1. Latvia has been inhabited for thousands of years, first by ancient Baltic tribes who participated in regional trade networks. 2. Latvia was influenced by Germans beginning in the 13th century when Riga was founded, leading to the establishment of an ecclesiastical state under German authorities. 3. Latvia gained independence after World War I but was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940 and Nazi Germany from 1941-1945 before becoming part of the Soviet Union until 1991 when it regained independence.
An hour in comparative history of Baltic countriesEdgars Engizers
While the Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia share some common history as part of the former Soviet Union, they also have distinct linguistic and cultural differences. Estonians are linguistically Finno-Ugric while Latvians and Lithuanians are Baltic. The earliest settlers arrived after the last ice age ended over 10,000 years ago. Germany established dominance in the 13th century and the lands became part of the Russian Empire in the 18th century before gaining independence in the early 20th century. They were then occupied by the Soviet Union in World War 2 before reestablishing independence in the early 1990s.
Tallinn has been known by several names throughout its history. It began as a Finno-Ugric settlement along the Gulf of Finland over 3,500 years ago. In the 11th century, it became an important port and marketplace for Scandinavian and Russian merchants. Tallinn came under Danish rule in 1219 and flourished as a trading city in the 14th-16th centuries as a member of the Hanseatic League. It later became part of Sweden and then the Russian Empire before gaining independence in 1918. Tallinn is now the capital of Estonia and a modern center of business and technology.
Lithuania has a long history dating back to 1009. It established itself as a kingdom in the 13th century and later formed a powerful union with Poland. However, Lithuania was later partitioned and ruled by the Russian Empire for several centuries. Gediminas Castle was founded in the 13th century by Grand Duke Gediminas according to a prophetic dream. Trakai Castle was constructed in the 14th century by Grand Duke Kęstutis. In 1989, over 2 million people formed a 600km human chain across Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania known as the Baltic Way to protest the Soviet occupation and demonstrate solidarity for independence.
Marijampolė is a city in Lithuania that was originally founded as a village called Pašešupė in 1667. In the 18th century, it grew into a market town called Staropolė or Staropole. After a fire in 1768 destroyed much of the town, it was rebuilt and renamed Marijampolė after the Blessed Virgin Mary. In the 19th century, the town continued growing due to Jewish and German settlers and became an important center of Lithuanian national revival during Lithuanian suppression by the Russian Empire. Currently, Marijampolė has a population that is over 95% Lithuanian.
Vilnius is the capital city of Lithuania, located in the southeast of the country. It has a population of over 500,000 people. Vilnius first emerged as a trading settlement in the 13th century and was established as the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by Grand Duke Gediminas in 1323. The city underwent expansion in the 16th century with the construction of city walls and became an important center of science and culture as the home of Vilnius University, founded in 1579. However, Vilnius suffered significant damage and loss of population in the 17th century during wars and outbreaks of plague. The city changed hands repeatedly in the early 20th century during World Wars I
Lithuanian symbols and topics, flag, anthem,Kristina
Lithuanian national symbols include the Vytis coat of arms depicting an armored knight, which was approved in 1990. The national flag and anthem express pride in Lithuania and its people. A founding legend says that Duke Gediminas had a vision of an iron wolf howling on a hill, which a priest interpreted as meaning Lithuania would have a great city (Vilnius) as strong as iron that would spread its fame far.
Venice, Italy is a city comprised of small islands separated by canals. It has a rich history as a powerful maritime republic dating back to the 10th century BC. By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in Europe with a vast trading empire dominating Mediterranean commerce. The city-state was governed by a complex oligarchical system led by the Doge, the chief executive who usually held the position for life. Venice became a major center of art and printing during the medieval and Renaissance periods, establishing itself as the printing capital of the world by the 15th century.
Ternopil is a city in western Ukraine, founded in 1540. It has experienced numerous attacks and changes in rule over the centuries, being controlled at various points by Poland, Austria, Russia, Germany, and the Soviet Union. The population in 2010 was 218,641. Jews formed a majority of Ternopil's population in the 16th-17th centuries, but most were killed during a 1648 uprising or deported and murdered by Nazis during World War 2. Ternopil suffered extensive destruction during World War 2 from fighting and scorched earth policies.
An hour in comparative history of Baltic countriesEdgars Engizers
While the Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia share some common history as part of the former Soviet Union, they also have distinct linguistic and cultural differences. Estonians are linguistically Finno-Ugric while Latvians and Lithuanians are Baltic. The earliest settlers arrived after the last ice age ended over 10,000 years ago. Germany established dominance in the 13th century and the lands became part of the Russian Empire in the 18th century before gaining independence in the early 20th century. They were then occupied by the Soviet Union in World War 2 before reestablishing independence in the early 1990s.
Tallinn has been known by several names throughout its history. It began as a Finno-Ugric settlement along the Gulf of Finland over 3,500 years ago. In the 11th century, it became an important port and marketplace for Scandinavian and Russian merchants. Tallinn came under Danish rule in 1219 and flourished as a trading city in the 14th-16th centuries as a member of the Hanseatic League. It later became part of Sweden and then the Russian Empire before gaining independence in 1918. Tallinn is now the capital of Estonia and a modern center of business and technology.
Lithuania has a long history dating back to 1009. It established itself as a kingdom in the 13th century and later formed a powerful union with Poland. However, Lithuania was later partitioned and ruled by the Russian Empire for several centuries. Gediminas Castle was founded in the 13th century by Grand Duke Gediminas according to a prophetic dream. Trakai Castle was constructed in the 14th century by Grand Duke Kęstutis. In 1989, over 2 million people formed a 600km human chain across Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania known as the Baltic Way to protest the Soviet occupation and demonstrate solidarity for independence.
Marijampolė is a city in Lithuania that was originally founded as a village called Pašešupė in 1667. In the 18th century, it grew into a market town called Staropolė or Staropole. After a fire in 1768 destroyed much of the town, it was rebuilt and renamed Marijampolė after the Blessed Virgin Mary. In the 19th century, the town continued growing due to Jewish and German settlers and became an important center of Lithuanian national revival during Lithuanian suppression by the Russian Empire. Currently, Marijampolė has a population that is over 95% Lithuanian.
Vilnius is the capital city of Lithuania, located in the southeast of the country. It has a population of over 500,000 people. Vilnius first emerged as a trading settlement in the 13th century and was established as the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by Grand Duke Gediminas in 1323. The city underwent expansion in the 16th century with the construction of city walls and became an important center of science and culture as the home of Vilnius University, founded in 1579. However, Vilnius suffered significant damage and loss of population in the 17th century during wars and outbreaks of plague. The city changed hands repeatedly in the early 20th century during World Wars I
Lithuanian symbols and topics, flag, anthem,Kristina
Lithuanian national symbols include the Vytis coat of arms depicting an armored knight, which was approved in 1990. The national flag and anthem express pride in Lithuania and its people. A founding legend says that Duke Gediminas had a vision of an iron wolf howling on a hill, which a priest interpreted as meaning Lithuania would have a great city (Vilnius) as strong as iron that would spread its fame far.
