only darkness, water, and the great god Bumba. One day Bumba, in pain from a stomach ache, vomited up the sun. The sun dried up some of the water, leaving land. Still in pain, Bumba vomited up the moon, the stars, and then some animals: the leopard, the crocodile, the turtle, and, finally, some men. This is the origin of man.[endnoteRef:4] [4: . “African Creation Myths,” last modified Jul.
Chapter 1. Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy.docxketurahhazelhurst
This document provides a summary of the first chapter of a philosophy textbook. It discusses how philosophy began with the ancient Greeks rejecting traditional myths in favor of using reason and observation to answer fundamental questions about reality. Thales of Miletus is identified as the first philosopher, as he was the first to develop non-mythological theories about the universe and nature, seeking to understand the underlying principles or "arche" that unite the diversity of things. Thales asked fundamental questions about the relationship between the one and the many in the universe, and whether the arche of the universe could be understood by human reason, laying the foundation for the modern scientific assumption that the universe is intelligible.
Conceptualizations Of Major Depressive Disorder (Melancholia) Throughout HistoryDMFishman
This document provides a historical overview of conceptualizations of major depressive disorder (MDD) from ancient times to the present. It describes accounts of depression-like symptoms in ancient Egyptian and biblical texts from around 1500 BCE. It then discusses conceptualizations from Classical Greece, including Hippocrates' description of "melancholia" and accounts of Marcus Tullius Cicero exhibiting MDD symptoms. The document outlines a shift during the Middle Ages in Western Europe towards supernatural explanations for mental illness, while the Byzantine and Islamic worlds preserved classical understandings. It traces evolving understandings over time.
The document discusses the history and conceptual development of the unconscious. It describes how the concept originated in ancient times and was explored by philosophers like Augustine, Descartes, and Leibniz. It evolved from being seen as a hidden intellect to a mechanical information processing system without true intellect. During the Romantic period, artists emphasized emotions and the individual unconscious mind as a vast realm more capable than consciousness.
Taoists believe that wisdom is realizing our unity with nature and living in harmony with the natural cycle of life and death (the Tao). Though individuals pass away, the Tao is eternal. The Taoist soul is like a drop of water in a stream, being part of the greater flow of the Tao even after death of the individual. Democritus expanded on the atomic theory, believing all things are made up of indivisible atoms and that the cosmos follows discernible natural laws.
2 historical and contemporary views of abnormal behaviorlear.docxrhetttrevannion
2 historical and contemporary views of abnormal behavior
learning objectives 2
· 2.1 How has abnormal behavior been viewed throughout history?
· 2.2 What effect did the emergence of humanism have on abnormal psychology?
· 2.3 What developments led to the contemporary view of abnormal psychology?
An Artist in Bedlam The most famous patient committed to the historic Bethlem Hospital in England (better known as Bedlam) during its long existence was a well-known and talented young artist, Richard Dadd (1817–1886). Dadd was born in Chatham, England, in 1817. His father was a successful chemist. Dadd attended the Kings School in Rochester and also studied art at the Royal Academy School in London. He showed a strong aptitude for drawing and painting and was admitted to the prestigious Royal Academy of Arts at the early age of 20. When he was 25, he was invited to accompany Sir Thomas Phillips, the former mayor of Newport, on a grand tour through Europe, Greece, Turkey, Syria, and Egypt to serve as the draftsman and painter for the expedition. During the trip, Dadd produced a number of exceptional paintings of people and places he encountered on the journey, many of which are in museums today. The journey was reportedly difficult and stressful, and at one point, during a trip up the Nile River, Dadd underwent a remarkable personality change, becoming delusional and increasingly aggressive and violent toward people he met. He was reported to have expressed an urge to kill the Pope. He experienced delusional beliefs—for example, that he had come under the influence of the Egyptian god Osiris.
When he returned from the trip in 1843, he was diagnosed as being mentally unsound because of his hallucinations and his strange, delusional beliefs. In an effort to restore him to health, his family took him to recuperate in a countryside village in Kent, England. The records indicate that one day he came to the conclusion that his father was the Devil in disguise, and on a walk in the countryside Dadd killed his father with a knife. He attempted to escape by fleeing to France; however, his aggressive behavior continued, and he attempted to kill another tourist with a razor. He was arrested by the police and was eventually returned to England. He was committed to Bethlem Royal Hospital, where he was held in the criminal ward for dangerous inmates. He remained in Bethlem Hospital for almost 20 years but was transferred to Broadmoor Hospital, where he died in 1886. During his stay in both the Bethlem and Broadmoor hospitals he was allowed and encouraged to paint by the staff as part of his treatment. During this time he produced a number of paintings, many of which can be seen today in art museums.
Although he appears to have experienced symptoms of a mood disorder including acute mania (see Chapter 7) it is likely that Dadd suffered from paranoid schizophrenia (see Chapter 14 for further discussion). Interestingly, two of his siblings appeared to suffer f.
The document provides a brief history of the human brain from ancient times to modern neuroscience. It discusses early Egyptian and Greek theories that localized intelligence and the soul to different parts of the body. Important figures like Galen, Descartes, and Willis contributed to understanding that the brain is the center of intelligence. Advances in staining, brain imaging, and studying brain injuries have led to greater knowledge of brain anatomy and function. Modern neuroscience uses techniques like MRI, EEG, and connectomics to map brain structure and activity.
This document provides an overview of an introductory neuroscience course. It outlines the course details including the instructor, text book, quizzes, exams, and lab component. The tips for success section emphasizes attendance, participation, understanding concepts from lectures and practicing questions. The document then reviews the syllabus for the course including topics that will be covered in lectures and labs.
Chapter 1. Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy.docxsleeperharwell
Chapter 1. Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy
Chapter 1
Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy
Copyright by Paul Herrick, 2020. For class use only. Not for distribution. The chapters you are about to read online this quarter are excerpted from a textbook that will be published later this year. This chapter: 28 pages of reading.
