the french revolutionary

GREGORY FREMONT-BARNES
was born in San Francisco and
studied history at the University
of California, Berkeley, and the
Universities of Chicago and
Oxford. Since 1993 he has
lectured in British and American
history in Japan, principally at
Kobe University. He has
published a number of articles
on British diplomatic and
military history.

PROFESSOR ROBERT O'NEILL,
AO D.Phil, is the Chichele
Professor of the History of War
at the University of Oxford and
Series Editor of the Essential
Histories. His wealth of
knowledge and expertise shapes
the series content, and provides
up-to-the-minute research
and theory. Born in 1936 an
Australian citizen, he served in
the Australian army (1955-68)
and has held a number of
eminent positions in history
circles. He has been Chichele
Professor of the History of War
and a Fellow of All Souls
College, Oxford since 1987.
He is the author of many books
including works on the German
army and the Nazi party, and
the Korean and Vietnam wars.

Essential Histories

The French Revolutionary Wars

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ISBN 1 84176 283 0

Editor: Rebecca Cullen
Design: Ken Vail Graphic Design. Cambridge. UK
Cartography by The Map Studio
Index by Susan Williams
Picture research by Image Select International
Origination by Grasmere Digital Imaging, Leeds, UK
Printed and bound in China by L Rex Printing Company Ltd

01 02 03 04 05 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 21

Contents

Introduction 7

Chronology
10
Background to war

Historical rivalries
12
Warring sides

Opposing strength
17
Outbreak
A clash of ideologies
19
The fighting

The first and second coalitions
25
Portrait of a sailor

William Dillon: A midshipman in the Royal Navy
67
The world around war

The impact of conflict
72
Portrait of a civilian
Emma Hamilton: British Ambassadress at Naples
78
How the war ended
82
Hohenlinden and Copenhagen
85
Conclusion and consequences
93
Further reading
94
Index

Major actions on land 1792-1800

1. France Valmy (1792), Valenciennes, Perpignan, Truillas, Lodi, Lonato, Castiglione, Bassano, Caldiero and Arcola
Hondschoote, and Wattignies (1793), Le Boulon and (1796), Rivoli (1797), Magnano, Cassano, The Trebbia
Tourcoing (1794). and Novi (1799), Montebello and Marengo (1800).
2. Belgium Jemappes (1792), Neerwinden, (1793), 7. Spain Campródon, San Marcial and Figueras (1794).
Courtrai. Tournai and Fleurus (1794).
8.The Middle East The Pyramids (1798). Mount Tabor
3. Holland Bergen, twice, and Castricum (1799). and Aboukir (1799), Heliopolis (1800) and Alexandria
4. Germany Amberg, Friedberg, Wurzburg, Schliengen twice (1801). Important sieges: Lille. Longwy and
(1796), Stockach (1799), Hochstadt and Hohenlinden Verdun (1792);Valenciennes, Condé, Mainz, Quesnoy
(1800). Dunkirk and Toulon (1793); Collioure (1794), Rosas
5. Switzerland Zurich - three times (1799). Luxembourg (1795), Mantua (1796-97); Valetta
6. Italy Loano (1795), Montenotte, Dego, Mondovi, (1798-1 800): Acre and Milan (1799); Genoa (1800).

Introduction

Two centuries now separate us from the themselves on the fields of Belgium and
series of conflicts known as the French Germany, the plains of northern Italy and on
Revolutionary Wars. These wars, fought by the sands of Egypt and Syria.
armies of unprecedented size, in the course The Revolutionary Wars were fought on a
of a single decade (1792-1802) thrust upon vast geographical scale. They raged across
an unwilling continent political, social, and much of western and central Europe, the
military changes of such radical proportions Middle East, southern Africa and the West
that they forever changed the Western Indies. At sea, rival navies struggled for
world. For the first time in European history supremacy in all the waters around Europe,
war unleashed ideological forces whose the Atlantic, the Caribbean, the Indian
power and appeal called into question the Ocean and beyond. When we consider their
principle that underpinned the European extent it should perhaps not surprise us that
political system: the principle of monarchy. contemporaries and 19th-century historians
The French Revolutionaries, in challenging referred to these conflicts, in conjunction
the political legitimacy of the ancien regime, with the Napoleonic Wars, as 'the Great
laid the foundations for the widespread War'.
acceptance of democratic, representative, The French Revolutionary Wars were more
and constitutional rule. Wherever their than just the last conflict of a century
armies went they brought with them the already riven by intense strife; they marked
abstract notions of 'Nation' and 'People'. an abrupt and shattering end to the era of
Here began a new phase in the history of 'limited' wars which had begun in the age of
warfare whose impact is still seen today in Enlightenment. Up until this time, rival
the existence of mass citizen-armies. The dynasties ruling absolutely over their feudal
precedent was set, through universal societies matched the power of their small,
conscription and the systematic marshaling meticulously trained, highly expensive
of national resources, for 'total' war. professional forces in the quest for territorial
The greatest naval and military figures of spoil or economic advantage without
modern times - Nelson and Napoleon - radically upsetting the existing balance of
came to the fore during this period. They power between great empires.
were to reach their respective heights only a The wars of the French Revolution swept
short time later in the Napoleonic Wars all that into the dustbin of history. Here was
(1803-15). Indeed, the French Revolutionary a new and epic struggle, which the
Wars were fought in an age when leaders revolutionaries characterized as a life or
and men still regarded war as 'glorious' and death contest between the forces of liberty,
the cult of the hero was at its pitch. The equality, and fraternity, on the one hand,
Revolutionary Wars were the first proving- and the corrupt despotism of the ancien
ground for the band of charismatic and régimes on the other. Indeed, for France the
colorful men who were to serve as marshals early years were nothing less than a fight for
under the French Empire. Most of political survival, with cries of 'la Patrie en
Napoleon's great marshals and Nelson's able danger!' coming from all quarters. Yet even
lieutenants gained their experience at this before security from invasion was assured the
time. Augereau, Jourdan, Massena, war aims of the Revolutionaries took a
Kellermann and many others proved radical turn: the 'liberation' of their