Venice, Italy is a city comprised of small islands separated by canals. It has a rich history as a powerful maritime republic dating back to the 10th century BC. By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in Europe with a vast trading empire dominating Mediterranean commerce. The city-state was governed by a complex oligarchical system led by the Doge, the chief executive who usually held the position for life. Venice became a major center of art and printing during the medieval and Renaissance periods, establishing itself as the printing capital of the world by the 15th century.
Ternopil is a city in western Ukraine, founded in 1540. It has experienced numerous attacks and changes in rule over the centuries, being controlled at various points by Poland, Austria, Russia, Germany, and the Soviet Union. The population in 2010 was 218,641. Jews formed a majority of Ternopil's population in the 16th-17th centuries, but most were killed during a 1648 uprising or deported and murdered by Nazis during World War 2. Ternopil suffered extensive destruction during World War 2 from fighting and scorched earth policies.
This document provides an overview of Slovakia and its capital city Bratislava. Some key points:
- Slovakia is a landlocked country in Central Europe that gained independence in 1993 after Czechoslovakia split. Bratislava is the capital city with a population of around 500,000.
- The culture is influenced by neighboring countries and Slovakia has a rich history, including being part of the Great Moravian Empire and later the Kingdom of Hungary for over 1,000 years.
- Bratislava sits on the Danube River and has historic sites like the Primate Palace and Main Square, though it has also been influenced by Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs and others throughout its history.
Qween Maria - The Great Union from 1918Amelia Dobrin
The Queen coordinated the collaboration with the Red Cross, organized campaign hospitals and raised funds for the ambulance service. Thus, it became known as "the wounded mother" or "queen soldier".
Kremnica, Slovakia - case study presentation.pptxavitae
The Kremnica Mint in Slovakia is one of the oldest continuously operating manufacturing enterprises in the world, having minted coins for over 700 years. It began minting in 1328 when coiners from Kutna Hora came to Kremnica and produced the first silver coins. In the 1330s it began minting gold coins, including the powerful Kremnica ducat currency of Central Europe. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, the Kremnica Mint was one of the largest production facilities in Europe and helped establish Kremnica as an important mining and minting center. Today it produces commemorative and collector coins for clients around the world, maintaining its centuries
1312 Absolutism and its Alternatives, the Scientific Revolution, and Russia (...Drew Burks
The document provides an overview of absolutism in 17th century Europe and the rise of Russia. It discusses how Louis XIV of France established an absolute monarchy by centralizing power around himself in Versailles. It also describes alternatives like constitutional monarchy in England and a republic in the Netherlands. Regarding Russia, it outlines the rise of Moscow under Ivan the Great, Ivan IV (the Terrible)'s expansion and brutality, and Peter the Great's modernization efforts including founding the new capital of St. Petersburg. The next topics will be the Enlightenment and an overview of the Islamic world from Chapter 17.
The first written record of Levice, Slovakia dates to 1156 and mentions a church dedication. A castle was built in Levice in the 13th century when a nearby castle declined in importance. Under the castle's protection, a settlement called "Big" or "Old" Levice developed in the 14th century, which is considered the predecessor to the modern town. Frequent fires caused great damage to Levice, destroying almost the entire town in 1696. Levice grew significantly in the second half of the 18th century as an agricultural center and site of trade and crafts.
This document provides a brief history of Denmark, beginning with prehistoric settlements over 12,000 years ago. It discusses the Viking Age from 800-1100 AD and the development of a strong royal power. Christianity reached Denmark in the 10th century under King Harald Bluetooth. The Kalmar Union united Denmark, Norway, and Sweden from 1397-1523. Denmark experienced losses of territory in the 17th-19th centuries and transitioned to an absolute monarchy until democracy was established in 1849. A key issue was the affiliation of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
This document provides an overview of Ukraine, including its history, demographics, economy, and relations with India. It begins with a brief introduction and table of contents. Some key points:
- Ukraine has had a complex history as it has been invaded and ruled by various powers over the centuries, and only gained independence in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union.
- It has a population of over 43 million people and its capital and largest city is Kiev. The majority of people are ethnically Ukrainian and follow Christianity.
- Compared to India, Ukraine has a higher GDP per capita but lower overall GDP. Its main industries and exports include military equipment, metals, and petroleum products.
This slide show is enhanced content for the Fall 2013 Forum Journal (Study Abroad: Global Perspectives). Read the blog post here: http://wp.me/p2KJpV-Xf. To learn more about Preservation Leadership Forum and how you can become a member visit: http://www.preservationleadershipforum.org
The most important dates in Italian history include:
- 753 BC - The founding of Rome by Romulus, descended from the royal line of Alba Longa.
- Circa 1200 BC - After the fall of Troy, the Trojan hero Aeneas journeys throughout the Mediterranean and eventually lands in Lazio, Italy where he is welcomed by King Latinus.
- 753 BC - Romulus and his twin brother Remus, descendants of Aeneas and Mars, found Rome but Romulus kills Remus and becomes the city's first king.
- 1230 - The Sicilian School of Poetry emerges as the earliest form of secular literature in Italy under Emperor Frederick II of Sw
Făgăraş is a town located in central Romania along the Olt River. It has a long history dating back to Dacian settlements in the area. The name Făgăraş comes from the Romanian word for beech tree, as the town was originally situated in a beech forest. Throughout its history, Făgăraş has been an important economic, social and spiritual center, with archaeological evidence of Roman, Dacian and medieval settlements. Crafts and trade flourished there in the Middle Ages. Făgăraş resisted foreign domination and was a center of rebellion against oppressive Hungarian and Austrian rule. It remains an important cultural center in Transylvania with
The document discusses the history of Jewish communities in Calabria, Italy from ancient times to World War II. It describes archaeological evidence that shows Jewish settlements existed in places like Reggio Calabria, Bova Marina, and Ferramonti during the Roman Empire and Middle Ages. The oldest synagogue in Europe after Ostia Antica was found at Bova Marina dating to the 4th century AD. Jews played an important role in trade and business for centuries until they were expelled from Calabria in 1541 and interned in Ferramonti concentration camp during WWII before being liberated. Archaeological findings provide insights into the mixed cultures that coexisted in the region.
Bistrita is located in northern Romania on the Bistrita River. The earliest settlements date back to the Neolithic era, with the Saxons establishing the town in 1206. It grew as a trading post along important trade routes. By the 15th century, Bistrita had fortifications with 18 towers defended by local guilds. It had a large Jewish population in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, though most emigrated by 2002 when only around 15 Jews remained. The population in 2011 was 70,493, with Romanians making up the largest ethnic group at over 90%.
1312 Absolutism and its Alternatives, the Scientific Revolution, and RussiaDrew Burks
This document provides an overview and discussion of key topics in 17th century European history, including absolutism, the scientific revolution, and the development of Russia. It discusses the rise of absolute monarchs like Louis XIV in France and how they centralized power. Alternatives to absolutism included constitutional monarchies like England and republics like the Dutch Republic. The document also touches on the scientific revolution spearheaded by figures like Copernicus and the expansion of Russia under rulers like Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great.