Part 1. How Philosophy Began
1.1 From Mythos to Logos
In all ages of recorded history, human beings around the world have asked fundamental questions. Why are we here? Why does the universe exist? What is truth? How do we distinguish knowledge from opinion, reality from illusion, right from wrong? What is justice? Universal questions like these are fundamental in the sense that the answers we give to many other questions depend on the answers we have already given to these. The “fundamental questions of life,” as they are sometimes called, are important because the answers we give form the foundation of our worldview—our general understanding of the universe and our role within it. And whether we realize it or not, the choices we make in life all reflect, to one degree or another, our worldview.
At the beginning of the sixth century BC, most people around the world turned to their society’s myths (from the Greek root mythos) for answers to the fundamental questions of life. The ancient myths presented authoritative answers in the form of colorful, easily memorized stories that could be handed down orally from generation to generation. Here are three, from ancient Egypt, China, and Africa, respectively.
· A god named Khnemu, depicted as a man with a ram’s head, built an egg. When the egg hatched, the sun popped out. Khnemu then “sculpted the first man on a potter’s wheel.” This is the origin of man.[endnoteRef:2] [2: . “Khnemu (Khnum),” Ancient Egypt: The Mythology, last updated April 11, 2017, http://www.egyptianmyths.net/khnemu.htm.]
· In the beginning “there was darkness everywhere, and Chaos ruled. Within the darkness there formed an egg, and inside the egg the giant Pangu came into being. For aeons, safely inside the egg, Pangu slept and grew. When he had grown to a gigantic size he stretched out his huge limbs and broke the egg. The lighter parts of the egg floated upwards to form the heavens and the denser parts sank downwards, to become the earth. And so was formed earth and sky, Yin and Yang.”[endnoteRef:3] [3: . “Chinese Myths: Pangu and the Creation of the World,” Living Myths, last updated April 12, 2016, http://www.livingmyths.com/Chinese.htm.]
· In the beginning there was only darkness, water, and the great god Bumba. One day Bumba, in pain from a stomach ache, vomited up the sun. The sun dried up some of the water, leaving land. Still in pain, Bumba vomited up the moon, the stars, and then some animals: the leopard, the crocodile, the turtle, and, finally, some men. This is the origin of man.[endnoteRef:4] [4: . “African Creation Myths,” last modified Jul.
Chapter 1. Three Things to Know before You Dive into Philosophy.docxketurahhazelhurst
This document provides a summary of the first chapter of a philosophy textbook. It discusses how philosophy began with the ancient Greeks rejecting traditional myths in favor of using reason and observation to answer fundamental questions about reality. Thales of Miletus is identified as the first philosopher, as he was the first to develop non-mythological theories about the universe and nature, seeking to understand the underlying principles or "arche" that unite the diversity of things. Thales asked fundamental questions about the relationship between the one and the many in the universe, and whether the arche of the universe could be understood by human reason, laying the foundation for the modern scientific assumption that the universe is intelligible.
Ids 330 "Environmental Leadership" Basic Introduction (University of the West)Tom Moritz
This document discusses the evolution of the human brain and consciousness. It references scientific evidence that suggests humans are not unique in possessing consciousness, as many other mammals and animals have similar neurological structures. It explores philosophical questions about human nature and exceptionalism. It also touches on Buddhist concepts like anatta (not-self) and examines how humans have understood their place in the natural world over time.
The essay discusses the emergence of modern psychology as a science in the late 19th century. Previously, philosophy and physiology studied the mind but it was not until 1879 that psychology emerged as its own field of scientific study. The essay notes how Descartes' philosophical dualism of mind and body, and his theory of the pineal gland influencing interactions, contributed to early understandings. It also discusses how universities became centers for the new "scientific" knowledge and restricted access primarily to elite classes.
The document discusses the relationship between modern science and humanity. It argues that modern science views humans as evolved animals whose thoughts and consciousness originate solely from the brain. However, this view is contradicted by evidence such as hemispherectomies not affecting personality or memory. Traditional sciences viewed humans as multi-dimensional beings with consciousness originating from higher spiritual dimensions. The document calls for science to adopt a more open-minded approach and reconsider its limiting assumptions and axioms in order to develop models that can better explain all observed phenomena.
The document provides a brief history of neuropsychiatry, covering developments from ancient Egyptian medical papyri through modern times. It mentions key figures like Herophilus, Galen, Thomas Willis, Philippe Pinel, Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol, Jean-Martin Charcot, Daniel Pick, Arnold Pick, Bénédict Augustin Morel, and Pierre Paul Broca and their contributions to understanding the brain and nervous system, and treating mental disorders. The document also discusses the founding of various neuropsychiatric associations around the world beginning in the 20th century.
During Athens' Golden Age from 460-429 BCE, also known as the Age of Pericles, Athens became the center of Greek culture and economy. Some key developments included rebuilding the Acropolis and Agora after the Persian Wars, and constructing the Parthenon and other temples. Athens was also a center of art, theater, philosophy and science. Famous philosophers like Socrates and Plato and playwrights like Sophocles and Euripides lived during this time. Athens' Golden Age marked the peak of classical Greek civilization.
This document outlines the topics and schedule for a course on Science, Technology and Society. It is divided into three main sections: 1) Historical influences of social factors on science and technology, 2) Intellectual revolutions and their impact on society, and 3) Specific contemporary issues in science and technology. Some of the individual topics that will be covered include the information age, biodiversity, nanotechnology, and gene therapy. The course will examine the relationships between science, technology, and humanity.
The natural friendship between science and spiritualitySuzanne Yada
Presentation given by David Brett Richardson of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory to the Unitarian Universalist Church of Berkeley's Personal Theology series, December 4, 2011. Uploaded here with his permission.
This document outlines key concepts related to the scientific method and philosophy of science. It discusses various models of scientific inquiry including the classical, pragmatic, and logical empiricism models. It also covers types of reasoning like deduction, induction, and abduction. Examples are provided to illustrate abductive reasoning techniques like the duck test and elephant test. Biases, effects, and criticisms of science are also referenced.