8 Essential Histories • The French Revolutionary Wars

oppressed brethren in the Low Countries and the French Revolutionary Wars brought
the Rhineland became the new objective. conflict directly to the home front through
And, finally, emboldened by victories, the the permanent presence of foreign armies,
noble aims of the Revolution had been conscription, wholesale requisitioning and
forgotten and the whole movement appeared heavy, sometimes crippling, taxation. In
to have lost its early idealism. What had France, particularly, war made hitherto
begun as an ideological struggle, within a unheard of demands on its citizens, thus
few, turbulent years developed into a simple establishing the close link between soldier
war of territorial expansion in the great and civilian so familiar to the generations
traditions of the revolutionaries' monarchist which fought the World Wars more than a
political forebears. It was a supreme irony century later.
indeed, and by 1795 - for the first time since The wars placed into the hands of the
the Carolingian kings of the 9th century - Revolutionary government in France power
France stood triumphant on her 'natural' which the European monarchs could not
frontiers: the Rhine, the Alps, and the have imagined - power which translated
Pyrenees. She achieved what both Louis XIV itself into armies whose combination of
and Louis XV had failed to do earlier in the sheer size and patriotic fervor drove them
century despite the kings' enormous across Europe, defying all who stood in their
expenditure in men and money. paths. Indeed, so great was the military
The Revolutionary Wars mark the power unleashed by the Revolution that
beginning of modern war not because of the nothing less than the whole of Europe, seven
introduction of new technology, but because coalitions and a generation of fighting were
they established the idea of the great citizen- required finally to bring France to heel.
army now so familiar to us today. Universal Politically, the Revolutionary Wars opened
conscription implemented with a Pandora's box which even the final allied
organizational genius by Lazare Carnot victory in 1815 could not completely close.
enabled France to field vast new armies. As the revolutionary armies marched
These, composed of men fired with patriotic triumphant across the Low Countries,
enthusiasm, were used not only to hold back Germany, Italy, and Switzerland they laid the
the tide of counter-revolution, but to cross groundwork of nationalism and
the French frontiers taking with them the constitutional rule so necessary for a strong
seeds of republicanism. Marching to the sense of nationhood or, in some cases, future
strains of the Marseillaise and with cries of unification. The wars brought an effective
'Vive la Republic!', these 'armed missionaries', end to the Holy Roman Empire. Prussia's
as Robespierre termed them, introduced status and influence within Germany were
forms of political and social changes therefore increased. This had far-reaching
which opponents of the Revolution could implications. Prussia ultimately became a far
not contain. more aggressive state than Austria ever was
The wars revolutionized warfare itself, and would become a menace to European
with the use of light troops, the deployment security after German unification in 1871. By
of armies by corps and divisions, the use of eliminating dozens of antiquated princedoms
concentration both tactically and and electorates, France inadvertently opened
strategically to bring maximum force to bear the way for eventual German unification
on a weaker opponent, and, above all, the under Prussian leadership.
principle of 'living off the land' rather than The French Revolutionary Wars included
depending exclusively on depots and some of history's most dramatic battles on
enormous supply trains. Gone forever were land as well as at sea - and no previous
the days when civilians lived a separate conflict boasted so many. Seldom have wars
existence from the conflicts waged by their begun with battles so decisive not only for
respective sovereigns. For occupied peoples, the immediate conflict itself, but for history

Introduction 9

in general. Valmy did just that. A few hours' Although France ultimately attained
cannonade brought a halt to the carefully supremacy on land, Britain had swept the
dressed ranks of Prussian infantry, that great oceans of the French merchant marine,
legacy of Frederick the Great. This exchange snapped up most of France's colonies, and
itself illustrates the emergence of the new had consistently defeated her navy in great
citizen-soldier and the decline of the fleet actions which so reduced French power
'walking muskets' of absolutism. As Marshal at sea as to render the outcome at Trafalgar
Foch declared a century later, 'The wars of almost a foregone conclusion. Naval power
kings were at an end. The wars of peoples complemented and sustained Britain's
were beginning.' Lodi, though not in itself commercial and financial strength. Britain
more than a minor engagement, nevertheless was able to establish and maintain two
symbolized the spirit of the age, with the great coalitions, only to see them crushed by
young, energetic Bonaparte, flag in hand, her seemingly invincible counterpart on
leading his men across a heavily defended land. After a decade of conflict France had
bridge, driving before him a vastly vanquished all the Continent's great powers
superior force. - Austria, Prussia, and Russia - leaving an
Battles at sea were no less significant. At uneasy and temporary stalemate with
Cape St Vincent, off the Spanish coast, Britain mistress of the seas and France
Horatio Nelson's success bore out his policy master on land.
of ignoring orthodox naval tactics. The In 1802, Napoleon inherited a French
following year, with his crushing victory at Republic greatly enlarged and supremely
the Nile, Nelson would end forever self-confident. He was by then not simply a
Bonaparte's dream of establishing an Eastern leader of men but a leader of the nation. His
empire and threatening British rule in India. unrivalled success in the Revolutionary Wars
And there was Marengo - where after driving gave him the authority he needed to seize
his weary men over the Alps in the great political power in France, and also a
traditions of Hannibal, Bonaparte snatched mandate to prosecute war on an even greater
victory from the jaws of defeat, leaving scale than before, so building - and
Austria defenseless in Italy and almost ultimately losing - the greatest empire in
incapable of further resistance. Europe since Rome.