Great Union Day on December 1st marks the unification of Transylvania, Bessarabia, and Bukovina with Romania in 1918. An assembly was held in Alba Iulia where ethnic Romanians declared the union. Ferdinand I was the King of Romania at this time and oversaw the expansion and consolidation of the Romanian state. His wife, Queen Marie of Romania, was elated by the union and realization of a "Greater Romania". Annual military parades are still held today in Bucharest and Alba Iulia to commemorate the national holiday.
Debrecen is the second largest city in Hungary, located in the eastern part of the country. It has a long history as an important cultural and religious center, and was briefly the capital of Hungary during a revolution in the 19th century. Today, Debrecen remains an economic center with industries like pharmaceuticals and transportation links that support trade and development.
Queen Maria of Romania actively advocated for Romania on the political stage. She became queen in 1914 and involved herself in the country's affairs, even serving as an honorary commander in the military. After World War I, Queen Maria lobbied on Romania's behalf at the Paris Peace Conference to gain territorial concessions. Throughout her life, she wrote books and articles promoting Romania and demonstrating her deep love for the country. Even after Romania's union in 1918, she continued advocating for Romania internationally until being removed from politics when King Carol II took the throne.
The document provides details about a trip to the Czech Republic from March 9-15, 2013 to visit important historical sites. It also summarizes some key events in Czech history, including early settlement by Celts and Slavs, the establishment of the Premyslid dynasty in the 9th century, the rule of Charles IV in the 14th century which marked the height of Czech power, the Hussite Wars in the 15th century following religious reforms of Jan Hus, and the defeat of Czech Protestants by Catholic Hapsburgs at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 during the Thirty Years' War. The document uses the trip itinerary and historical summaries to provide context for a university course on the history of the Czech
The City of Radford, Virginia, is in the heart of the Smokey Mountains and was first settled in 1761 as a ferry point across the New River for settlers moving west. By 1854, Radford—then known as Central City and colloquially as Lovely Mount—was a major commercial hub, steamboat landing, and railroad depot for the Tennessee and Virginia Railroad line. As the city grew, commerce flourished, more residential areas were built, and schools and industry were established, including Radford University (called the State Normal School, originally) and the US Army’s Radford Arsenal. Today, the City of Radford is a registered All American City and college town with many homes and commercial buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Architecture in Radford is a vivid cross section of American history, including structures built in Federal, Greek Revival, Queen Anne, Victorian, Second Empire, Colonial Revival, and Early Commercial styles.
Berlin is the capital city of Germany located in northeastern Germany. It has a long history dating back to the 13th century when it was first documented. Over time it served as the capital of the Kingdom of Prussia, the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, and Nazi Germany. After World War 2, Berlin was divided between East and West, with East Berlin as capital of East Germany and West Berlin as an exclave surrounded by East Germany. Following German reunification in 1990, Berlin again became the unified capital of all Germany. Berlin is now a major center of culture, politics, science, and industry in Europe.
The document discusses healthy relationships and bullying. It provides tips for building healthy relationships such as communicating openly, respecting boundaries, caring for one another equally and building trust. It also defines bullying as intentionally harming others through verbal, physical or cyber means to feel superior. The document recommends ways to address bullying by avoiding escalation, interfering to help others and teaching youth about acceptance and good behavior.
The document discusses keys for a healthy relationship, noting that the ability to accept a partner's influence is important. It states that men tend to be less likely than women to accept a partner's influence, and instead may emotionally disengage, escalate conflicts through belligerence or defensiveness, shutting down complaints and reinforcing gridlock. Accepting a partner's influence can lead to conversations where problems are discussed and resolved without attacks, criticism or resentment, unlike arguments that reinforce differences and create hopelessness. Accepting influence in conversations can be as simple as acknowledging a partner's point or opinion.
Workshop 4/6: Deals with stress between family and friends in relationships. The major causes of stress: Sibling Rivalry, Revertigo, Holidays. How to deal with unresolved Conflict. Strategies for dealing with Passive and Aggressive Behaviour, Personality stress. It also covers internal and external loci of control, optimism, social support, letting go a relationship and Loneliness.
http://www.markdsutton.com/
This document provides an overview of Slovakia and its capital city Bratislava. Some key points:
- Slovakia is a landlocked country in Central Europe that gained independence in 1993 after Czechoslovakia split. Bratislava is the capital city with a population of around 500,000.
- The culture is influenced by neighboring countries and Slovakia has a rich history, including being part of the Great Moravian Empire and later the Kingdom of Hungary for over 1,000 years.
- Bratislava sits on the Danube River and has historic sites like the Primate Palace and Main Square, though it has also been influenced by Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs and others throughout its history.
Qween Maria - The Great Union from 1918Amelia Dobrin
The Queen coordinated the collaboration with the Red Cross, organized campaign hospitals and raised funds for the ambulance service. Thus, it became known as "the wounded mother" or "queen soldier".
Kremnica, Slovakia - case study presentation.pptxavitae
The Kremnica Mint in Slovakia is one of the oldest continuously operating manufacturing enterprises in the world, having minted coins for over 700 years. It began minting in 1328 when coiners from Kutna Hora came to Kremnica and produced the first silver coins. In the 1330s it began minting gold coins, including the powerful Kremnica ducat currency of Central Europe. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, the Kremnica Mint was one of the largest production facilities in Europe and helped establish Kremnica as an important mining and minting center. Today it produces commemorative and collector coins for clients around the world, maintaining its centuries
1312 Absolutism and its Alternatives, the Scientific Revolution, and Russia (...Drew Burks
The document provides an overview of absolutism in 17th century Europe and the rise of Russia. It discusses how Louis XIV of France established an absolute monarchy by centralizing power around himself in Versailles. It also describes alternatives like constitutional monarchy in England and a republic in the Netherlands. Regarding Russia, it outlines the rise of Moscow under Ivan the Great, Ivan IV (the Terrible)'s expansion and brutality, and Peter the Great's modernization efforts including founding the new capital of St. Petersburg. The next topics will be the Enlightenment and an overview of the Islamic world from Chapter 17.
The first written record of Levice, Slovakia dates to 1156 and mentions a church dedication. A castle was built in Levice in the 13th century when a nearby castle declined in importance. Under the castle's protection, a settlement called "Big" or "Old" Levice developed in the 14th century, which is considered the predecessor to the modern town. Frequent fires caused great damage to Levice, destroying almost the entire town in 1696. Levice grew significantly in the second half of the 18th century as an agricultural center and site of trade and crafts.
This document provides a brief history of Denmark, beginning with prehistoric settlements over 12,000 years ago. It discusses the Viking Age from 800-1100 AD and the development of a strong royal power. Christianity reached Denmark in the 10th century under King Harald Bluetooth. The Kalmar Union united Denmark, Norway, and Sweden from 1397-1523. Denmark experienced losses of territory in the 17th-19th centuries and transitioned to an absolute monarchy until democracy was established in 1849. A key issue was the affiliation of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
This document provides an overview of Ukraine, including its history, demographics, economy, and relations with India. It begins with a brief introduction and table of contents. Some key points:
- Ukraine has had a complex history as it has been invaded and ruled by various powers over the centuries, and only gained independence in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union.
