2. Abstract: This study explores culturalinguistic vitality and variation among speakers of
national languages. A corollary examination looks into the impact of traditional media
and new information communication technologies (ICTs) on culturalinguistic variation
and vitality among speakers of national languages. Foremost, the research was
undertaken by examining themes and developments involved in globalization, cultural
imperialism, Internet- and software-assisted multi-lingualism, tele-access and
culturalinguistics. By examining empirically questions emerging from these themes and
developments, this study endeavored to ascertain to what extent individuals are
undergoing linguistic and cultural convergence or divergence.
Introduction
With language rests life; with language rests death.
- Traditional Hawaiian Proverb
Background
When Julius Caesar arrived in the British Isles 2,000 years ago, English did not
exist. When William Shakespeare penned his famous plays 400 years ago, English was
largely confined to the British Isles. Today, of the estimated 6,500 or so languages in
existence (Wurm, 1996), English reigns supreme. This extraordinary circumstance begs
the following question: What precipitated the ascendancy of English as the global lingua
franca? Considering this question is important in beginning to understand the importance
of language in relation to traditional media, new information communication
technologies (ICTs) and the continuing process of globalization. Indeed, the dominance
of the English language, ICTs and globalization are interdependent.
The emergence of global English
2
3. Although globalization can be traced back to the middle ages, Thompson (1995)
noted that the globalization of communication can be traced back to the mid-nineteenth
century. This period coincided with the beginning of English expansion and the first of
three overriding factors that conspired to catapult English to the linguistic forefront. The
first factor that laid the foundation for English was the British Empire which, at its
height, directly or indirectly governed over a quarter of the human race and encompassed
more than a fifth of the planet (Thussu, 1998). The second factor, according to Schiller
(1992), was due in large part to America's victorious emergence from the Second World
War. He stated that the dominance of English occurred mainly as a result of the
astronomical expenditure over the post-World War II years by the US in military,
scientific and financial spheres. Revisiting the issue, Schiller (1998) asserted that global
American cultural/informational dominance over the past 50 years has been a fully
conscious and deliberate effort, carried out by each administration, from Truman's to
Clinton's. The third factor is the continuing worldwide influence of the American
dominated media. "U.S.-based media companies are the world leaders and have set the
ground rules for the global contest to control communications and commodified cultural
resources" (Rifkin, 2000, p. 219). Indeed, when studying linguistic phenomena in the
future, linguists may identify the ascendance of English as the major linguistic hallmark
of the 20th century (Chen & Starosta, 2000).
Once a dominant language is established, several important conditions must be in
place to sustain it. In his essay A Structural Theory of Imperialism, Galtung (1971) lists
five types of imperialism to explain the dominance of "center" nations over "periphery"
nations. His classification of economic, political, military, communication and cultural
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4. factors as imperialistic components also applies to the creation and maintenance of a
dominant language. Crystal (1997) validated this, stating that no language can make
progress as an international medium of communication without a strong power-base,
whether political, military or economic. Any country can become an empire and any
language can become a lingua franca, provided it possess the five types of imperialism
set forth by Galtung. The ingredients for empire are evident in the annals of history.
Ancient Greece and Rome fit this model, their culture and language leaving an indelible
global imprint that is visible to this day. Subsequently, following the same pattern,
Portugal, Spain, France and Great Britain established empires, all of which had a vast and
continuing cultural and linguistic impact. These influences, however, pale in comparison
with the impact of English.
Problem Statement
According to Tehranian (1999), "globalization may be characterized as the most
powerful trend of our time" (p. 190). The engine propelling this trend forward is
information communication technologies. Fueling this engine is English. Presently,
English is the universal language of science, medicine, business, diplomacy,
aviation/navigation, entertainment, glamour and sports. Given this, English is the
medium for approximately 80 percent of the information stored in the world's computers
(McCrum, Cran & MacNeil, 1988). Moreover, according to Tsuda (1999), 70 to 80
percent of academic publications are printed in English. Tsuda (1999) goes on to note
that English is the designated official language in roughly 62 nations and that it is the de
facto official and working language in most international organizations. Exemplifying
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5. this trend, economists and academics in South Korea have recently advocated the
adoption of English as an official language as a means of boosting economic growth and
the nation's competitiveness in an increasingly globalized world (Song, 2000). In
addition to the number of nations adopting English as an official language, 60 percent of
the world's radio broadcasts are in English, 70 percent of the world's mail is addressed in
English and 85 percent of all international telephone conversations are in English
(Naisbitt, 1994).