Chronology

1789 14 July Storming of the Bastille. A 27 August-19 December Siege of
Paris mob seizes the infamous state Toulon. Royalist forces, backed by an
prison and fortress, signaling the Anglo-Spanish fleet and troops, fail to
revolt against the monarchy and hold the city.
established authority. 8 September Battle of
1791 2 August Declaration of Pillnitz. Hondschoote. Houchard with
Prussia and Austria declare their 24,000 French defeats 16,000 men
intention to form a general European under the Duke of York.
coalition to restore the Bourbon 1794 23 May Battle of Tournai. Drawn
monarchy in France. action between equal forces; both sides
1792 7 February Conclusion of retreat.
Austro-Prussian Alliance. Troops 1 June Battle of the Glorious First of
begin advance toward French June. British naval victory; Howe
frontier; Sardinia (Piedmont) joins defeats his rival but fails to prevent a
soon after. vital food convoy from reaching France.
20 April French declare war on 26 June Battle of Fleurus. Kléber
Austria. Hostilities begin in Flanders. defeats Saxe-Coburg's attempts to
20 September Battle of Valmy. relieve Charleroi.
Dumouriez and Kellermann, with 1795 January-March French Occupation
59,000 men, confront and drive away of both Belgium and Holland.
35,000 Prussians by cannon fire alone. 5 April-22 June Treaty of Basle.
The Allied advance on Paris is Prussia, plus several minor German
temporarily checked; the Revolution is states, leaves the war. Spain follows
saved. suit.
6 November Battle of Jemappes. 1796 27 March Bonaparte assumes
Austrian defeat leads to the fall of command of the Army of Italy.
Brussels to the French, who then lay 10 May Battle of Lodi. Bonaparte
siege to Antwerp, causing alarm in personally leads the attack over the
Britain. bridge and secures victory. Milan is
1793 21 January Execution of Louis XVI, captured (May 15) and peace reached
outraging the crowned heads of with Piedmont. France annexes Nice
Europe; national conscription called; and Savoy.
Belgium annexed; invasion of Holland 5 August Battle of Castiglione.
imminent. Bonaparte turns both flanks of
1 February France declares war on Würmser's army, forcing it across the
Britain and Holland, then against Mincio River.
Spain (March 7). 19 August Treaty of San Ildefenso.
18 March Battle of Neerwinden. Spain becomes a French ally,
Austrians repulse French under threatening the Royal Navy's presence
Dumouriez. in the Mediterranean.
23 August Levee en masse. French 3 September Battle of Würzburg.
government decrees universal male Archduke Charles of Austria defeats
conscription. Jourdan.

Chronology 11I

8 September Battle of Bassano. Suvorov enter Milan (April 28) and
French defeat the Austrians, who soon after Turin.
retreat into the besieged city of 5 June Massena repulses the
Mantua. Austrians at Zurich but is forced
15-17 November Battle of Arcola. to withdraw by overwhelming
Bonaparte, with the able assistance of numbers.
Augereau and Massena, defeats 17-19 June Battle of the Trebbia.
the Austrians. Suvorov defeats Macdonald and
1797 14 January Battle of Rivoli. pushes the French back to the Riviera.
Significant French victory over the August-October Anglo-Russian
Austrians. operations in the Netherlands. The
14 February Battle of Cape St Allies' campaign is withdrawn as a
Vincent. Admiral Jervis defeats a failure. The Dutch fleet is, however,
Spanish fleet with a vital contribution captured in the Texel.
from Nelson. 15 August Battle of Novi. The
17 October Treaty of Campo Formio. Russians decisively defeat the French,
Austria recognizes French annexation allowing Suvorov to pursue them
of Belgium; France establishes satellite across the Apennines.
Cisalpine Republic in northern Italy; 25 September Third Battle of
Austria compensated with Republic of Zurich. Massena severely defeats the
Venice; most of the left bank of the Russians, bringing the campaign to an
Rhine becomes French. end.
1798 19 May Expedition to Egypt begins. 4 November Battle of Genoa.
Bonaparte embarks from Toulon with Austrian victory; French retreat back
the Army of the Orient. over the Alps.
21 July Battle of the Pyramids. 1800 8 March Bonaparte raises a new
Bonaparte repulses Mameluke forces army. Having returned from Egypt, he
near Gizeh. plans to invade northern Italy and
July-August Occupation of Egypt. reverse French misfortunes.
1 August Battle of the Nile. Nelson 14 June Battle of Marengo.
decisively defeats Bruey's fleet in Significant Austrian defeat,
Aboukir Bay, leaving Bonaparte's army Bonaparte's greatest victory thus far.
stranded in Egypt. 3 December Battle of Hohenlinden.
24 December Anglo-Russian alliance Brilliant French victory over Archduke
establishes the basis for the Second John in southern Germany.
Coalition, which includes Austria, 1801 9 February Treaty of Lunéville.
Portugal, Naples, and Turkey. Austria withdraws from the Second
1799 March Jourdan invades Germany; Coalition; terms of Campo Formio
operations begin in Switzerland. reconfirmed.
25 March Battle of Stockach. Jourdan March-August British operations in
retreats to the Rhine after serious Egypt. The French capitulate on
defeat at the hands of Archduke 31 August and are shipped back home.
Charles. . 2 April Battle of Copenhagen.
5 April Battle of Magnano. Austrians Nelson crushes the Danish fleet,
defeat the French under Schérer. effectively ending the League of
17 April Battle of Mount Tabor. Armed Neutrality.
Bonaparte drives off a Turkish force 1802 27 March Treaty of Amiens.
during his campaign in Syria. Establishment of peace between
27 April Battle of Cassano. Moreau Britain and France, ending the French
defeated. Russian troops under Revolutionarv Wars.