- It has a population of over 43 million people and its capital and largest city is Kiev. The majority of people are ethnically Ukrainian and follow Christianity.
- Compared to India, Ukraine has a higher GDP per capita but lower overall GDP. Its main industries and exports include military equipment, metals, and petroleum products.
This slide show is enhanced content for the Fall 2013 Forum Journal (Study Abroad: Global Perspectives). Read the blog post here: http://wp.me/p2KJpV-Xf. To learn more about Preservation Leadership Forum and how you can become a member visit: http://www.preservationleadershipforum.org
The most important dates in Italian history include:
- 753 BC - The founding of Rome by Romulus, descended from the royal line of Alba Longa.
- Circa 1200 BC - After the fall of Troy, the Trojan hero Aeneas journeys throughout the Mediterranean and eventually lands in Lazio, Italy where he is welcomed by King Latinus.
- 753 BC - Romulus and his twin brother Remus, descendants of Aeneas and Mars, found Rome but Romulus kills Remus and becomes the city's first king.
- 1230 - The Sicilian School of Poetry emerges as the earliest form of secular literature in Italy under Emperor Frederick II of Sw
Făgăraş is a town located in central Romania along the Olt River. It has a long history dating back to Dacian settlements in the area. The name Făgăraş comes from the Romanian word for beech tree, as the town was originally situated in a beech forest. Throughout its history, Făgăraş has been an important economic, social and spiritual center, with archaeological evidence of Roman, Dacian and medieval settlements. Crafts and trade flourished there in the Middle Ages. Făgăraş resisted foreign domination and was a center of rebellion against oppressive Hungarian and Austrian rule. It remains an important cultural center in Transylvania with
The document discusses the history of Jewish communities in Calabria, Italy from ancient times to World War II. It describes archaeological evidence that shows Jewish settlements existed in places like Reggio Calabria, Bova Marina, and Ferramonti during the Roman Empire and Middle Ages. The oldest synagogue in Europe after Ostia Antica was found at Bova Marina dating to the 4th century AD. Jews played an important role in trade and business for centuries until they were expelled from Calabria in 1541 and interned in Ferramonti concentration camp during WWII before being liberated. Archaeological findings provide insights into the mixed cultures that coexisted in the region.
Bistrita is located in northern Romania on the Bistrita River. The earliest settlements date back to the Neolithic era, with the Saxons establishing the town in 1206. It grew as a trading post along important trade routes. By the 15th century, Bistrita had fortifications with 18 towers defended by local guilds. It had a large Jewish population in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, though most emigrated by 2002 when only around 15 Jews remained. The population in 2011 was 70,493, with Romanians making up the largest ethnic group at over 90%.
1312 Absolutism and its Alternatives, the Scientific Revolution, and RussiaDrew Burks
This document provides an overview and discussion of key topics in 17th century European history, including absolutism, the scientific revolution, and the development of Russia. It discusses the rise of absolute monarchs like Louis XIV in France and how they centralized power. Alternatives to absolutism included constitutional monarchies like England and republics like the Dutch Republic. The document also touches on the scientific revolution spearheaded by figures like Copernicus and the expansion of Russia under rulers like Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great.
Great Union Day on December 1st marks the unification of Transylvania, Bessarabia, and Bukovina with Romania in 1918. An assembly was held in Alba Iulia where ethnic Romanians declared the union. Ferdinand I was the King of Romania at this time and oversaw the expansion and consolidation of the Romanian state. His wife, Queen Marie of Romania, was elated by the union and realization of a "Greater Romania". Annual military parades are still held today in Bucharest and Alba Iulia to commemorate the national holiday.
Debrecen is the second largest city in Hungary, located in the eastern part of the country. It has a long history as an important cultural and religious center, and was briefly the capital of Hungary during a revolution in the 19th century. Today, Debrecen remains an economic center with industries like pharmaceuticals and transportation links that support trade and development.
Queen Maria of Romania actively advocated for Romania on the political stage. She became queen in 1914 and involved herself in the country's affairs, even serving as an honorary commander in the military. After World War I, Queen Maria lobbied on Romania's behalf at the Paris Peace Conference to gain territorial concessions. Throughout her life, she wrote books and articles promoting Romania and demonstrating her deep love for the country. Even after Romania's union in 1918, she continued advocating for Romania internationally until being removed from politics when King Carol II took the throne.
The document provides details about a trip to the Czech Republic from March 9-15, 2013 to visit important historical sites. It also summarizes some key events in Czech history, including early settlement by Celts and Slavs, the establishment of the Premyslid dynasty in the 9th century, the rule of Charles IV in the 14th century which marked the height of Czech power, the Hussite Wars in the 15th century following religious reforms of Jan Hus, and the defeat of Czech Protestants by Catholic Hapsburgs at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 during the Thirty Years' War. The document uses the trip itinerary and historical summaries to provide context for a university course on the history of the Czech
The City of Radford, Virginia, is in the heart of the Smokey Mountains and was first settled in 1761 as a ferry point across the New River for settlers moving west. By 1854, Radford—then known as Central City and colloquially as Lovely Mount—was a major commercial hub, steamboat landing, and railroad depot for the Tennessee and Virginia Railroad line. As the city grew, commerce flourished, more residential areas were built, and schools and industry were established, including Radford University (called the State Normal School, originally) and the US Army’s Radford Arsenal. Today, the City of Radford is a registered All American City and college town with many homes and commercial buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Architecture in Radford is a vivid cross section of American history, including structures built in Federal, Greek Revival, Queen Anne, Victorian, Second Empire, Colonial Revival, and Early Commercial styles.
Berlin is the capital city of Germany located in northeastern Germany. It has a long history dating back to the 13th century when it was first documented. Over time it served as the capital of the Kingdom of Prussia, the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, and Nazi Germany. After World War 2, Berlin was divided between East and West, with East Berlin as capital of East Germany and West Berlin as an exclave surrounded by East Germany. Following German reunification in 1990, Berlin again became the unified capital of all Germany. Berlin is now a major center of culture, politics, science, and industry in Europe.
The document discusses healthy relationships and bullying. It provides tips for building healthy relationships such as communicating openly, respecting boundaries, caring for one another equally and building trust. It also defines bullying as intentionally harming others through verbal, physical or cyber means to feel superior. The document recommends ways to address bullying by avoiding escalation, interfering to help others and teaching youth about acceptance and good behavior.
The document discusses keys for a healthy relationship, noting that the ability to accept a partner's influence is important. It states that men tend to be less likely than women to accept a partner's influence, and instead may emotionally disengage, escalate conflicts through belligerence or defensiveness, shutting down complaints and reinforcing gridlock. Accepting a partner's influence can lead to conversations where problems are discussed and resolved without attacks, criticism or resentment, unlike arguments that reinforce differences and create hopelessness. Accepting influence in conversations can be as simple as acknowledging a partner's point or opinion.
