Algae, lipids, feedstocks, phototrophic, heterotrophic, biofuel, bioenergy. Algae can be converted into biofuel through photosynthesis or fermentation. With improvements in technology, algae could meet global demand for liquid fuels and help address issues of population growth, urban sprawl, infrastructure, and energy/oil prices. However, large-scale algae cultivation faces challenges of land and water use and potential environmental impacts that require further research into more sustainable methods.

1.
¡ ¢ £ ¤ ¥ ¢ ¦ § ¨ © ¡
¥ ¦ !
© © ¦ # ¦ § ¦ $ % © ¨ $ ' ! ( © ) ¦ ! # ! 0 ' 1 2 ¨ $ 3 ¦ © 1 ¢ ¨ # $
4 5 6 7 8 4 9 7 @
A B C D E F G E E H I P Q R B S H I T U C I T R V P E H D U Q W P H I B C E B X Q R P P U F R G C P B D Y X R B W T Y Q T P T U C ` H B
C P E D Q U P U V D R B U W P U H E S D H I D U B R B U W G Y H D a E H B R b c G D Y C D U Q E X B R H I P d R B C G F H D B U B X R P U P S T c Y P
Q R P P U C D P E P Y H B Q P U P R T H P P Y P F H R D F D H b X R B W Q P U P R T H B R E B U a E D H P e
A I P Q R B S H I B X T Y Q T P X B R H I P d R B C G F H D B U B X c D B X G P Y E I T E I T C R P E G R Q P U F P S D H I H I P
R P T Y D E T H D B U B X H I P W B R H T Y D H b B X X B E E D Y X G P Y E T U C H I P P U V D R B U W P U H e f D H I D H E g I D Q I Q R B S H I R T H P
T U C I D Q I B D Y F B U H P U H ` T Y Q T P T R P H I P B U Y b U T H G R T Y T Y H P R U T H D V P H B F R G C P B D Y T U C S D Y Y c P T c Y P H B
I P Y d E T X P Q G T R C P F B U B W D F Q R B S H I T U C T D C X G P Y T U C U T H D B U T Y E P F G R D H b e
f D H I T d I B H B F B U V P R E D B U P X X D F D P U F b X T R D U T C V T U F P B X E B Y T R d I B H B V B Y H T D F T U C ` S D H I H I P
T c D Y D H b H B c P Q R B S U D U Y D Q I H S D H I H I P T D C B X S T E H P S T H P R T U C h i p H B d R B C G F P B V P R q r s B D Y
F B U H P U H B R ` D U T X P R W P U H P R S D H I F P Y Y G Y B E D F S T E H P H B T F I D P V P T E W G F I T E t r s B D Y F B U H P U H `
T U C S I P U F B U V P R H P C H B T I D Q I P U P R Q b F Y P T U C D P E P Y D H F T U c P G E P C D U F G R R P U H C D P E P Y
P U Q D U P E ` D E D H T U b S B U C P R H I T H c D B H P F I F B W d T U D P E T R P R T F D U Q H B W T u P T F Y T D W D U H I D E
W B C P R U C T b Q B Y C R G E I e
f D H I D W d R B V P W P U H E D U H P F I U B Y B Q b ` T Y Q T P F T U U B S c P F B U V P R H P C D U H B Q R P P U C D P E P Y H B c P
G E P C D U W B H B R F T R T U C S D H I F T R P X G Y F B U E D C P R T H D B U F T U c P G E P C T E T X G P Y X B R T d B S P R