Background to war

Historical rivalries

On the eve of the French Revolution the a standing army proportionally much larger
political construction of Europe was than that of any other European state.
remarkably simple. The Continent was Frederick used that army aggressively: he
dominated by five great powers: Britain, invaded Austrian Silesia in 1740, and thus
France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Their began the War of the Austrian Succession
weaker neighbors - Sweden, Spain, Poland, (1740-48). This was followed by the Seven
Holland, and Turkey - had all once enjoyed Years' War (1756-63) (see Osprey Essential
periods of economic, military, or naval Histories,The Seven Years' War, by Daniel
greatness, but by the end of the 18th century Marston) in which Prussia used her
had slipped into the ranks of the lesser formidable army for the glory of the nation
powers. Most of western Germany remained and to consolidate her territorial gains,
fragmented into hundreds of minor generally at the expense of Austria. During
principalities, ecclesiastical cities, and minor the Seven Years' War Frederick fought the
states contained within the Holy Roman greatest coalition ever seen in Europe -
Empire. Italy, similarly, contained a number Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and most of
of small kingdoms, some independent and the German states of the Holy Roman Empire
others controlled by Austria. - and survived intact. It was the hard-fought
Europe was overwhelmingly agrarian and bloody encounters of this war that confirmed
feudal, particularly in the east, with for Prussia her place among the Great Powers.
monarchs ruling absolutely within their The Russian Empire covered a vast stretch
domains. Britain was a somewhat different of territory containing at the turn of the
case: though the vast majority of her people century about 48 million subjects, over half
were disenfranchised, the monarchy ruled of whom were serfs tied to the land. The
under constitutional constraints. The autocratic Romanov dynasty had ruled since
nation's prosperity was based not on the early 17th century. Russia's military
agriculture but on trade. The process of reputation had been won under Peter the
industrialization, though still in its infancy, Great, who had defeated the Swedes in the
was well under way. Great Northern War (1700-21). Although
A generation before the French Revolution, Russia had briefly fought Prussia in the later
Prussia, under the ruling house of years of the Seven Years' War, her territorial
Hohenzollern, had established herself as gains were made at Polish and Turkish
Europe's newest great power, having won a expense during the reign of Catherine the
series of costly and exhausting wars in which Great (1762-96), particularly during the First
she had taken on and defeated practically Partition of Poland in 1772 and in the
every major state on the Continent. Frederick annexation of the Crimea, an Ottoman
the Great had inherited from his father, possession, in 1783.
Frederick William (1713-40), a highly Russia fought simultaneous conflicts with
militarized, extremely efficient state where Sweden (1788-90) and, in alliance with
the landed aristocracy and king enjoyed a Austria, Turkey (1787-92). She was
close relationship. The aristocracy were ultimately successful in both of these
freeholders of their land and, in effect, over conflicts. When the French Revolutionary
their peasants as well. In return, the crown Wars began, Catherine the Great remained
taxed the nation heavily in order to maintain neutral and she died four years later in 1796

Background to war 13

without having challenged the Revolution.
That task was left to her son and successor,
Paul I, who would finally face France during
the War of the Second Coalition
(1798-1802). Paul was known for his mental
instability and obsession with military
matters and was assassinated in 1801.
George III, who had presided over the
somewhat different and more constitutional
monarchy of Britain since 1760, proved to be
one of the Revolution's most implacable
opponents. Political power rested with
Parliament and the Prime Minister. William
Pitt the Younger had attained office in 1783
with a loyal following in the House of
Commons and the support of the crown.
Though small by continental standards - with
a population of fewer than 10 million -
Britain was the world's most prosperous
nation. Her wealth was based on thriving
trade with Europe and her exclusive access to
a vast empire which, in addition to Canada
and, above all, India, included newly acquired
territories in Australia and many of the
bountiful 'sugar islands' of the West Indies. As
international trade was the basis of the rapidly
increasing national wealth, the protection of George III. By the time Britain entered the Revolutionary
trade was paramount. Britain's unrivalled Wars he had already reigned for 33 years, during which
time he had presided over the loss of the American
merchant fleet, which exceeded 10,000
colonies. He suffered from periodic fits of madness, but
vessels, could confidently rely on the power of his eccentricities did not adversely affect his conduct as
the Royal Navy for its protection. Although sovereign during the 1790s. Indeed, his own patriotic
agriculture was still important - accounting idealism enhanced his popular reputation. He opposed
for one-third of the national product - Britain the Revolution on ideological grounds and sharply
condemned the execution of his brother sovereign.
was the birthplace of the recent phenomenon
Louis XVI. (Ann Ronan Picture Library)
of industrialization, and its growing
manufacturing capacity played a major role in
stimulating a booming economy. Continent. The cornerstone of this policy was
Britain and France were long-standing the protection of the Low Countries and the
enemies, having fought one another regularly Channel ports, in support of which aim
over the past century and on opposite sides Britain had participated in the Wars of the
in nearly every conflict in which the two Spanish and Austrian Successions,
countries were engaged since the Middle challenging France in Europe as well as
Ages. Indeed, the French Revolutionary Wars overseas. The two powers were traditional
were just the latest conflict in a long colonial and commercial rivals. Britain had
succession dating back to Louis XIV which fought over North America and India, and at
historians would later refer to as the second the end of the Seven Years' War Britain was
Hundred Years' War. The roots of Anglo- in possession of the whole of Canada and the
French hostility were political and economic. American colonies, together with large
Britain was chiefly concerned with portions of the subcontinent. France had
preventing the French from dominating the exacted a degree of revenge by providing vital