Workshop 4/6: Deals with stress between family and friends in relationships. The major causes of stress: Sibling Rivalry, Revertigo, Holidays. How to deal with unresolved Conflict. Strategies for dealing with Passive and Aggressive Behaviour, Personality stress. It also covers internal and external loci of control, optimism, social support, letting go a relationship and Loneliness.
http://www.markdsutton.com/
The document discusses relationships and their effect on teens. It explores why the authors wanted to research relationships and how relationships are defined. Research shows that romantic relationships in adolescence can impact self-esteem and values. The majority of teens report having a boyfriend/girlfriend, and many spend significant time with their romantic partner. The document also presents the results of a survey on teen relationships and compares the findings to details in the book "Twisted."
How to Be Happy at Work - 10 Simple Tips That WorkD B
Do you want to learn how to be happy at work? Here are 10 simple things that you can do that are proven to work.
By Officevibe, the Simplest Employee Engagement tool
Read the full article on Officevibe:
www.officevibe.com/blog/happy-at-work-infographic
Download our free resources about engagement and happiness:
https://www.officevibe.com/resources
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www.facebook.com/officevibe
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https://twitter.com/Officevibe
The document provides a detailed overview of the history of Sweden from prehistoric times through the present. Some key points include:
- Sweden transitioned from independent tribes to a unified Christian kingdom between the 11th-12th centuries.
- The country grew powerful as a naval empire during the 17th century but lost territories after defeat in the Great Northern War in the early 18th century.
- Sweden remained neutral in World Wars I and II and adopted a policy of non-alignment during the Cold War.
- Major developments included the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, the loss of Finland to Russia in 1809, and gaining Norway in 1814 before its peaceful secession in 1905.
Latvia is a country located in Northern Europe on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. It gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Latvia has a population of around 2 million people and its capital and largest city is Riga, known for its art nouveau architecture. Some key facts are that Latvia has a Baltic culture and heritage, joined the EU and NATO in 2004, and uses the euro currency since 2014.
Alexander v. berkis soviet russia's persecution of latvia, 1918 to the pres...RareBooksnRecords
This document summarizes the oppression and persecution of Latvia by Soviet Russia from 1918 to the present day. It describes how the Soviet Union invaded and occupied Latvia three times over 70 years, carrying out mass killings and deportations each time to destroy Latvian culture and nationhood. It focuses on detailing the specific oppressive acts and human rights violations committed under each occupation, including nationalization of property, forced labor, arbitrary arrests and executions. The leadership of Karlis Ulmanis, who led Latvia to independence and served as its dominant leader for decades, is also discussed.
During the 13th century, Finland gradually came under Swedish rule through a series of crusades and military campaigns. The area of Finland was divided among various Finnic tribes and was also subject to influence and raids from Novgorod. Sweden established control over western Finland in the mid-13th century and the northern border between Catholic and Orthodox areas was set at the eastern border of Finland with the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323. Finland was then integrated into the Kingdom of Sweden and the medieval European system, with the bishopric established in Turku becoming an influential religious and cultural center.
The document provides a detailed overview of the history, geography, culture and politics of Lithuania. It discusses Lithuania's declaration of independence in 1918 and periods under Soviet and German occupation between World War 1 and 2. It also summarizes Lithuania's re-establishment of independence in 1990 following the fall of the Soviet Union and its entry into the European Union and NATO in 2004. Key figures and events mentioned include the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Christianization in 1387, and prominent Lithuanians such as Martynas Mažvydas and Česlovas Milošas.
Poland is located in central Europe, with a population of over 38.5 million. It borders 7 countries and has a total area of 312,679 km2, making it the 7th largest country on the continent. Warsaw is the capital city with around 2 million inhabitants. Poland has a rich history and was partitioned in the late 18th century before gaining independence again in 1918. The document recommends visiting several of Poland's historic cities like Krakow, Gdansk, and Poznan, as well as natural areas along the Baltic Sea coast, Tatra Mountains, and Mazury Lake District.
The history of Latvia spans several millennia, with Finno-Ugric and Baltic peoples inhabiting the region as early as 3000 BC. From the 9th to 11th centuries, Vikings raided the Baltic lands, and in the late 12th century German merchants and Christian missionaries arrived. Riga was founded by Germans in 1201 and became an important trading post in 1282. Latvia came under Polish-Lithuanian rule in the 14th century before being conquered by Sweden. Russia gained influence over Latvia in the 18th century during the Great Northern War. Latvia declared independence in 1918 after World War I but was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940 and Nazi Germany from 1941-1944 before being reoccupied by the Soviet Union until 1991
The document provides an overview of the key topics covered in Latvian history textbooks from 1995 to 2007 regarding Latvia's neighbors and their influence on Latvian history and European/world heritage. It discusses how textbooks portray the influence and image of neighboring countries like Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Belarus, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland.
Sweden has a population of approximately 9.5 million people and its capital and largest city is Stockholm. In the 8th-10th centuries, Swedish Vikings traveled east across the Baltic Sea, settling in Finland and trading with Baltic countries. Gustav Vasa established Protestantism in Sweden and strengthened the state in the 16th century. Through successful wars, Sweden became an empire but lost its empire status after defeat in the Great Northern War in the early 18th century. Sweden industrialized in the 19th century and established a democratic welfare state in the 20th century.
1. In ancient times, Slovakia was an important center of bronze production due to its rich copper ore deposits. Crafts and trade developed, with copper, gold, and bronze used as currency. Farming was also a main economic activity.
2. The Great Moravian Empire between 833-900 AD was a major Slavic state and trading partner of the Franks. Constantine and Methodius developed the Glagolitic alphabet and translated religious texts to Old Church Slavonic. The empire was a center of crafts like metalworking and glassmaking.
3. From the 11th-15th centuries, Slovakia experienced economic growth as part of the Kingdom of Hungary. Towns developed on trade
CultureGrams
TM
World Edition
2022
Republic of
Lithuania
BACKGROUND
Land and Climate
Lithuania is larger than its Baltic neighbors, Latvia and
Estonia, and is slightly bigger than the U.S. state of West
Virginia. It lies on the western fringe of the east European
plain and has a short coastline on the Baltic Sea. It is a green
country with forests, rolling hills, and thousands of rivers and
lakes. The two longest rivers are the Nemunas and the Neris.
Forests cover about 35 percent of the country and are rich in
wild animals, mushrooms, and berries.
Lithuania has four seasons. Summers are short and rainy,
and July temperatures average 63°F (17°C). Winters are cold
and snowy, with an average temperature in January of 23°F
(-5°C). In winter, children are allowed to stay home from
school when the temperature falls below -13°F (-25°C),
which generally happens at least once a year. The general
climate is comparable to that of southeastern Canada. A
westerly breeze is common.
History
Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Union with Poland
Lithuania’s first inhabitants arrived in the 10th millennium
BC. The first mention of Lithuania is found in a medieval
German manuscript, The Annals of Quedlinburg, in the early
11th century AD. Lithuanians began to form a distinct society
in the early second century. In the mid-1200s, a tribal leader
named Duke Mindaugas united several groups to form the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The new state grew in
prominence, especially during the 14th century, when it
annexed neighboring lands (including present-day Belarus,
Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia) and was ruled by
strong monarchs. During the 14th century, Lithuania was one
of the largest countries in Europe. Vilnius became the capital
in 1323.