E B G R F P D U H I P c G D Y H P U V D R B U W P U H X B R F B W W G U D H D P E T U C T E H I D E d T d P R S D Y Y T R Q G P ` D U C D V D C G T Y
W G Y H D a E H B R P b E H R G F H G R P E S D H I H I P T c D Y D H b H B E H B R P P U P R Q b H I T H H I P P Y P F H R D F Q R D C T U C E B Y T R
d B S P R C B P E U B H I T V P e
f D H I T F B W c D U T H D B U B X R P E P T R F I H I T H T D W E H B G U F B V P R H I P P E E P U F P B X T Y Q T P d R B C G F H D B U
T U C I B S D H F T U c P U P X D H H I P S D C P R F B W W G U D H b S D H I H I P E b W c D B H D F G E P B X H P F I U B Y B Q b T U C
S T E H P W T H P R D T Y E ` H I D E d T d P R E I B S E H I T H H I P G E P T U C c P U P X D H E B X T Y Q T P F T U T Y E B Q B X T R
c P b B U C P U P R Q b D U H I P c G D Y H P U V D R B U W P U H e
v w x y €  ‚ ƒ @ T Y Q T P ` Y D d D C E ` X P P C E H B F u E ` h i p ` d I B H B T G H B H R B d I D F ` d I B H B E b U H I P E D E ` E G F R B E P `
I P H P R B H R B d I D F ` X P R W P U H T H D B U ` c D B W T E E ` I T R V P E H D U Q ` Q R P P U F R G C P ` c D B C D P E P Y ` Q R P P U C D P E P Y `
Q P U P R T H B R ` P Y P F H R D F D H b e

2. „ … † ‡ ˆ ‰  ‘ ’ ‰ “ ” • ‡ ˆ “ ‡ – ‰ ˆ — ˆ † ˆ … ‰ “ ” ˜  ™ ‘ ˆ ‰ ˆ ™ “ ˆ d e “ ”   f  ‘ g ˆ † • h ™ d i j k d l ‰ • † m … ™ ˆ d n n o  p ˆ q m ˆ ‰ r s n n
¢ ) ) ! ¨ § $ ¦ 0 ! © ¤ ¦ © ¨ 0 ' t ¦ ( ! ¨ u $ ! ¦
¢ § u $ ¦ $ ¨ $ ! ¦ v w x y x z 1 ( ! $ # ( © # ) ) ! ¦
( ! ¨ { | } ! ( © ! # © ¦ © ¨ 0 ' ~ ¨ ! § ) © § $ ¦ ©
! ¨ # §  ( $ 1 ~ © ¨ ! # © u ) ) ! ¦ © § ( ! ¨
€ |  { } 1 ) ! # w |  | } ¦ § ¦ ¨ # 0 w w   } 
! u © © $ u © ~ ¨ © § $ ) ~ ~ # $ © ! (
¨ © § $ # ' % $ # 3 # © ‚ © ¨ ! # u ' ! ¦ # ' #
¦ ! © ¨ ƒ x ' © ¨ ¦ § $ © „ ~ © ) © §
§ © u ¦ § ( ! ¨ ! © ( ! $ # ( © # © !
$ ¦ ) ¨ © © ! ¨ # § ~ ! ~ # $ ! ¦ $ ¦ ) ¨ © © 1
! © ¨ ! ¨ ) © ! ( # $ … $ § ( © # $ # # 3 © ¦ © © § © §
) ¦ u © © § © u ¦ § ! ¨ )
¨ ¦ $ $ ! ¦ ( © # ¦ $ # ! # $ ! ¦ ! ¨ ! # $ ! ¦
¨ © ( ! ¦ § ¦ § § © % © # ! ~ © §  t ¦ © u © ¦ $ u ©
© ~ ¨ $ ) © ! ( ! $ # ) ! ¦ $ ¦ © ! ¨ $ © ¦ ( # # ¦ §
¨ $ © 0 $ ¦ 1 ) ¨ © $ ¦ 0 $ ¦ 3 $ # $ ' $ ¦ ) ! u u © ¨ ) ©
¦ § ¦ $ ! ¦ # © ) ¨ $ ' $ 0 ! % © ¨ ¦ u © ¦
¦ ! ( ! ¨ ) © § ! # ! ! † 3 © ' ! ¦ § u $ ¦ © ¨ # ! $ # ¦ §
' © ! ¨ © $ ¦ © „ $ $ ¦ 0 © ) ¦ ! # ! 0 ' 
© u ! ¦ ! ( ‡ ˆ § $ ~ # ) © § ! ¨ # § $ § ©
§ ¨ $ ¦ 0 © ) ! u 3 $ ! ¦ ! ( ( ! $ # ( © # $
) ¨ ¨ © ¦ # ' © $ u © § w y  € 3 $ # # $ ! ¦ ! ¦ ~ © ¨
' © ¨ $ ¦ ¨ # © … © ¨ $ ! ¦ u © ! §
! ¦ # ' 3 # © ! ) ~ ¨ © # ( ! ( $  © ©
¦ ¨ # u © ! § $ ¦ ) # § © ¨ © © 1 ~ # ¦ ¦ §
# # © © ! ¨ 0 ¦ $ u ) ©
( ! ¨ u $ ¦ $ ( © ¨ ¦ ‰ ) ! ) ) ! # $ ¦ § ) # ) ¨ © !