Hungary, parts of Poland and portions of the
Balkans, to the Netherlands (roughly modern
Belgium). The number of nationalities - the
empire included Germans, Hungarians,
Czechs, Italians, Poles, Croats, and others,
totaling about 27 million subjects in 1800,
with 250,000 in Vienna - and geographical
circumstances (the fact that, for example,
Belgium was not contiguous to Austria)
rendered the empire less cohesive than the
states of western Europe.
Austria had been repeatedly defeated: by
France during the War of the Polish
Succession (1733-35); by the Turks during a
Balkan war from 1737 to 1739, and, as
already noted, by Prussia in a series of major
conflicts between 1740 and 1763, during the
reign of Maria Theresa. Not only did the
Empress suffer loss of territory, she jealously
witnessed the slowly rising influence of
Prussia in German affairs. Her successor had
his own share of problems. In 1787, Joseph
Emperor Francis II of Austria. Succeeding to the throne II had been obliged to go to war against
in 1792 just as relations with France were worsening, his Turkey after the Turks declared war on
opposition to the Revolution helped bring the two
Austria's ally, Russia. As the Russians soon
nations closer to war Francis accompanied his troops
during part of the campaign in Flanders during 1793-94. became enmeshed in a simultaneous war
Throughout the wars his policies shifted under the with the Swedes in the north, this left Joseph
influence of court and military factions which divided his alone to take on the Turks in the south,
counsels between doves and hawks. (Roger-Viollet)
where they briefly invaded southern
Hungary. To complicate matters, the Austrian
aid to the American colonies during the War possessions in the Low Countries rose in
of Independence (1775-83), a war that revolt in 1789. Yet in the meantime the
deprived Britain of an important piece of her Turks were defeated, Belgrade taken and the
empire and left her in serious debt. war ended in the same year. The Habsburg
At the start of the French Revolution monarchy thus continued to enjoy its status
Austria was ruled by Joseph II, brother to as a great power when war again loomed
Marie Antoinette. As head of the Habsburg after the revolution in France.
monarchy he also held the title of Holy France possessed an illustrious military
Roman Emperor, which enabled him to past, though the wars of the 18th century
exercise considerable political influence over had done much to erode this reputation.
a large number of small German states, Since the 16th century her rivalry with
many bordering France, whose existence Habsburg Spain and Austria had formed the
stretched back to the days of Charlemagne. pillars of her foreign policy, and the conflicts
Francis II (1768-1835) succeeded to the that resulted enabled France to expand her
throne in 1792. He held personal control of territory and commerce to such a degree that
affairs through a council of ministers, under Louis XIV she was Europe's foremost
although regional diets, or parliaments, military power. Louis continued to challenge
administered Hungary, Holland, and lands in Habsburg power, particularly in the Low
Italy. His domains were vast and stretched Countries and regularly fought Britain both
from northern Italy, across Austria proper, in Europe and overseas. Yet the War of the

Background to war 15

Spanish Succession did not yield the Low Treaty of Paris offered independence to the
Countries, as France had hoped, and in later Americans and territorial gain to Spain but
years, in spite of several successful campaigns virtually nothing to France. The halcyon days
during the War of the Austrian Succession, of Louis XIV were now long in the past.
France was obliged to return to Austria the France's wars had not only cost her dear in
conquests in the Netherlands she had made colonies and men, but they were also
during that conflict. During the 'diplomatic crippling financially. The strain on the French
revolution' of 1756 she made amends with economy and the threat of bankruptcy
her long-time Habsburg foe and allied herself obliged ministers to institute radical reforms,
with Austria to take on Prussia, as well as her beginning in 1787, which required the
great colonial and commercial rival, Britain. imposition of new taxes. In order to pass
However, France suffered catastrophically these reforms, Louis XVI required the
as a result of the Seven Years' War, losing
Canada to Britain, and also many of her The Storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789. The great state
possessions in the West Indies and most of prison in Paris held only seven inmates but a large
quantity of weapons and gunpowder eagerly sought by
those in India. Thus France was in decline,
the Paris mob.Thus armed, they marched on Versailles in
and although she was instrumental in October and brought the king and queen back to the
ensuring the success of the rebel cause during capital, where they remained effective prisoners until their
the War of American Independence, the flight to Varennes in June, 1791. (Oil by David. Gamma)