In 1386, reacting to a serious threat from Germanic
invaders, the Grand Duke Jogaila married the Polish crown
princess and became king. This alliance brought Lithuania
into a union with Poland, which strengthened the nations
enough to defeat the German (Teutonic) invaders in 1410;
this conflict was one of the biggest battles of the Middle
Ages. After its union with Poland, Lithuania, one of the last
pagan countries in Europe, adopted Roman Catholicism in
1387 and became increasingly open to Western culture.
Poland and Lithuania tightened their association in 1569
when they united under the Lublin Union and became the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Russian Rule and World War I
After the Polish-Lithuanian state was partitioned by its
neighbors (in 1772, 1793, and 1795), the Grand Duchy of
Lithuania was left largely a part of the Russian Empire, which
controlled Lithuania for more than 120 years. During this
time, Russia implemented a policy known as Russification, in
which it insisted that Lithuanians speak Russian and convert
to the Russian Orthodox Church. Many attempts were made
to regain independence from Russia, but all were
unsuccessful.
During ...
Presentation for the 2015 "Business in the Baltics" studytrip, organized by ConnecTTerzake StudentUnion (Saxion University of Applied Sciences). The presentation gives a brief overview of the Baltic states and some insight in its specific history and economy.
The document summarizes the history of relations between Lithuania and Sweden from medieval times to the 21st century. It describes early Viking contacts in the 9th century and the establishment of bilateral trade. In the 16th century, the marriage of Kotryna Jogailaitė and Jonas the 3rd Vasa united important families and allowed Sweden to influence the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During World War I and II, Sweden supported Lithuanian independence efforts and did not recognize its 1940 occupation. Since regaining independence in 1990, Lithuania and Sweden have collaborated closely on issues like energy security and Lithuania's integration into the EU.
The document summarizes the history of relations between Lithuania and Sweden from medieval times to the 21st century. It describes early Viking contacts in the 9th century and the establishment of bilateral trade. In the 16th century, the marriage of Kotryna Jogailaitė and Jonas the 3rd Vasa united important families and allowed Sweden to influence the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During World War I and II, Sweden supported Lithuanian independence efforts and did not recognize its 1940 occupation. Since regaining independence in 1990, Lithuania and Sweden have collaborated closely on issues like energy security and Lithuania's integration into the EU.
Lithuania is located in Northern Europe, bordered by Latvia, Belarus, and Poland. It has a population of around 2.9 million, with Lithuanian as the official language. The capital and largest city is Vilnius. Lithuania has a mostly temperate climate and a long history and culture with influences from Catholicism and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Some of Lithuania's most popular tourist attractions include the Hill of Crosses, Palanga beach, Gediminas Castle, and the Vilnius Cathedral.
The document summarizes key aspects of Finland during the Middle Ages:
1) Finland transitioned from paganism to Christianity through three crusades ordered by the Swedish king and Pope between 1155-1293, integrating Finland into the Swedish empire and Catholic church.
2) Orthodox missionaries from Novgorod also Christianized eastern Finns, and the first agreement between Sweden and Novgorod in 1323 established the first border between western and eastern Finland.
3) By the end of the Middle Ages, the Finnish population expanded from coastal areas inland and north, while Sami people were pushed further north by Finnish settlement, Swedish administration, and conflicts between Sweden and Russia over Lapland.
The document summarizes political, social, and economic developments in Northern Eurasia between 1500-1800. It describes the reunification of Japan under regional warlords, the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate, and Japan's later isolationist policies. It also discusses the decline of China's Ming dynasty, the conquest by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and the Qing's interactions with European powers. The expansion of the Russian Empire under the Romanovs and Peter the Great is also outlined. Comparatively, both China and Russia grew substantially in size and population during this period, while pursuing policies of cultural assimilation within their diverse populations.
Slovakia has long been under the rule of stronger powers like Hungary and Austria-Hungary. Bratislava, located in a strategic position, was an important city for the Romans who established forces there and controlled commerce. It became known for wine trade. In the 10th century, Bratislava was occupied by Hungarians and became a trade center. It saw many battles as forces tried to take control. Between the 14th-15th centuries, King Sigismund invested in Bratislava. In the 16th century, as Budapest fell to the Turks, Bratislava became the capital and coronation city of Hungary. It lost some status in the 19th century after the abolition of slavery
Kievan Rus' was a medieval East Slavic state from the late 9th to mid 13th century. It began when Swedish Vikings known as Varangians established control over trade routes in the region. The first ruler was Rurik, who established Novgorod as his capital in 864. Under Prince Oleg, Kiev became the capital in 882. The kingdom reached its height under Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav the Wise in the 11th century when Christianity was adopted and a legal code established. However, regional powers grew as Kiev declined, and the state fragmented in the 12th century before being conquered by Mongols in 1240.
Nation-States, Arrival Cities, and Charter CitiesGregRehmke
From city-states of the Ancient Greeks to Venice, Genoa, and he Hanseatic League cities and medieval monasteries: enterprises and expanding trade across Europe came with social norms.Trade by sea and overland required private property, contracts, and entrepreneurship. Trade as a discovery process encouraging technology, innovation, and the flow of ideas. Lessons from economic development of Europe can be applied to developing world today.
Similar to The history still presents in our lives (20)
This document provides an overview of activities conducted as part of a multi-country project called "European Values and Being Physically Active Through Games for a Better Life". The project involved students and teachers from Turkey, Poland, Romania, Latvia, and Portugal participating in meetings, cultural exchanges, and physical activities in order to learn about different cultures and values. Key events discussed include initial meetings to plan the project, student exchanges to Latvia and Portugal where groups participated in games and other activities, and ongoing preparations and presentations within Turkey.
The document summarizes a Latvian fairy tale called "Hyacinth". It describes how two friends named Apollon and Hyacinth competed for the affection of a river nymph named Daphne. During a game where they threw a disc to impress Daphne, Apollon threw the disc angrily and hit Hyacinth in the head, killing him. Later, the river nymphs came and placed candles all around Hyacinth's body that turned into the colorful flowers of hyacinths, commemorating his death.
This document summarizes information about forests globally and in Latvia. Globally, forests cover about one third of the land area, with the largest areas in tropical forests. Forests play important roles in oxygen circulation, the water cycle, and providing habitat. In Latvia, forests cover 44% of the land, and the country has many protected areas like national parks and nature reserves. The largest forest types in Latvia are pine, spruce, and birch. Latvian forests provide habitat for diverse wildlife like moose, deer, boar, and lynx. Deforestation threatens some animal species. Several national parks and reserves in Latvia are also described.
Latvia has a rich culinary tradition influenced by its location on the Baltic Sea. Some iconic Latvian dishes include sprats (small smoked fish), piragi (ham or bacon rolls), and summer solstice cheese made with caraway seeds. Traditional soups include cold beet soup made with beets, cucumbers, eggs and dill. Hearty main dishes incorporate meat and vegetables like pot roast and grey peas with bacon. Rye bread soup and pepper cookies are popular desserts, and gathering herbs to make healing teas is an important part of Latvian culture.