# 0 © ) ) ¦ § © … © © ¨ © ‡ w $ ¦
© $ ¨ © # # ! 3 © ) ! u © # $ u © ! ¦ © ¦ § ) # † 
£ © ! § ! ( © ¦ ( ! ¨ ) © § © … © ¨ $ ! ¦ )
‡ ‡ ¨ © ( © $ 3 # © 3 © „ ~ © ¦ $ % © ¦ § ~ ! ©
© # ¨ $ † ‰ ! © ¨ ¨ © $ ¦ 0 © ¦ $ ! 3
© ¦ © ¨ 0 ' $ ¦ © ¦ $ % © ¦ § ~ ! © ¦ $ # # ' § u 0 $ ¦ 0
! © © ¦ % $ ¨ ! ¦ u © ¦
t ¦ ! ¨ 3 $ # © ¦ % $ ¨ ! ¦ u © ¦ © ¨ © ( ) © § $
$ © ! ( ¥
‚ ! ~ # $ ! ¦ ) ! ¦ ¨ ! #
Š
© ¦ $ '
¨ 3 ¦ ~ ¨ #
t ¦ ( ¨ ¨ ) ¨ ©
‹
! ! § ¦ § ¨ ¦ ~ ! ¨
t ¦ ) ¨ © $ ¦ 0 ¤ ¦ © ¨ 0 ' ¦ § $ #
Š
© u ¦ §
t ¦ ) ¨ © $ ¦ 0 ¤ ¦ © ¨ 0 ' ¦ § $ # ‚ ¨ $ ) ©
¨ 3 ¦ Œ © t # ¦ § ¤ ( ( © ) ¦ § ¨ ©
! © ¦ ¨ # © ¦ % $ ¨ ! ¦ u © ¦ 
 $ © ~ ¨ © ¨ © # ¨ © § ' ! ¦ ¨ 3 # © # ¦ §
¦ ! ! 3 © ) ! ¦ % © ¨ © § ! ' © u ! ¨ © 3 $ #
§ © % © # ! ~ u © ¦ ( ! ¨ ¦ $ ¦ ) ¨ © $ ¦ 0 ~ ! ~ # $ ! ¦ 1
© ¨ © $ ) ! ¦ © ¦ u ! ¦ 0 $ ¦ 3 # ©
$ ¦ † $ ¦ 0 © ! ~ $ ! ¦ ( ! ¨ ! ¨ u Ž ! ¨ ! ¦
¦ § ) $ $ © $ ! $ ¦ ) ¨ © © § © ¦ $ ' ¦ § !