convocation of the Estates General, a body the crown. On the contrary, political
divided into three parts consisting of the disaffection in the officer corps was so
clergy, nobility, and commoners. widespread that it was impossible to rely on
It was here that all the trouble began. One the army to confront the National Assembly
of Louis's ministers warned him of the or, still less, to disperse seething Parisian
potentially disastrous consequences: 'As a mobs. Indeed, an overwhelming proportion
Frenchman, I want the Estates General, [but] of the nobles among the Estates General
as a minister 1 feel bound to tell you that were army officers who actively supported
they could destroy your authority.' The radical political change, and without the
political and financial crisis grew throughout army's defection the Revolution would
1788, with many army officers discontented probably never have happened.
at the imposition of new reforms. Things Louis recalled elements of the army from
finally came to a head in the spring of 1789 the frontiers but feared that they would
when Louis convened the Estates General. mutiny if ordered to fire on the people.
Catastrophic harvest failures had caused a rise Worse still, when the French Guards who
in the cost of bread - this in an essentially were garrisoned at Paris began to fraternize
medieval society still held together by feudal with the people, any hopes of relying on
ties and peopled by millions of impoverished them to uphold the royal will evaporated.
peasants and an increasingly discontented Then, on the fateful day of 14 July, the mob
urban working class. stormed the Bastille and the Revolution was
The Revolution was unleashed on two set on its radical course. But it was not the
very different fronts. The Estates General, people alone who captured the great
which met in May at Versailles, represented prison-fortress; the French Guards and
political legitimacy, even if they had not other mutinous elements of the army
been elected by the people; while in Paris, a provided the military know-how to seize the
vast city of 700,000 inhabitants, the crowds Bastille, a structure less significant as a
had no such claims to power, but would no bastion of royal power than it was as a
longer accept disenfranchisement, much less storehouse of the weapons needed to arm
outright tyranny. Events moved swiftly and the new militia, shortly to become the
in June the Estates General - or rather that National Guard.
portion consisting of commoners, known as The next day Louis ordered the army to
the Third Estate - declared the creation of a withdraw from Paris and Versailles. Now that
'National Assembly' and pledged in the the king could no longer depend on his
famous 'Tennis Court Oath' not to dissolve army, the last defense of royal authority had
until a new constitution for the nation had evaporated. One can easily oversimplify the
been settled. The nation and not the king role of the army in explaining the outbreak
was now the supreme authority in the land. of the Revolution; it was only one factor
The Third Estate regarded itself as the among many. Crop failure, food shortages,
legitimate representative body of the nation. and bankruptcy also played their part. Yet
In effect, the king was no longer sovereign. the army's role was decisive, not only
Louis was not prepared simply to sit back ensuring the survival and expansion of the
and watch the erosion of royal authority, Revolution at home, but within a few years
and while the National Assembly, supported achieving a succession of military victories.
by the people of Paris, might declare the These victories would preserve and
principle of national sovereignty, the king consolidate the Revolution, and, in a
still retained that ultimate instrument of relatively short space of time, raise French
absolutist power: the army. Yet Louis could power to heights never dreamt of, much less
not depend on this traditional bulwark of achieved, under the ancien regime.

Warring Sides

Opposing strengths

Austria was to become France's most Frederick William II, it was resting on its
determined continental foe, fighting in both laurels and clinging to the tactics of an
coalitions against the Republic with by far the earlier period. It had fought as recently as
greatest contribution of forces. Her armies 1778 against Austria, and later intervened in
were raised partly by voluntary enlistment and Holland in 1787, but with few opportunities
partly by conscription, which in German- for action its deficiencies were not entirely
speaking areas meant conscription for life. revealed, and the popularly held belief in the
Units were designated 'German', which superiority of the Prussian army remained
included men from the Netherlands, Italy and the orthodox view of many observers
Poland, and 'Hungarian', which included throughout Europe. In contrast to his uncle,
Croatia and Transylvania. Training varied in Frederick William preferred cooperation with
quality, was often poorly funded and Austria, and thus his kingdom entered the
constantly underwent reorganization. Officers war as Austria's ally with an army numbering
were largely drawn from the minor aristocracy, a respectable 200,000 men.
and earned their commissions through social When Britain entered the French
and political connections. Though Austria on Revolutionary Wars in 1793 she was
paper had an army of nearly 360,000 men, in unquestionably the world's leading naval
actual numbers she mobilized only about power, with 195 ships-of-the-line in
230,000 when war began. commission, 210 frigates, and 256 sloops - a
As discussed earlier, during the reign of total of over 600 vessels manned by
Frederick the Great, Prussia entered the ranks 100,000 men. Emphasis on naval strength
of the Great Powers largely through the had always adversely affected the army,
remarkable military successes of her king. In which was small by continental standards.
the course of two wars against Austria and Defeat in the American colonies only a
her allies, Frederick raised the army's decade earlier had damaged the army's
reputation and effectiveness to unrivaled reputation and its leadership left much to be
heights in Europe. By making maximum use desired. It was not only Britain's navy that
of his relatively scarce resources and small was strong. The economy, the product of her
population, by economizing in Spartan style, booming trade with her far-flung colonies in
by a strict system of recruitment and by India, Canada, the West Indies, and
extolling the virtues of loyalty to state and elsewhere, as well as with Europe, enabled
army, Frederick built an army that was her to supply her allies with enormous
second to none. By the time of his death in subsidies with which to prosecute their
1786, Prussia was the thirteenth largest campaigns on the Continent. In 1800 alone
country in Europe in population and the the Treasury spent over 7 percent of its total
tenth largest in area, yet possessed the third revenue on subsidies, most of it for Austria.
largest army - the very model of a Although Russia did not join the conflict
militarized state which could count on the until the formation of the Second Coalition at
loyal support of its proud subjects. the end of 1798, her army had recent combat
However, since the glory days of the experience in wars with Sweden, Poland, and
Seven Years' War the army had undergone Turkey, as well as with various peoples on her
something of a decline, such that by the lengthy frontier. Imperial rule was absolute.
time Prussia entered the war in 1 792 under The Russian soldier in the ranks was almost