The history of anatomy extends from early examinations of sacrificial victims in ancient Egypt to modern scientific analyses. Over time, understanding of organ and body structure functions has continually developed. In ancient Egypt and Greece, early anatomists like Alcmaeon began the first scientific dissections and discoveries about structures like the brain, heart, and blood vessels. Galen's 2nd century AD dissections of apes and pigs informed his influential works on anatomy, though some theories like blood flow were later found to be incorrect. Anatomical study declined in the Middle Ages but resumed with innovations like Vesalius' cadaver dissections in the 16th century and Harvey's discovery of blood circulation. Modern anatomy applies new technologies to further understand structure
The document discusses the history of human anatomy from ancient times to the Renaissance. It describes how early Greek thinkers like Alcmaeon, Empedocles, and Hippocrates began the intellectual development of anatomy by studying animal anatomy and making inferences about the human body. Aristotle made important contributions through his work in comparative anatomy and embryology. However, the greatest advances were made by Herophilus and Galen during the 3rd century BC in Alexandria, where they were the first to conduct formal human dissections and describe anatomical structures. The Renaissance brought a revival of anatomical study building on the work of these early pioneers.
Plato and his work Republic are discussed. The document provides background on Classical Greece, including the Pre-Socratic philosophers like the Milesians (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes), Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Parmenides, and Zeno. It also discusses the differences between Greek city-states like Sparta and Athens, and events like the Persian Wars and Peloponnesian War that divided Greece. Plato's Republic is described as humanity's first attempt at systematically discussing the ideal way to live.
The document provides a detailed history of psychology from ancient times through the 19th century. Some key points covered include:
- Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Hippocrates made early contributions to the field by introducing principles of scientific medicine and suggesting the brain is the seat of mental processes.
- During medieval times, Islamic physicians developed early concepts of clinical psychiatry and psychotherapy and built some of the first psychiatric hospitals.
- In the 16th-17th centuries, philosophers like Descartes introduced mind-body dualism while others like Spinoza argued the mind and body are one.
- The 18th century saw the coining of the term "psychology" and early empirical studies of the
This document provides a detailed timeline summary of the history of psychology from ancient times through the 19th century CE. Some key points include:
- Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Hippocrates made early contributions to the study of the mind and mental processes.
- During the Middle Ages, Muslim scholars in places like Baghdad made advances in clinical psychiatry and established early psychiatric hospitals.
- In the 16th-17th centuries, philosophers like Descartes and Spinoza debated mind-body dualism vs monism.
- The 18th-19th centuries saw the development of fields like psychometrics, experimental psychology, and psychiatry as distinct disciplines. Pioneers included Wundt
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
This document presents a new theory that the first humans had a single chamber heart without lungs, as God who created humans is hypothesized to have a single chamber heart without lungs. It is proposed that as the universe expanded, humans evolved to have three chamber hearts with lungs in the second generation, and four chamber hearts with lungs in the current third generation. The document also puts forth hypotheses regarding the nature of spirit and soul, proposing that spirit is the source of energy that creates souls, and that the soul is the location in the human body that initiates heartbeat in fetuses. Overall, the document aims to provide new perspectives on the origins of humans and the universe through various scientific and philosophical hypotheses.
Ancient Egyptian medicine made significant contributions to psychiatry. Egyptian doctors recognized relationships between physical and mental health as early as 1550 BCE, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers medical papyri. The papyri described the brain, classified psychological diseases, and documented early understandings of depression, alcoholism, hysteria, and psychosis. Though Egyptian treatments were sometimes inadequate, their empirical observations and attempts to formulate remedies represented a major advancement in recognizing and studying mental health issues in a medical context.
This document provides a chronological overview of the history of psychology from ancient times through the 1890s. Some key points mentioned include:
- Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Hippocrates made early contributions to the study of the mind and mental processes.
- Beginning in the Middle Ages, Islamic scholars made advances in clinical psychology and established early psychiatric hospitals.
- In the 16th-17th centuries, philosophers like Descartes introduced mind-body dualism and theories of consciousness.
- The 18th-19th centuries saw the development of fields like psychophysics and physiological psychology. Pioneers included Wundt, Fechner, Helmholtz.
- The late 19th century saw the
The document discusses the philosophy of Epicurus and Epicureanism. It provides background on Epicurus, including that he believed in attaining peace of mind (ataraxia) and not fearing death. It discusses several key aspects of Epicurean philosophy, such as removing anxiety as the path to happiness, not fearing gods or an afterlife, and finding pleasure in simple things. It also mentions how Epicureanism influenced other philosophers and societies through history.
The document discusses early Greek philosophers known as the pre-Socratics who lived prior to Socrates in the 6th-5th centuries BC. The first pre-Socratic was Thales of Miletus who proposed that water was the fundamental substance that all things originated from. His student Anaximander rejected Thales' view and claimed everything came from an undefined substance called apeiron. Another pre-Socratic, Anaximenes, proposed that air was the fundamental substance.
Subsequent pre-Socratics like Heraclitus believed the world was in a constant state of flux and conflict. Parm
THE SPHINX AND THE GIZA PLATEAU’S PYRAMID COMPLEX’S MYSTERIES SOLVEDWilliam John Meegan
The Sphinx and the Giza Plateau’s Pyramid Complex has had numerous unsolved mysteries for thousands of years. Both Robert Bauval (1994) and Andrew Collins (1999) put forth their individual theories on how to solve those mysteries; however, neither had any idea that it would take the unanimity of their theories to aid in explaining those ancient Egyptian mysteries.
To understand the unanimity of these theories there are two other major factors that have to be understood: the MATRIX OF WISDOM (10²) and the TRINITARIAN PARADIGM: Trinity to understand the esoteric dynamics of the Giza Plateau’s Pyramid Complex mysteries.
Four decades of esoteric and symbolic researches has given me a unique perspective of the MATRIX OF WISDOM and the TRITARIAN PARADIGM: Trinity in the world’s religions and mystery schools, which enabled me to tackle and solve these awesome mysteries.
The Sphinx is the key to solving these mysteries. When modernity first observed the Egyptian Sphinx it was just a skull lying on the sands of the desert. Life is lived between the ears. The Giza Plateau’s Pyramid Complex’s spiritual paradigm takes place between the ears.
Solving the Sphinx and Giza Plateau’s Pyramid Complex mysteries opens up all the mystical doors of esotericism and symbolism in all the major religions around the world.