3 $ # § ~ ¦ § ¦ ! ! 1 § © # ' $ ¦ 0 ¨ 3 ¦
~ ¨ # ! ¦ © ! ¦ © ¦ § 1 # ! 0
~ ! © ¦ $ # # ' $ ¦ ) ¨ © $ ¦ 0 © ¨ 3 ¦ © $ # ¦ §
© ( ( © ) ! ¦ © ! © ¨ 
© © $ © ¨ © $ u ~ ! ¨ ¦ 1 ¦ § $ # # 3 ©
§ § ¨ © © § © ¨ © 1 ' © © © ~ ! © ¦ $ # ¨ ©
$ # # ¨ © … $ ¨ © ¦ ! Ž ¨ © ~ ! ¦ $ % © § © $ 0 ¦ 3
# ! ) ¦ 0 © ! ( ~ © ¨ ! ¦ # 3 $ ¦ §
© ¦ © ¨ 0 ' © ! u $ $ 0 © © © ( ( © ) 

t ¦ © ¨ © © ¨ ) ~ ~ © ¨ 1  ‘ A T Y Y ’ R P P U
“ G H G R P g v ” $ # # © # w x x { z 1 © ¨ © ¨ © u $ ¦ § © §
$ $ © 3 $ # © ¦ % $ ¨ ! ¦ u © ¦ ¦ § ¦ ! ©
u ! ! ¨ ) ¨ $ ¨ © ~ ! ¦ $ 3 # © ( ! ¨ u )
{ x } ! ( ) ¨ 3 ! ¦ © u $ $ ! ¦ v z   © † ¦ ! ! (
© 3 © ¦ © ( $ ! ( 0 ! ! § § © $ 0 ¦ ( ! ¨ ! ¨ ) ! u ( ! ¨
¦ § © # # 3 © $ ¦ 0 3 # ! ¨ © # $ • © © 3 © ¦ © ( $
! ( 0 ! ! § 0 ¨ © © ¦ § © $ 0 ¦ 1 ¦ ! ! ¦ # ' ( ! ¨ ! ¨
) ! u ( ! ¨ ¦ § © # # 3 © $ ¦ 0 1 3 # ! ( ! ¨ ! ¨
© ¦ % $ ¨ ! ¦ u © ¦ ¦ § ! ¨ # $ u © ¨ % $ % # 
 $ ¦ $ ¦ ) ¨ © $ ¦ 0 ! ¨ # § ~ ! ~ # $ ! ¦ ¦ §
¦ © © § ( ! ¨ u ! ¨ © ¦ § u ! ¨ © ! $ ¦ 0 1 © ¨ ©
¨ ¦ $ $ ! ¦ $ ¦ 0 ! ¨ § ( ¨ © $ !
) © ¨ $ ¦ ( ! $ # ( © # 3 © 0 $ ¦ ¦ $ ¦ 0 $ ! $ # 1 ' ©
u ¦ ' ! ( $ # # ¦ ! # $ % © $ ©
) ! u ( ! ¨ ¦ § ) ! ¦ % © ¦ $ © ¦ ) © $ © # ~ © § !
3 ¨ $ ¦ 0 

3. – — ˜ ™
’ ‰ “ š r s n n › „ … † ‡ ˆ ‰  ‘ ’ ‰ “ ” • ‡ ˆ “ ‡ – ‰ ˆ — ˆ † ˆ … ‰ “ ” ˜  ™ ‘ ˆ ‰ ˆ ™ “ ˆ d i j k d l ‰ • † m … ™ ˆ d n n o  p ˆ q m ˆ ‰ r s n n
œ
 © u © „ ~ © ) ! u † © ) ! ¦ ) © $ ! ¦ !
$ u ~ # © u © ¦ © ¦ © ) © ¨ ' ) ¦ 0 © ! ! ¨
3 $ # © ¦ % $ ¨ ! ¦ u © ¦ 1 $ $ ~ ¨ ! ( ©
§ Ž u © ¦ ! ( ! ¨ ) ! # # © ) $ % © u $ ¦ §  © ! ( ©
) ! ¦ © … © ¦ ) © ! ( ) # $ u © ) ¦ 0 © ¦ § ! (
© © ¦ § ! ( u $ ¦ © ¨ # ! $ # 
¢ © ! $ # $ ¦ § ¨ ' ¦ § ) $ © ¦ $ † ¦ !