invariably illiterate and destitute, and was veterans, defeat would have been inevitable at
distinguished by his unquestioning loyalty, the hands of the more professional and
high degree of discipline in combat, and his better-disciplined armies. Laws formalizing
extraordinary ability to endure privation and conscription were passed in 1798, requiring
hardship without complaint. all men between the ages of 18 and 40 to
Vast as the Russian Empire was, stretching register, with those between 18 and 25 liable
from the Baltic to the Ukraine, the Crimea to be called. Conscription raised vast armies
and beyond, its soldiers were principally and between January 1791 and July 1799 the
drawn from the heartland of ancient Great French Republic called up 1,570,000 men - an
Russia. In theory the army exceeded amazing achievement which other nations
400,000 men, including garrison regiments, could not match: they simply did not dare to
militia and irregular forces - notably the press into service such a huge proportion of
Cossacks - but in reality its effective strength their subjects for fear of political instability.
was much lower. The army and navy were Since the start of the revolution the army
conscripted by imperial levies, of which there had undergone considerable changes. For
were three under Tsar Paul. At the end of example, old regimental titles were abolished
Catherine's reign in 1796, Russia had in her and replaced by numbered units, units were
regular forces 140,000 infantry (rising to increased in size, and large numbers of new
200,000 by 1800), 30,000 cavalry, and battalions were raised. Some of these
8,000 in the artillery. Irregular forces were battalions were of reasonable quality, such as
large but of limited value. In any event, the Garde Nationale, while others were poorly
Suvorov had only about 20,000 men during trained, often ill-disciplined conscripts and
his campaign in Switzerland in 1799. volunteer hordes such as those created by the
Principally a land power, Russia nevertheless levee en masse in 1793. If they were not quite
possessed a respectable navy operating out of as drilled and precise as their adversaries, they
Cronstadt on the Baltic and Sebastopol on more than made up for it in elan and
the Black Sea. In 1790 she possessed 67 ships- devotion to their cause. As one Prussian,
of-the-line, 36 frigates, and 700 sloops, Laukhard, noted at the time:
crewed by 21,000 sailors.
Although defeated in the Seven Years' War The volunteers were not as straight as a die,
the French army had regained some of its as were the Prussians, and were not as polished,
reputation in America. With monarchist well-trained or skilled in handling a gun or
enemies ranged against her in 1792 France marching in step; nor did they know how to
burst forth with patriotic fervor with the cry tighten their belts around their tunics as the
of 'la patrie en danger!' thus calling forth the Prussians did, yet they were devoted to the cause
massive manpower and financial resources of they served in body and soul. Nearly all those I
the nation in a wave of unprecedented encountered at that time knew for whom and for
nationalist enthusiasm. The officer corps, what they were fighting and declared that they
traditionally dominated by the aristocracy, were ready to die for the good of their patrie. The
was by the beginning of the war open to all only alternatives they knew were liberty or death.
on merit. However, the flight and purge of
royalist officers in the early years of the wars The navy consisted of 81 ships-of-the-line,
left the army in a pathetic state, and officials 69 frigates, and 141 sloops, crewed by
found that there was no time to train the 78,000 sailors. Numbers can prove deceptive,
large influx of recruits and conscripts. Some however: the general state of the ships was
even refused to accept the degree of discipline poor, dockyards suffered from a shortage of
necessary for an effective fighting force. supplies, and the service was generally
Nevertheless, enough officers and men of the dogged by an inefficient administration,
old regular army remained to form a nucleus poor seamanship, defective gunnery, and low
for the new Republican armies. Without these
morale and discipline.

Outbreak

A clash of ideologies

It might seem logical to presume that the was prepared to lead a counter-revolution.
European monarchs, witnessing the fall of the Indeed, the Emperor Joseph was determined
Bastille, the deposing of the French king, and to remain neutral, whatever the fate of the
the establishment of constitutional French king and the queen, his sister. The
government should immediately have gone Prussians were equally blase. Catherine of
to war against the revolutionaries, if only to Russia, despite her hostility to the ideas of
prevent similar uprisings in their own the Revolution, effectively did nothing,
countries. But it was not to be, largely while Charles IV of Spain, cousin of Louis
because of events elsewhere in Europe, XVI, made vague threats which in reality
particularly in the East. Frederick William, amounted to nothing more than mere
supremely smug from his conquest of bluster. In any event, he was soon caught up
Holland in 1787 and already a beneficiary of in a nasty disagreement with Britain over
the first partition of Poland, had his eye on far-off Vancouver Island - the Nootka Sound
further gains, particularly Danzig and Thorn, incident - which brought the two countries
while the Austrians and Russians were to the brink of war in 1790. Thus the French
engaged in conflicts of their own against Revolutionaries had absolutely no reason to
Sweden and Turkey. The fact that all the fear intervention by the absolute monarchs.
continental Great Powers were engaged for Put in simple terms, in the first two years of
two years in intrigues and conflicts in eastern the Revolution every potential enemy of
Europe meant that France and its nascent significant power had other matters to
revolution remained undisturbed - indeed contend with: in 1787, Turkey was at war
almost entirely ignored - by its powerful and with Russia and Austria, and Prussia invaded
otherwise suspicious neighbors. Holland; in 1788, Sweden and Russia were at
It is also important to remember that, far war; in 1790, Prussia and Poland came close
from being disturbed by the implications of to war with Austria, and Britain and Spain
the French Revolution, many of Britain's narrowly escaped conflict; in 1791, Britain
leaders and politicians actually welcomed the and Prussia nearly fought Russia.
upheavals in France. When Pitt first heard How, then, did this atmosphere of
news of the Revolution while dining with a complacency and even satisfaction change to
friend, he 'spoke of it as an event highly one of open hostility? The simple answer is
favorable to us & indicates a long peace with that, by the middle of 1791, all of these
France.' As the Revolution developed, many conflicts or disputes had been settled, or
British observers suggested that France were on the point of being settled. The most
appeared to be embracing the principles of serious of these, in which Russia and Austria
Britain's own 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688. were allied against Turkey, ended in August.
What better way to maintain good relations Now all these countries could consider the
than to deal with another constitutional problem of France. But the origins of the
democracy, particularly one distracted from French Revolutionary Wars also owed much
colonial gain and commercial competition to the vociferous and consistent pleas of
by internal political upheaval? In short, a royalist emigres, who tirelessly agitated for
self-obsessed France could hardly threaten armed foreign intervention against the forces
British trade or interests abroad. of radicalism. The hawkish policies of radical
In fact, none of the continental powers politicians in Paris and the gradually