The document provides a brief historical introduction to ancient philosophy, dividing it into three periods: the Pre-Socratics, the Greek triumvirate of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, and the Post-Aristotelian schools. It discusses several important Pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes and their theories about the fundamental elements that compose the world. It then summarizes contributions of philosophers in the Greek triumvirate period like Socrates' use of dialectic, Plato's theories of knowledge and forms, and Aristotle's work in logic, metaphysics and various sciences. Finally, it outlines some major Post-Aristotelian
Ids 330 "Environmental Leadership" Basic Introduction (University of the West)Tom Moritz
This document discusses the evolution of the human brain and consciousness. It references scientific evidence that suggests humans are not unique in possessing consciousness, as many other mammals and animals have similar neurological structures. It explores philosophical questions about human nature and exceptionalism. It also touches on Buddhist concepts like anatta (not-self) and examines how humans have understood their place in the natural world over time.
The essay discusses the emergence of modern psychology as a science in the late 19th century. Previously, philosophy and physiology studied the mind but it was not until 1879 that psychology emerged as its own field of scientific study. The essay notes how Descartes' philosophical dualism of mind and body, and his theory of the pineal gland influencing interactions, contributed to early understandings. It also discusses how universities became centers for the new "scientific" knowledge and restricted access primarily to elite classes.
The document discusses the relationship between modern science and humanity. It argues that modern science views humans as evolved animals whose thoughts and consciousness originate solely from the brain. However, this view is contradicted by evidence such as hemispherectomies not affecting personality or memory. Traditional sciences viewed humans as multi-dimensional beings with consciousness originating from higher spiritual dimensions. The document calls for science to adopt a more open-minded approach and reconsider its limiting assumptions and axioms in order to develop models that can better explain all observed phenomena.
The document provides a brief history of neuropsychiatry, covering developments from ancient Egyptian medical papyri through modern times. It mentions key figures like Herophilus, Galen, Thomas Willis, Philippe Pinel, Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol, Jean-Martin Charcot, Daniel Pick, Arnold Pick, Bénédict Augustin Morel, and Pierre Paul Broca and their contributions to understanding the brain and nervous system, and treating mental disorders. The document also discusses the founding of various neuropsychiatric associations around the world beginning in the 20th century.
During Athens' Golden Age from 460-429 BCE, also known as the Age of Pericles, Athens became the center of Greek culture and economy. Some key developments included rebuilding the Acropolis and Agora after the Persian Wars, and constructing the Parthenon and other temples. Athens was also a center of art, theater, philosophy and science. Famous philosophers like Socrates and Plato and playwrights like Sophocles and Euripides lived during this time. Athens' Golden Age marked the peak of classical Greek civilization.
This document outlines the topics and schedule for a course on Science, Technology and Society. It is divided into three main sections: 1) Historical influences of social factors on science and technology, 2) Intellectual revolutions and their impact on society, and 3) Specific contemporary issues in science and technology. Some of the individual topics that will be covered include the information age, biodiversity, nanotechnology, and gene therapy. The course will examine the relationships between science, technology, and humanity.
The natural friendship between science and spiritualitySuzanne Yada
Presentation given by David Brett Richardson of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory to the Unitarian Universalist Church of Berkeley's Personal Theology series, December 4, 2011. Uploaded here with his permission.
This document outlines key concepts related to the scientific method and philosophy of science. It discusses various models of scientific inquiry including the classical, pragmatic, and logical empiricism models. It also covers types of reasoning like deduction, induction, and abduction. Examples are provided to illustrate abductive reasoning techniques like the duck test and elephant test. Biases, effects, and criticisms of science are also referenced.
The history of anatomy extends from early examinations of sacrificial victims in ancient Egypt to modern scientific analyses. Over time, understanding of organ and body structure functions has continually developed. In ancient Egypt and Greece, early anatomists like Alcmaeon began the first scientific dissections and discoveries about structures like the brain, heart, and blood vessels. Galen's 2nd century AD dissections of apes and pigs informed his influential works on anatomy, though some theories like blood flow were later found to be incorrect. Anatomical study declined in the Middle Ages but resumed with innovations like Vesalius' cadaver dissections in the 16th century and Harvey's discovery of blood circulation. Modern anatomy applies new technologies to further understand structure
The document discusses the history of human anatomy from ancient times to the Renaissance. It describes how early Greek thinkers like Alcmaeon, Empedocles, and Hippocrates began the intellectual development of anatomy by studying animal anatomy and making inferences about the human body. Aristotle made important contributions through his work in comparative anatomy and embryology. However, the greatest advances were made by Herophilus and Galen during the 3rd century BC in Alexandria, where they were the first to conduct formal human dissections and describe anatomical structures. The Renaissance brought a revival of anatomical study building on the work of these early pioneers.
Plato and his work Republic are discussed. The document provides background on Classical Greece, including the Pre-Socratic philosophers like the Milesians (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes), Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Parmenides, and Zeno. It also discusses the differences between Greek city-states like Sparta and Athens, and events like the Persian Wars and Peloponnesian War that divided Greece. Plato's Republic is described as humanity's first attempt at systematically discussing the ideal way to live.
The document provides a detailed history of psychology from ancient times through the 19th century. Some key points covered include:
- Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Hippocrates made early contributions to the field by introducing principles of scientific medicine and suggesting the brain is the seat of mental processes.
- During medieval times, Islamic physicians developed early concepts of clinical psychiatry and psychotherapy and built some of the first psychiatric hospitals.
- In the 16th-17th centuries, philosophers like Descartes introduced mind-body dualism while others like Spinoza argued the mind and body are one.
- The 18th century saw the coining of the term "psychology" and early empirical studies of the
This document provides a detailed timeline summary of the history of psychology from ancient times through the 19th century CE. Some key points include:
- Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Hippocrates made early contributions to the study of the mind and mental processes.
- During the Middle Ages, Muslim scholars in places like Baghdad made advances in clinical psychiatry and established early psychiatric hospitals.
- In the 16th-17th centuries, philosophers like Descartes and Spinoza debated mind-body dualism vs monism.