) ¦ 0 © $ $ ¦ © % $ 3 # © 1 © ¢ ¨ ) $ © ) 1
¤ ¦ 0 $ ¦ © © ¨ ¦ §
Š
© $ 0 ¦ © ¨ u !
$ ¨ § ! © ¦ ! % © ! 3 © $ ¦ ) ! ¦ % © ¦ $ © ¦ 
 © u † © § % ¦ 0 © ! ( ¦ ¨ #
¨ © ! ¨ ) © 1 © „ $ $ ¦ 0 ' © u ¦ §
© ) ¦ ! # ! 0 ' ! © $ ¨ u „ $ u u ~ ! © ¦ $ # 1
§ Ž $ ¦ 0 ¦ § $ u ~ ¨ ! % $ ¦ 0 ! ¨ u © ¨ $ # 1
¨ ) ¨ © ¦ § § © $ 0 ¦ 1 ¨ © ¨ ! ( $ $ ¦ 0
3 $ # § $ ¦ 0 © ¨ © ~ ! $ 3 # © ¦ § 3 © $ ¦ 0 ¨ ©
! ( © $ § © ¨ $ u ~ # $ ) $ ! ¦ ! ( ! ¨ § © ) $ $ ! ¦ 
¢ § % ¦ ) © ¨ © 3 © $ ¦ 0 u § © 1 $ ©
$ ¦ © ¦ $ ! ¦ ! ( # ! © ¨ $ ¦ 0 © © ¦ © ¨ 0 '
¨ © … $ ¨ © u © ¦ ! ( # # 3 $ # § $ ¦ 0  © ¨ © ! ¦
( ! ¨ $ ¨ © ! 3 © ( ! ¦ § $ ¦ © ¨ © # © % ¦
$ u ~ ) ! ¦ © © ¦ % $ ¨ ! ¦ u © ¦ ) © § 3 ' ©
~ ! # # ¦ © u $ $ ! ¦ 0 © ¦ © ¨ © § 3 ' ©
3 $ # § $ ¦ 0 ! ) † 1 ¦ § u ! ¨ © # $ † © # ' 1 3 ' ©
0 ¨ ! $ ¦ 0 ) ! ! ( © ¦ © ¨ 0 ' ž Ÿ ¡
© ( $ ( ¦ ¦ # 0 # ! 3 # © ¦ © ¨ 0 ' © ( ( $ ) $ © ¦ ) '
$ ¦ § $ ) ! ¨ ¨ % © ' $ ¦ ( ! ¨ u © §
$ ¦ ) ¨ © $ ¦ 0 © ¦ © ¨ 0 ' ~ ¨ $ ) © 1 0 ! % © ¨ ¦ u © ¦
$ ¦ ) © ¦ $ % © ¦ § ~ 3 # $ ) $ u 0 © ¨ © § ¨ $ % $ ¦ 0
) $ ¦ © ¦ © ¨ 0 ' ) ! ¦ u ~ $ ! ¦
© ¨ © ~ ! ¨ $ 0 # $ 0 © § © ~ ¨ $ u ¨ '
© ( ( $ ) $ © ¦ ) ' § ¨ $ % © ¨ $ ¦ ! ¨ § © ¨ ! ( ~ ¨ © ( © ¨ © ¦ ) © !