Jānis Rozentāls was a Latvian painter born in 1866 who studied art in Riga and St. Petersburg. He settled in his native Saldus to be among his people and paint scenes of Latvian nature and portraits. His works featured the beauty of nature and integrated linear and colorful styles. Rozentāls painted many portraits of writers and artists important to Latvian culture. While his paintings were his primary focus, he also worked in graphic design and helped organize Latvian art exhibitions. Rozentāls made significant contributions to Latvian art before his untimely death in 1916.
Jāņi is an ancient Latvian midsummer festival celebrated on June 23-24 that originated as a pagan festival to honor the deity Jānis. Traditions include spending the night outdoors, decorating with flowers, leaves and branches for protection, lighting bonfires and jumping over them for prosperity, fortune telling, and searching for the mythical fern flower. Special foods eaten are cheese with caraway seeds and beer, which some people make themselves. The night is believed to be when magical powers are strongest and the spiritual and physical worlds most connected.
2. Prehistoric period
The proto-Baltic forefathers of the Latvian people have
lived on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea since the
third millennium BC.
At the beginning of this era the territory known today
as Latvia became famous as a trading crossroads. The
famous "route from the Vikings to the Greeks"
mentioned in ancient chronicles stretched
from Scandinavia through Latvian territory via
the Daugava River to the ancient Rus and Byzantine
Empire.
The ancient Balts of this time actively participated in the
trading network. Across the European
continent, Latvia's coast was known as a place for
obtaining amber. Up to and into the Middle Ages amber
was more valuable than gold in many places. Latvian
amber was known in places as far away as Ancient
Greece and the Roman Empire and the Amber
Road was intensively used for the transfer of amber to
the south of Europe. In the 10th century, the ancient
Balts started to form specific tribal realms.
3. Gradually, five individual Baltic tribal cultures
developed: Curonians, Livonians, Latgalians, Selonians,
Semigallians (Latvian: kurši, līvi, latgaļi, sēļi, zemgaļi). The
largest of them was the Latgalian tribe, which was the
most advanced in its socio-political development. The
main Latgalian principality was Jersika, ruled by the Greek
Orthodox princes from Latgalian-Polotsk branch
of Rurik dynasty. The last ruler of Jersika, mentioned in
the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia was prince Visvaldis.
During dividing of his realm in 1211 part of the country was
called "Latvia“, probably the first time this name was
mentioned in written sources. In contrast, the Curonians
maintained a lifestyle of intensive invasions that included
looting and pillaging. On the west coast of the Baltic Sea,
they became known as the "Baltic Vikings". But Selonians
and Semigallians, closely related
to Lithuanians, were known as peace-
loving and prosperous farmers. Livonians lived along the
shores of the Gulf of Riga and were fishers and traders.
4.
5. Early historical period
In the 8th century, the territory of West Latvia
became a Scandinavian colony.
Approximately at the same time, the inhabitants
of Latvia started exploring the technology of a
potter's wheel. Latvia started developing as the
significant point for international trade. From
medieval chronicles we can get information that
Finnish tribes, Livs, Slavics and Baltic were
living on Latvian territory.
Up to the 12th century there were attempts to
make a principality and states on Latvian
territory but they weren’t successful.
6. German period (1207-1561)
Because of its strategic geographic location, Latvian
territory has always been invaded by other larger
nations, and this situation has defined the fate of Latvia
and its people.
At the end of the 12th century, Latvia was more often
visited by traders from Western Europe who set out on
trading journeys along Latvia's longest river, the
Daugava, to Russia. At the very end of the 12th
century, German traders arrived. Preachers of
the Christian faith who attempted to convert
the pagan Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes to the Christian
faith came together with them. The Livs did not willingly
convert to the new and different beliefs and
practices, and particularly opposed the ritual
of baptism. News of this reached the Pope in Rome
and it was decided that Crusaders would be sent into
Latvia to influence the situation.
7. The Germans founded Riga in 1201, and gradually it
became the largest city in the Southern part of the Baltic
Sea. Order of the Sword Brothers was founded in 1202 to
subjugate the local people. The Livs were conquered by
1207 and the most of Latgalians by 1214. But the Sword
Brothers were defeated in Battle of Saule (1236) and its
remnants accepted incorporation into the Teutonic Order.
By the end of the 13th century also the Curonians and
Semigallians were subjugated and the development of
separate tribal realms of the ancient Latvians came to an
end.
In the 13th century, an ecclesiastical state
Livonia was established under the Germanic authorities
consisting of Latvia and Estonia. In 1282, Riga and
later Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera were included
in the Northern German Trading Organisation, or
the Hanseatic League (Hansa). From this time, Riga
became an important point in west-east trading. Riga, being
the centre of the Eastern Baltic region, formed close cultural
contacts with Western Europe.
The reformation started in Germany and later reached
Livonia in 1521. It was supported in particular in the cities
and by the middle of the15th century the majority of the
population had already converted to Lutheranism.
8. Lithuanian-Polish and Swedish period
(1561—1721)
One of the decisive factors of the fall of the Livonian Order
was the Reformation. The Order was in subordinate to the
Roman Catholic Church, but most of its members were the
Germans, who were inspired by sermon of their
countryman Luther. After the transition of knights to
Lutheranism, the value of Order was lost.
At the same time Poland declared itself as a bastion of
Catholicism and the Counter-Reformation. King of Sweden
declared himself to be the protector of the Lutherans.
Thus, the Counter-Reformation in Latvia resulted in the
Polish-Swedish War (1617-1629). As a result, Latvian
territory was divided between 2 countries: Riga belonged
to Sweden, but Courland, Zemgalia and Latgale belonged
to Poland.
The Russian Empire put the end to the opposition. During
the Great Northern War the Russian Empire occupied the
territory of Estonia and Livonia. In 1721, according to the
Nystad peace treaty the territory of modern Latvia,
including Riga which belonged to Sweden, became part of
the Russian Empire.
9. Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order of Livonia,
became the first duke of Courland. Other members of the
Order became the Couronian nobility. In all, Kettler received
nearly one-third of the land in the new duchy. Mitau (Jelgava)
was designated as the new capital.
Like the other members of the Order, Kettler was German
and set about establishing the Duchy along the lines of
similar German states. When Gotthard Kettler died in 1587,
his sons, Friedrich and Wilhelm, became the dukes of
Courland. They divided the Duchy into two parts in 1596.
Friedrich controlled the eastern part, Semigalia (Zemgale),
with his residence in Mitau. Wilhelm owned the western part,
Courland (Kurzeme), with his residence in Goldingen
(Kuldīga). In Piltene he developed metalworking, shipyards,
and the new ships delivered the goods of Courland to other
Countries.
Duchy of Courland and
Semigallia
10. Colonization and prosperity of
duchy
Under the next duke, Jacob Kettler, the Duchy reached the peak of its prosperity. During his travels
in Western Europe, Jacob became the eager proponent of mercantilist ideas. Metalworking and ship
building became much more developed, and powder mills began producing gunpowder. Trading
relations developed not only with nearby countries, but also
with Britain, France, the Netherlands and Portugal. Jacob
established the merchant fleet of the Duchy of Courland,
with its main ports in Ventspils and Libau.