- The 18th-19th centuries saw the development of fields like psychometrics, experimental psychology, and psychiatry as distinct disciplines. Pioneers included Wundt
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
This document presents a new theory that the first humans had a single chamber heart without lungs, as God who created humans is hypothesized to have a single chamber heart without lungs. It is proposed that as the universe expanded, humans evolved to have three chamber hearts with lungs in the second generation, and four chamber hearts with lungs in the current third generation. The document also puts forth hypotheses regarding the nature of spirit and soul, proposing that spirit is the source of energy that creates souls, and that the soul is the location in the human body that initiates heartbeat in fetuses. Overall, the document aims to provide new perspectives on the origins of humans and the universe through various scientific and philosophical hypotheses.
Ancient Egyptian medicine made significant contributions to psychiatry. Egyptian doctors recognized relationships between physical and mental health as early as 1550 BCE, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers medical papyri. The papyri described the brain, classified psychological diseases, and documented early understandings of depression, alcoholism, hysteria, and psychosis. Though Egyptian treatments were sometimes inadequate, their empirical observations and attempts to formulate remedies represented a major advancement in recognizing and studying mental health issues in a medical context.
This document provides a chronological overview of the history of psychology from ancient times through the 1890s. Some key points mentioned include:
- Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Hippocrates made early contributions to the study of the mind and mental processes.
- Beginning in the Middle Ages, Islamic scholars made advances in clinical psychology and established early psychiatric hospitals.
- In the 16th-17th centuries, philosophers like Descartes introduced mind-body dualism and theories of consciousness.
- The 18th-19th centuries saw the development of fields like psychophysics and physiological psychology. Pioneers included Wundt, Fechner, Helmholtz.
- The late 19th century saw the
The document discusses the philosophy of Epicurus and Epicureanism. It provides background on Epicurus, including that he believed in attaining peace of mind (ataraxia) and not fearing death. It discusses several key aspects of Epicurean philosophy, such as removing anxiety as the path to happiness, not fearing gods or an afterlife, and finding pleasure in simple things. It also mentions how Epicureanism influenced other philosophers and societies through history.
The document discusses early Greek philosophers known as the pre-Socratics who lived prior to Socrates in the 6th-5th centuries BC. The first pre-Socratic was Thales of Miletus who proposed that water was the fundamental substance that all things originated from. His student Anaximander rejected Thales' view and claimed everything came from an undefined substance called apeiron. Another pre-Socratic, Anaximenes, proposed that air was the fundamental substance.
Subsequent pre-Socratics like Heraclitus believed the world was in a constant state of flux and conflict. Parm
THE SPHINX AND THE GIZA PLATEAU’S PYRAMID COMPLEX’S MYSTERIES SOLVEDWilliam John Meegan
The Sphinx and the Giza Plateau’s Pyramid Complex has had numerous unsolved mysteries for thousands of years. Both Robert Bauval (1994) and Andrew Collins (1999) put forth their individual theories on how to solve those mysteries; however, neither had any idea that it would take the unanimity of their theories to aid in explaining those ancient Egyptian mysteries.
To understand the unanimity of these theories there are two other major factors that have to be understood: the MATRIX OF WISDOM (10²) and the TRINITARIAN PARADIGM: Trinity to understand the esoteric dynamics of the Giza Plateau’s Pyramid Complex mysteries.
Four decades of esoteric and symbolic researches has given me a unique perspective of the MATRIX OF WISDOM and the TRITARIAN PARADIGM: Trinity in the world’s religions and mystery schools, which enabled me to tackle and solve these awesome mysteries.
The Sphinx is the key to solving these mysteries. When modernity first observed the Egyptian Sphinx it was just a skull lying on the sands of the desert. Life is lived between the ears. The Giza Plateau’s Pyramid Complex’s spiritual paradigm takes place between the ears.
Solving the Sphinx and Giza Plateau’s Pyramid Complex mysteries opens up all the mystical doors of esotericism and symbolism in all the major religions around the world.
The document provides a brief historical introduction to ancient philosophy, dividing it into three periods: the Pre-Socratics, the Greek triumvirate of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, and the Post-Aristotelian schools. It discusses several important Pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes and their theories about the fundamental elements that compose the world. It then summarizes contributions of philosophers in the Greek triumvirate period like Socrates' use of dialectic, Plato's theories of knowledge and forms, and Aristotle's work in logic, metaphysics and various sciences. Finally, it outlines some major Post-Aristotelian
Similar to Three Major Discoveries In Psychology (20)
1. Three Major Discoveries in Psychology<br />Daniel Fishman<br />Fielding Graduate University<br />Three Major Discoveries in Psychology<br />Introduction<br />Psychology as a distinct field of philosophic and scientific inquiry is relatively new; however, the philosophical roots of psychology can be traced back thousands of years. Evidence of psychological observations, that is observations of people’s thoughts and behaviors, can be found in literary sources dating back to Sumeria, Mesopotamia, ancient India, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece and Rome ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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]}]} (Adamson & Taylor, 2005; Dollie, 1974; Fishman, 2009; Grim, 2009; Grubin, 2002; Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessell, 2000; Millon, 2004; Nasser, 1987). As with many disciplines, psychology has advanced in fits and starts, at times progressing rapidly while at others almost stagnating. Furthermore, although we often give final credit to one individual at a given time, most major advances take place over a period of time and among a group of individuals. The task of this paper is to present an opinion, the author’s, of the three greatest discoveries of psychology. Accepting the position that the true origins of psychology can be found in our ancient philosophical past, the enormity of identifying only three discoveries becomes apparent. In fact, naming any three discoveries as “the greatest three” might be a mistake. Each new discovery stands on the shoulders of those before it, few if any concepts prove to be true endpoints of discussion and research. Therefore, this paper will discuss three great discoveries, not the three greatest. In addition, one highly influential discovery that is not exclusive to psychology but has been vastly influential will be briefly mentioned.