3 $ # § $ ¦ 0 ! ¦ © ¨ © ¨ © ¥
¢ £
v 3 $ # § $ ¦ 0
© ƒ w } ! ( 0 # ! 3 # © ¦ © ¨ 0 ' z
$ $ z ” ! % © ¨ ¦ u © ¦ t ¦ ) © ¦ $ % ©
$ $ $ z ‚ 3 # $ ) $ u 0 ©
$ % z ” ¨ © © ¦ ! © 0 ¨ © § ) $ ! ¦
A I D E d T d P R E T b E H I T H R P C G F D U Q F B E H E T U C
R G U U D U Q T H D Q I H E I D d T R P U B H P U B G Q I ` S P
W G E H u P P d B U P P b P B U H I P P U V D R B U W P U H H B
U B H ¤ G E H F B U E P R V P ` c G H H B d P R d P H G T H P T U C ` H B
c P W D U C X G Y B X F B E H D U T U P S T Q P B X F T R c B U
R P E d B U E D c D Y D H b ` S P T R P X B R F P C H B c P F R P T H D V P
T U C C P E D Q U H B d R B H P F H B G R D U H P R P E H E e
Œ $ ! ¨ $ ) # # ' 1 ©  
Š
© ~ ¨ u © ¦ ! ( ¤ ¦ © ¨ 0 '
§ $ © § # 0 © ¦ # © ¨ ¦ $ % © ( © # ( ! ¨
3 ! y { ' © ¨ 1 ( ¨ ! u y  ¥ { ! y   |  2 1 $ ¦
y   | $ § © ) $ § © § # 0 © ! $ # ) ! # §
¦ © % © ¨ ) ! u ~ © © © ) ! ¦ ! u $ ) # # ' $ ( ! $ #
( © # ¦ § ¨ © © ¨ ) ! ( ! ) ! ¦
) © # # # ! $ ) © ¦ ! # 1 u § © ( ¨ ! u © ¨ © u $ ¦
! ( ¦ ! ¦ © § $ 3 # © ¨ % © ) ¨ ! ~ v $ ¦ ) # § $ ¦ 0
3 0 © ( ¨ ! u 0 ¨ ) ¦ © z ( © ¨ u © ¦ © § $
' ©  © ~ # ) © u © ¦ ! ( § ¨ ! ~  $ ¦ 3 $ ! ( © #
# $ † © © ¦ ! # u $ „ © § $ ~ © ¨ ! # © ~ u ~
$ ¦ ! ( u $ # $ ¨ $ 0 
! ~ # ) © © ) ! ¦ ! u $ ) ( ! ¨ ! ¦ © ¦
© „ u ~ # © 1 © ~ ¨ $ ) © ! ( 3 ¨ ¨ © # ! ( ! $ # $ ¦ y   |
3 ! ¦ w x
Š
1 $ $ ¦ ! ) ¨ ¨ © ¦ # '
¦ { ¥   x ( ! ¨  © © „ t ¦ © ¨ u © § $ © ‡ ¨ § ©
v ¨ § © § $ ¦ ¡ © § ! ¨ † z ¦ § ¦ y y ¨  € ƒ ( ! ¨ 2 ¨ © ¦
‡ ¨ § © 1 ¨ § © § $ ¦ ! ¦ § ! ¦ v y { © ~ w x y y z 
A I P H I R P T H B X Q Y B c T Y S T R W D U Q T U C H I P
F G R R P U H d R D F P B X B D Y ` D H E g E H P T C b G d S T R C d T H I `
D U F R P T E D U Q E F T R F D H b T U C H I P D W d Y D F T H D B U E
H I T H I T E X B R F B W W P R F P ` B G R F B E H E T U C
E P F G R D H b T R P V P R b d B S P R X G Y T R Q G W P U H E X B R
d G R E G D U Q T d B H P U H D T Y Y b G U Y D W D H P C E B G R F P B X
R P U P S T c Y P X G P Y e
f D H I B G H T H I B R B G Q I G U C P R E H T U C D U Q B X H I P
F B U F P d H E D U V B Y V P C D H S D Y Y U B H c P d B E E D c Y P H B
C P E D Q U P U V D R B U W P U H E H B H T u P T C V T U H T Q P B X
H I D E P © F D H D U Q H P F I U B Y B Q b T U C S P S D Y Y W P R P Y b