In 1651 the Duchy established its first colony in Africa,
St. Andrews Island at the Gambia River and founded Jacob
Fort there. The main export goods included ivory, gold, furs
and spices. Soon afterwards, in 1652, Courlanders
established another colony, in Tobago in the West Indies.
There the main export goods included sugar, tobacco,
coffee and spices. However, during this time, the Duchy of Courland remained an object of interest
for both Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1655 the Swedish army entered the
territory of the Duchy and the Swedish–Polish war had begun. The Swedish army captured Duke
Jacob. During this period, the Dutch took over both of Courland's colonies, and the merchant fleet
and factories suffered destruction. This war ended with the peace Treaty of Oliwa
Courland regained Tobago on the basis of the treaty and held it until 1689. Duke
Jacob set about restoring the fleet and factories, but the Duchy of
Courland never again reached its pre-war level of prosperity.
11. Latvia as part of the Russian
Empire (1721-1917)
In 1700, the Great Northern War broke out. The course of this war
was directly linked with today's Latvian territory and the territorial
claims of the Russian Empire. One of its goals was to secure the
famous and rich town of Riga. In 1710, the Russian Tsar, Peter I,
managed to secure Vidzeme. Through Vidzeme to Riga, Russia
obtained a clear passage to Europe. By the end of the 18th century,
due to the Partitions of Poland, all of Latvia's territory was under
Russian rule.
In 1812 Napoleon's troops invaded Russia and the Prussian units under the leadership of the field
marshal Yorck occupied Courland and approached Riga. The governor-general of Riga Ivan Essen
set the wooden houses of the Riga suburbs on fire to deflect the invaders and thousands of city
residents were left homeless. However , Yorck did not attack Riga and in December the Napoleon's
army retreated. Serfdom was abolished in Courland Governorate in 1818 and Governorate of
Livonia in 1819. However , all the land stayed in the hands of the German nobility. Only in 1849,
a law granted a legal basis for the creation of peasant-owned farms. In the middle of the19th
century industry developed quickly and the number of the inhabitants grew. Courland and
Vidzeme became one of Russia's most developed provinces.
12. In the 19th century, the first Latvian National Awakening began among ethnic Latvian
intellectuals, a movement that partly reflected similar nationalist trends elsewhere in
Europe. This revival was led by the "Young Latvians" (in Latvian: jaunlatvieši) from the
1850s to the 1880s. Primarily a literary and cultural movement with significant political
implications, the Young Latvians soon came into severe conflict with the Baltic
Germans. In the 1880s and 1890s the russification policy began by Alexander III was
aimed at reducing the autonomy of Baltic provinces and the introduction of the Russian
language in administration, court and education replacing German.
With increasing pauperization in rural areas and growing urbanization, a loose but
broad leftist movement called the "New Current" arose in the late 1880s. Led by Rainis
and Pēteris Stučka, editors of the newspaper Dienas Lapa, this movement was soon
influenced by Marxism and led to the creation of the Latvian Social Democratic
Labour Party. Latvia in the 20th century saw an explosion of
popular discontent in the 1905 Revolution.
13. World War I
On August 1, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia and
by 1915, the conflict reached Latvia. On May 7 the
Germans captured Liepāja and on May
18, Talsi, Tukums and Ventspils. On June 29 the Russian
Supreme Command ordered the whole population
of Kurzeme to evacuate, and around 400,000 refugees fled
to the east. Some of them settled in Vidzeme but most
continued their way to Russia. On July 19 the Russian War
Minister ordered the factories of Riga to evacuate together
with their workers. In the summer of 1915, 30,000 railway
wagons loaded with machines and equipment from factories
were taken away. In August the formation of Latvian
battalions known as Latvian Riflemen started. From 1915 to
1917, the Riflemen fought in the Russian army against the
Germans in positions along the Daugava River. In
December 1916 and January 1917, they suffered heavy
casualties in month-long Christmas Battles. In February
1917, Revolution broke out in Russia and in the summer the
Russian army collapsed. The German offensive was
successful and on 3 September 1917 they entered Riga.
14. Independence
The idea of an independent Latvia
became a reality at the beginning of the
20th century. The course of World War I
activated the idea of independence. The
post-war confusion was a suitable
opportunity for the development of an
independent nation. Latvia proclaimed
independence shortly after the end of
World War I – on November 18, 1918
which is now the Independence Day in
Latvia.
15. The Soviet Union guaranteed its interests in
the Baltics with the signing of the Molotov–
Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and
Third Reich on August 23, 1939. Under threat
of invasion, Latvia (along with Estonia and
Lithuania) signed a mutual assistance pact
with Soviet Union, providing for the stationing
of up to 25,000 Soviet troops on Latvian soil.
Latvia was incorporated into the Soviet Union
on August 5, 1940 .
The Third Reich troops occupied Riga on July
1, 1941. A large number of Latvians resisted
the German occupation.
World War II
16. Soviet era
In the post-war period, a lot of people arrived in
Latvia from other Soviet republics and the ethnic
composition of the population changed a lot. An
extensive programme to impose bilingualism was
initiated in Latvia.
There was well-developed infrastructure and lots
of educated specialists were sent to Latvia from
other Soviet republics. It was decided in Moscow
that some of the Soviet Union's most advanced
manufacturing factories were to be based in
Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia,
including a major machinery factory
RAF in Jelgava, electrotechnical factories
in Riga, chemical factories
in Daugavpils, Valmiera and Olaine, as well as
food and oil processing plants.
17. Restoration of
Independence
On the 50th anniversary of the Molotov-
Ribbentrop pact (August 23, 1989) to the
fate of the Baltic
nations, Latvians, Lithuanians and
Estonians joined hands in a human chain,
the Baltic Way, that stretched 600
kilometers from Tallinn, to Riga, to Vilnius. It
symbolically represented the united wish of
the Baltic States for independence.
Subsequent steps towards full
independence were taken on May 4, 1990.
On August 21, after unsuccessful attempt at
a coup in Moscow, parliament voted for an
end to the transition period, thus restoring
Latvia's pre-war independence.
On September 6, 1991 Latvian
independence was once again recognized
by the Soviet Union.
18. Modern history
Soon after reinstating independence, Latvia, which had
been a member of the League of Nations prior to World
War II, became a member of the United Nations. In
1992, Latvia became eligible for the International
Monetary Fund and in 1994 took part in
the NATO Partnership for Peace program in addition to
signing the free trade agreement with the European
Union. Latvia became a member of the European
Council as well as a candidate for the membership in the
European Union and NATO. Latvia was the first of the
three Baltic nations to be accepted into the World Trade
Organization.
At the end of 1999 in Helsinki, the heads of the
European Union governments invited Latvia to begin
negotiations regarding accession to the European Union.
In 2004, Latvia's most important foreign policy goals,
membership of the European Union and NATO, were
fulfilled. On April 2, Latvia became a member of NATO
and on May 1, Latvia, along with the other two Baltic
States, became a member of the European Union.