<br />Discovery One: The Brain as the Seat of Consciousness<br />One of the greatest discoveries of psychology is both ancient and ever evolving. For much of human history the essence of a person was thought to reside in their heart, while the brain was thought to be extraneous or to serve other functions. Throughout most of their history the ancient Egyptians (approximately 3500 BCE to 332 BCE) were considered the pinnacle of civilization. They possessed elaborate philosophies covering a wide range of subjects, based on which they established intricate ceremonies and practices. Moreover, as demonstrated by the monuments and papyri, they possessed the most advanced technical (scientific and medical) knowledge of their day. One of the better-known practices of the ancient Egyptians was that of embalming, the procedure whereby a person’s body was painstakingly preserved for the afterlife. Egyptians believed that the essence of an individual, their “Ba”, continued on after death and that the Ba required both sustenance, in the form of offerings, and shelter, in the form of the mummified corpse. During the mummification procedure all internal organs except the heart were carefully removed and preserved in specially designed clay jars. The brain was somewhat liquefied and extracted through sphenoid bone and nasal passageways and often discarded. In the ancient Egyptian afterlife the brain was not necessary, however, the heart was essential. The heart was thought to be the seat of the Ba during life. After death it was thought that the deceased’s heart was literally weighed against the weight of a feather. If the individual was worthy and had lived a righteous life the heart would be lighter than the feather and the person would gain entry to the afterlife. If not, the individual was judged evil, the heart literally weighed down by his/her misdeeds in life ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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]}]} (Dollie, 1974; Fishman, 2009; Grim, 2009; Grubin, 2002; Nasser, 1987). Interestingly, this is a metaphor we still use today. When we say a person “has a heavy heart” or is “heavy-hearted” we are referring to a psychological weight that has produced a very real somatic sensation felt in the chest near the heart. Often our psychological state is manifested by vague sensations within our chests with some, such as anxiety, underwritten by physical change (tachycardia), and others, such as heavy-hearted sadness, purely a psychological phenomenon. In either case, it is easy to see how the ancients without the modern technical capacity we have today could draw the conclusion that the heart is the seat of consciousness.<br />Remarkably, although cardiocentric philosophy predominated throughout ancient Egypt, there is some evidence that as early as 1550 BCE revisions had been made to incorporate some role for the brain. The Ebers and Edwin Smith papyri, authored circa 1550 BCE, contain references to the gross anatomy of the brain as well as a role in consciousness. It does not appear, however, that the ancient Egyptians ever fully discarded the notion of a cardiocentric mind. Still, when one considers that the rest of the developing world would not approach a brain theory of mind for almost another 1200 years this accomplishment becomes truly exceptional ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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]}]} (Dollie, 1974; Fishman, 2009; Grim, 2009; Grubin, 2002; Millon, 2004). Complicating matters, most of the ancient world viewed autopsy as taboo; therefore, theoretical speculation based on empiric observations were confined to “happy accidents” wherein individuals were traumatically dismembered or disemboweled at death. Thus, most observations were made under less than ideal circumstances. It wasn’t until the golden age of ancient Greek philosophy that this association was even questioned. <br />Alcmaeon (557-491 B.C.E.) was the first to make written observations, based on anatomical dissections, that the brain was in fact the seat of consciousness ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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]}]} (Fishman, 2009; Grim, 2009; Gross, 1995; Grubin, 2002). <br />In 300BCE Herophilus and Erasistratus, Alexandrian biologists, are the first to dissect the entire human body and perform comparative anatomical studies with other animals. They return to Alcmaeon's conclusion that the seat of cognition can be found in the brain and further state that within the brain this seat can be localized to the ventricles. Later, in 170 BCE Galen, a physician to Roman Gladiators, states his agreement with Herophilus and Erasistratus conception of the ventricles as the seat of cognition. In an effort to expand humoral philosophy, he also goes on to propose that the brain is a glandular organ responsible for the secretion of the humors. Galen believes that an individual's temperament and bodily functions are directly affected by the balance of these humors. His theory of bodily humors remained dominant for more than 1200 years (Fishman, 2009; Grubin, 2002).<br />The debate over the anatomic location of the mind persisted for over a millennia. It was not until the Renaissance, with its removal of taboos and burgeoning scientific methodology that systematic study of human anatomy began to shift the world toward the understanding of the brain as the seat of consciousness. The first challenge to Herophilus, Erasistratus and Galen arose in 1543 CE when Andreas Vesalius published one of the first known neuroscience textbooks. Vesalius disagreed with the conclusion that the ventricles were the seat of cognition based on his assertion that ventricles are structures shared across species and could therefore not be responsible for higher brain functions. Vesalius' challenge was followed almost 100 years later in 1649 by Rene Descartes who, drawing analogies to technological developments of the time, stated that the brain functions as a machine employing hydraulic motion. Descartes, thus, also supported a central role of the ventricles in mental events (Fishman, 2009; Grubin, 2002).<br />The shift from the ventricles as the seat of cognition was not fully realized until 1664 CE when an Oxford University professor, Thomas Willis, proposed that the cerebral hemispheres, which constitute 70% of the human brain, determine thought and action. Furthermore, Willis stated that these functions were separate from the part of the brain that controls basic motor functions. Additionally, Willis localized specific mental functions to several brain areas - the corpus callosum, corpus striatum, and the cerebellum. He also introduced the terms quot;
neurologyquot;
, quot;
hemispherequot;
, quot;
lobequot;
, quot;
pyramidquot;
, quot;
corpus striatumquot;
, and quot;
pedunclequot;
into the scientific vocabulary. Willis' work led future neuroscientists to examine other localization phenomena in the human brain and earned him the reputation as the initiator of the new science of the brain (Fishman, 2009; Grubin, 2002).<br />The exact nature of the mind-brain relationship has yet to be fully elucidated. As will be discussed shortly, it is currently an active area of empirical and theoretical research that has offered many of the most wide reaching discoveries in psychology. However, the realization that the mind is located in the brain was a first crucial step in truly understanding how our minds work, the ultimate goal of psychology.