Above all, English is second only to Mandarin or "Putonghua" as the most widely
spoken language in the world. Putonghua, meaning common language, is the Beijing
dialect of Mandarin. According to the Linguasphere Website, which tracks language
issues, both languages, including those who speak English as a second language, have
approximately one billion speakers. In contrast, asserting the number of native and non-
native speakers of English is between 1.5 and 2 billion, Ronowicz (1999) maintained
there are more English speakers today than there are speakers of Chinese or any other
language. Despite this, there has been some contention that China's emerging status as a
21st century superpower may lead to English being challenged as a world lingua franca.
Meanwhile no one can predict humanity's linguistic future, because the subject is just too
hypothetical and the range of variables too great (Wallraff, 2000). China's internal and
regional status, however, confirms that English will remain the major means of
worldwide communication for the near future. "Although Chinese is the first language of
one-quarter of the world's population, there are more speakers of English as a second
language in China than there are native speakers of English in the world" (Chen &
Starosta, 2000, p. 302). Regionally, English also holds sway over China's burgeoning
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6. power. The British council (2000), for example, stated that English is currently the
language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), even though overseas
Chinese control a significant amount of financial flows between ASEAN countries.
Notably, the British Council (2000) commented that this situation stems from the
wariness with which China's rapid growth is regarded within ASEAN and is likely to
reinforce, rather than weaken, the role of English.
Given the ubiquitous nature of English and its corresponding status as the world
lingua franca, English, as previously mentioned, has become the fuel that drives
globalization. "The most important factor accelerating the development of a single global
lifestyle is the proliferation of the English language" (Naisbitt, 1990, p. 139). At the
same time, as Sreberny-Mohammadi (1997) recognized, one of the most important
functions of globalization is the free flow of information. The key, however, to gaining
access to this information is English. "In comparison with other languages of wider
communication, knowing English is like possessing the fabled Aladdin's lamp, which
permits one to open, as it were, the linguistic gates in international business, technology,
science, and travel" (Kachru, 1986, p. 1). This point has significant implications for
those who do not speak English and for those who learn English at the expense of their
native language. By extension, this has serious implications where language loss and
maintenance are concerned. According to Wurm (1996), 3,000 languages are currently
endangered. Although the number of languages in danger of disappearing is a matter of
debate, some linguists estimate that as many as 4,000 languages will disappear in the next
century (Grenoble, L. A. & Whaley, L. J., 1998). Underscoring this prediction, Geary
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7. (1997) noted that linguists have estimated that one language dies somewhere in the world
every two weeks.
These numbers are not only alarming -- they demand an explanation. For years,
however, linguists have been struggling with what remains an indefinable issue.
According to Grenoble and Whaley (1998), this stems from "the crucial issue of
identifying precisely the kinds of situations which will facilitate or, alternatively, hinder
language loss/expansion" (p. ix). In sum, it is imperative that research be undertaken to
examine the underlying causes that lead to the death and resurrection of languages and
cultures. This needs to be done for smaller indigenous languages and cultures as well as
national languages and cultures. Doing so may give linguistic communities the ability to
enable and empower themselves in the revival and maintenance of their native languages
and cultures.
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this study is to explore the impact of English-dominated media and
ICTs on culturalinguistic vitality and variation among speakers of national languages. In
addition, it will investigate how and to what extent English-dominated media and ICTs,
by way of tele-access, influence cultural identities among speakers of national languages.
Importance of the Study
The combined influence and impact of the globalization of communication and the
ongoing online-linguistic shift, is impacting languages in ways that are still not fully
understood. What is certain, however, is that languages are disappearing at an alarming
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8. rate. As Wurm (1996) noted, a language is one of humanity's most precious
commodities. When a language dies it takes with it an entire culture, an entirely different
way of looking at the world, an entirely different way of thinking -- of being. The loss is
irreparable.
Building on Tsuda's (1999) concept of Ecology of Language Paradigm which is
outlined in his essay The Hegemony of English and Strategies for Linguistic Pluralism:
Proposing the Ecology of Language Paradigm, addressing this issue will:
1) create deeper awareness of and further insights into the ramifications of
language dominance and the relationship between and among differing
languages.
2) show that technological competence and equality of access can be used for
positive purposes that lead to the preservation of languages and cultures rather
than to their demise.
3) allow for the review and adoption of better policies and strategies for the
development of a global language policy particularly from the standpoint of
encouraging multi-lingualism and multiculturalism.
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