<br />Discovery Two: Internally Rather Than Supernaturally Based Pathology<br />In many ways the history of this discovery parallels the course of the heart-brain debate just discussed. Ancient societies often held that psychopathology was the result of possession by demonic entities, magic, curses from the gods or G-d, or any other of a number of supernatural origins. Such supernatural attributions afforded people a sense of order and control over a seemingly chaotic and random world. As with the first developments toward the brain as the seat of consciousness, the first advancement toward an internally based theory of psychopathology occurred circa 700 to 600 BCE in ancient Greece. This period saw the development of various internal theories of psychopathology such as humoral balance and corpuscular theories. Humoral balance as advocated by individuals such as Alcmaeon, Hippocrates, Aristotle, Herophilus and Erasistratus posited that pathology arose from an imbalance of one or more of the four essential humors - blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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]}]} (Fishman, 2009, 2010; Grim, 2009; Gross, 1995; Grubin, 2002; Millon, 2004). Corpuscular theory, as advanced by Asclepiades (171-110 BCE), suggested that the brain and nervous system were composed of corpuscles and canulicula. The canulicula could be constricted or dilated by emotions such as anger and fear or alternatively by toxic agents such as alcohol and opium. If the canuliculae became enlarged, corpuscles could separate and diffuse throughout the body, thus producing mental disease. Asclepiades went on to differentiate two major classes of mental disease: phrenitis and catatonia. The former resulted from a stricture of the meninges and displayed as delirium, agitation, and hallucinations. The latter constituted a rigid variant and was notable for muscle contraction and the absence of motor function all resulting from a stricture of all the atoms present in a body (Millon, 2004). During the classical period development in theories of psychopathology, and mental life in general, proceeded largely within either of these two theories; however, emphasis was also increasingly placed on rational exploration of mental states.<br />Physician-philosophers in the classical period increasingly placed emphasis on the rational redress of mental illness. Socrates (470-399 BCE), one of the greatest Western philosophers, began his conceptualization of mental illness with the idea that pathology was driven by quot;
inner demons.quot;
However, he also emphasized that one could achieve purification from these inner demons by rational exploration of the self in an effort to acquire self-knowledge. Hippocrates advocated dream interpretation as a window into mental processes. Plato (429-347) advocated correction of maladaptive thought through rational argument, as did Cicero (103-43 BCE). Although he did not specifically suggest rational exploration of mental illness, Asclepiades ardently advocated for naturalistic diagnosis and humane treatment (Millon, 2004).<br /> Unfortunately, not long after this exploration began, in the early part of the first millennium CE, the majority of the Western world fell back into supernatural explanations of psychopathology. Although portions of the Middle East and Far East maintained Hippocratic and Galenistic humoral views, Western society fell under the influence of the nascent and conservative Christian church. Individuals, such as Aurelius Augustine, led the church in reframing mental illness once again originating from supernatural sources ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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]}]} (Grim, 2009; Millon, 2004). Life in medieval times was difficult, the populations of cities grew along with the growth came famine and disease. Individuals with mental illness serve as reminders of our own frailty, and, as such, can inspire fear and animosity in people. Stressful situations have been known to exacerbate this effect. Keeping these tendencies in mind it is easy to see why a society with comparatively little technical understanding of the world around it would embrace religious doctrine that offered them control over themselves and their environment. If individuals develop mental illness secondary to demonic possession or curses from an ever loving G-d, they must have either possessed a kernel of evil within themselves which allowed the demon entry or incurred the wrath of G-d. This philosophy offered people a means to ensure that they did not fall victim to the illnesses they witnessed. Owing to societal and cultural restrictions on research of any kind not approved by the church this philosophy remained dominant for almost 1200 years.<br />The 15th century and the Renaissance brought about new opportunities for philosophical exploration as well as significant advancements in technical knowledge and methodology. Released from the strictures of the Middle Ages, knowledge and exploration proceeded apace and in fact accelerated rapidly in subsequent centuries. A complete discussion of the evolution of theories of mental states and illness is beyond the scope of this paper. The key discovery highlighted here is the rational, methodical, and empirical exploration of mental states and illness. This endeavor which began in the classical period, experienced an unfortunate setback during the Middle Ages, but returned in force during the last 500 years. Great strides have been made in understanding internal mental states and processes, none of which could have been accomplished had we not remembered that these arise with in us and not from without.<br />Discovery Two and a Half: The Scientific method<br />At this point it is important to note the impact of a discovery not solely belonging to psychology. Similar to other major discoveries, although its roots can be traced back millennia, the introduction of the scientific method is credited to the 16th century and individuals, such as Telesius, Tommaso Campanella, Giordano Bruno, Francis Bacon, and Rene Descartes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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I think therefore I amquot;
, thus emphasizing the importance of cognition. Remarkably, the method Descartes utilized in determining this axiom draws attention to a phenomenon that has plagued philosophy for centuries and is also an area where cognitive neuroscience has provided valuable insight. Similar to many philosophers before him, Descartes did not trust his perceptions and as recent research has demonstrated he was wise to remain skeptical. Research conducted on perception, first in the field of cognitive psychology and now within cognitive neuroscience, has demonstrated numerous biases that regularly affect our perception ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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]}]} (Doidge, 2007; Fishman, 2010; Grim, 2009; Kandel et al., 2000; E. F. Loftus, 2005; Millon, 2004; Robinson, 1997; Spector & Maurer, 2009).<br />Although Willis was the first and a pioneer in the field of neuroanatomy, countless others have brought us to where we are today. As is true for all the disciplines that have contributed to our understanding of mental processes, the individuals involved from the disciplines of neuroanatomy and neurophysiology are too numerous to be described fully here. Therefore, in keeping with Willis’ pioneering spirit we will discuss a few of the individuals whose contributions also blazed new trails. Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) discovered that living nervous and muscular tissue produced and conducted electricity. Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) is credited with helping to form the neuron doctrine. Additionally, he proposed three new ideas: 1) all behavior emanated from the brain, 2) particular regions of the cerebral cortex controlled specific functions - Gall identified at least 35 divisions within the brain each corresponding to a specific mental faculty and 3) the cortical center for each function grew with use. Each of these three proposals has now been demonstrated to be true. Unfortunately, Gall’s original conceptualization of his third proposal involved the physical growth of cortical regions on a macroscopic level. This interpretation led Gall to the science of phrenology which has now been widely discredited. However, it is now accepted that although macroscopic changes are not observed, the area and overall size of cortical areas within the brain are determined in part by use. Camillo Golgi (1843-1926) developed a silver staining technique which for the first time allowed the visualization of a neuron’s dendrites, cell body, and axon. Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934) was able to refine Golgi’s technique to sustain individual neurons. In so doing, was able to establish that nervous tissue was not a continuous web but comprised of individual cells. Furthermore, collaborating with several other individuals such as Carl Wernicke (1804-1904), and Charles Sherrington (1857-1952), Cajal helped to formulate the theory of cellular connectionism. According to this view, individual neurons are the signaling units of the brain and are generally arranged in functional groups that connect to one another in a specific fashion. Wernicke’s own work was essential in demonstrating that specific behaviors are produced by specific brain regions and that these regions are interconnected by neural pathways. Paul Broca (1824-1880) greatly expanded this work in localization theory firmly establishing its place. Finally, Claude Bernard (1838-1878), Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), and John Langley (1852-1925) demonstrated that chemicals do not interact with cells arbitrarily, but rather bind to specific receptors typically located in the cellular membrane ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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]}]} (Harley, Carlsen, & Loftus, 2004; Loftus, 2005). Only by gaining an understanding of how we are affected by such biases can we ever hope to overcome them. In recent times this work has been extended through the use of functional imaging to examine underlying physiology. These studies have led to the development of a narrow plastic theory of the brain that envisions the brain is ever-changing in response to the organism’s behavior and environment. Our brain's inherent capacity to change in response to environmental stimuli and behavior offers amazing opportunity for the successful treatment of a variety of disorders. For example, Vilayanur Ramachandran has made a discovery remarkable for both its efficacy and simplicity. Ramachandran sought to help individuals afflicted with the extremely debilitating condition known as phantom limb pain. He reasoned that present with in our brains is a cognitive proprioceptive map of our bodies and that this map is constantly updated by afferent signals from the periphery. In the event of the loss of a limb these afferent signals stop, without new input the brain concludes that the limb has not moved. Ramachandran observed that extended periods of non-movement in healthy individuals often resulted in pain, a mild form presenting as the classic sensation of a limb falling asleep. This led him to wonder if he could somehow quot;
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the brain of an individual with phantom limb pain that in fact the afflicted limb had moved. Utilizing only some wood and a mirror Ramachandran built a mirror box within which a healthy individual could place their limb and move about freely. He reasoned that absent proprioceptive input the individual’s brain would see the mirrored reflection and infer that the missing limb was simply damaged, but still mobile. Therefore, if the pain was simply the result of an inference on the part of the brain secondary to lack of perceived movement, the pain would dissipate. Astonishingly, this is precisely what happened. In many individuals Ramachandran is able to successfully remove debilitating pain that has grown resistant to all other intervention with this simple and cheap behavioral intervention - truly amazing ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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]}]} (Grim, 2009). The manifold ways computers have affected our lives is readily evident, however, the benefits of AI research are not as readily appreciated. Work in AI has broadened our understanding of how our brains process sensory input and information, and in so doing helped to generate a new theory of mental processes along a connectionist philosophy known as neural networking or wet mind. Wet mind theory offers hope into understanding many disorders such as agnosias, aphasias, perceptual biases, and memory disorders, but perhaps one of its most fascinating potentials is the ability to address the origin and functioning of consciousness in a concrete manner. A truly explanatory framework for consciousness promises the ability to better understand complex mental functions and states such as the formation of personality both normal and aberrant. Additionally, it offers the prospect of artificially supporting, accentuating, or extending consciousness: an area both exciting and frightening. It may sound fanciful but increasingly scientists, futurists, and philosophers are pondering the possibilities of what has become known as singularity – the merging of human thought with machine. To listen to some speak, it is more a question of when, not if this will happen. Reserving judgment on the merits of such endeavors, this final discovery has the potential to alter the very nature of what it means to be human.<br />References<br />Adamson, P., & Taylor, R. C. (2005). The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press.<br />Doidge, N. (2007). The brain that changes itself: Stories of personal triumph from the frontiers of brain science. New York, NY, US: Penguin (Non-Classics).<br />Dollie, F. (1974). Psychiatric concepts in ancient Egyptian, Greco-Roman and Arabic civilizations. Le Journal Médical Libanais. The Lebanese Medical Journal, 27(5), 523-530.<br />Fishman, D. (2009). Review of Selected Topics in the Field of Neuroplasticity. Unpublished, Fielding Graduate University - Biological Bases of Behavior.<br />Fishman, D. (2010). Explorations of aspects of consciousness and applications of artificial intelligence. Unpublished, Fielding Graduate University - Cognitive Bases of Behavior.<br />Grim, P. (2009). Philosophy of Mind. Philosophy of Mind, Brain and Thinking Machines (Vols. 1-24). State University of New York at Stony Brook. Retrieved from http://www.teach12.com/ttcx/coursedesclong2.aspx?cid=4278<br />Gross, C. (1995). Aristotle on the Brain. The Neuroscientist, 1(4), 245-250.<br />Grubin, D. (2002). The Sercet Life of the Brain. The Secret Life of the Brain. PBS. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/index.html<br />Harley, E. M., Carlsen, K. A., & Loftus, G. R. (2004). The “saw-it-all-along” effect: demonstrations of visual hindsight bias. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(5), 960-968. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.30.5.960<br />Kandel, Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill Medical.<br />Loftus, E. F. (2005a). Searching for the neurobiology of the misinformation effect. Learning & Memory (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.), 12(1), 1-2. doi:10.1101/lm.90805<br />Loftus, E. F. (2005b). Planting misinformation in the human mind: a 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning & Memory (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.), 12(4), 361-366. doi:10.1101/lm.94705<br />Millon, T. (2004). Masters of the Mind: Exploring the Story of Mental Illness from Ancient Times to the New Millennium (1st ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.<br />Nasser, M. (1987). Psychiatry in Ancient Egypt. Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 3(10), 167-186. doi:10.1177/0957154X9200301002<br />Ramachandran, V. S., & Rogers-Ramachandran, D. (2000). Phantom limbs and neural plasticity. Archives of Neurology, 57(3), 317-320.<br />Rich, A. N., & Mattingley, J. B. (2002). Anomalous perception in synaesthesia: A cognitive neuroscience perspective. Nat Rev Neurosci, 3(1), 43-52. doi:10.1038/nrn702<br />Robinson, D. (1997). Great Ideas of Psychology. Great Ideas of Psychology (Vols. 1-48). The Teaching Company. Retrieved from http://www.teach12.com/tgc/courses/Course_Detail.aspx?cid=660<br />Spector, F., & Maurer, D. (2009). Synesthesia: A New Approach to Understanding the Development of Perception. Developmental Psychology, 45.<br />