mounting antagonisms of the German failures in the war against the Ottoman
monarchies also played a significant role in Empire. Thus, in the course of his two years
bringing about war. in power (1790-92), Leopold chose to placate
Up until the spring of 1792 few obstacles internal opposition and implement reforms
existed to prevent the flight from France of the rather than confront revolutionary France.
aristocracy, nobles, clergy, and army officers. Yet if Leopold's conduct exasperated
Large numbers left, swelling the population of emigres for a time, French domestic events
disaffected expatriates longing for a return to gradually altered his views and, with them, his
the old order. They were right to leave, for policies. Louis's flight from Paris to Varennes
their lives and livelihoods were under grave in June 1791 was important in prompting
threat and the political changes forced upon Austrian intervention. Louis had consistently
them were naturally quite intolerable to them rejected proposals to leave France and return
when compared to the life of unchecked at the front of an army determined on
privilege that they had previously enjoyed for re-establishing Bourbon rule. Duty to the
so long. The leading emigre was the king's nation and to himself as sovereign - however
younger brother, the Comte d'Artois, who left restricted his political role had become -
France soon after the fall of the Bastille and encouraged him to remain in Paris. But by the
became the focal point for dispossessed spring of 1791 the King had come round to
aristocrats. From their base at Turin, Artois and the idea, for by then it had become all too
his adherents established a committee which clear that the Revolution was no mere passing
throughout 1789-90 produced plans to phase and that the concessions now forced on
extricate the King from Paris, establish him were only going to increase in the future.
counter-revolutionary insurrections inside Now persuaded that the only sensible measure
France, and secure foreign aid in a royalist was to flee the country to secure foreign aid,
crusade to crush the Revolution and Louis made his historic escape from the
re-establish legitimate Bourbon rule. capital, only to be arrested at Varennes and
Yet all such plans failed completely, for they returned to Paris a prisoner. The suspension of
were unable to attain the aid necessary from his royal powers soon followed and all
powerful foreign governments without which government matters were now the
any hopes of a return to absolute rule were responsibility of the Constituent Assembly.
illusory. Although Austria seemed the natural The King's attempt to leave France had
ally of the emigres - after all, Marie Antoinette far-reaching consequences, triggering fears
was sister to Joseph II - the fact remained that inside the country that foreign armies would
from the outbreak of the Revolution until soon be on the march to save the captive
1792 the Habsburg monarchy never showed sovereign. Vigorous military measures were
much enthusiasm for the emigre cause. undertaken and the widespread belief that
Indeed, Joseph had demanded their departure foreign intervention was only a matter of
from his domains in the Netherlands, and time began to affect the political scene
when his brother Leopold succeeded to the throughout the country. The King's arrest
imperial throne at the beginning of 1790 he had still more significance abroad, for
showed little interest in the cause of restoring throughout Europe both at court and among
Bourbon rule on its previous footing. the populace there emerged a groundswell of
In any event, the pressing internal sympathetic support for the French royal
problems that Leopold confronted family and a sense of apprehension for their
necessarily took precedence over foreign safety. Such sentiment was encouraged by
affairs: rebellion in the Austrian Netherlands the constant calls for aid from Marie
and near-revolt in Hungary, together with Antoinette. Action soon resulted: in July
more moderate, but nevertheless widespread, 1791, Leopold approached the other
dissent across Habsburg domains. These crowned heads with a proposal for a joint
domestic problems were compounded by declaration demanding the release of the

Outbreak 21

French royal family, the 'Padua Circular'. throne and the altar, to re-establish the legal
This did not amount to a threat of war - power, to restore to the king the security and
which Leopold did not seek - but rather a liberty of which he is deprived, and to put him
demonstration of royalist unity meant to in a position to exercise the legitimate authority
overawe the Republican government. which is his due.
In fact, there was no unified opposition to
the French revolutionary movement at the No such support was forthcoming, and
courts of Europe, though each of them Pillnitz remained for a time nothing more
provided substantial financial assistance to than bluster and intimidation.
the emigre cause. Tsarina Catherine However ineffective the declaration
adamantly opposed the Revolution, but her appeared for the moment, it nevertheless
foreign policy remained focused on added to the general sense of impending
acquiring territory at the expense of Poland danger within France. As the year progressed,
and Turkey, both weak and easy prey. moreover, the prospect of war became an ever
Sweden, under Gustavus III, wholeheartedly more attractive option for those politicians in
embraced military action against the Paris who viewed it as an opportunity to attain
revolutionaries, but his country's their own specific aims. This was particularly
geographical isolation and meager resources the case among the war part}' under the
precluded any unilateral intervention on his leadership of Jacques-Pierre Brissot, whose
part. In any event, Gustavus was assassinated popularity continued to rise as the new year
in March 1792. The Prussian king repeatedly began. His followers, the 'Brissotins' or
declared his desire for a military solution to 'Girondins', held an aggressive stance in the
French internal upheaval and the threats Legislative Assembly. The 37-year-old Brissot,
which revolutionary ideas posed abroad. an unsuccessful writer with a grudge against
Nonetheless, like Catherine, Frederick the ruling establishment, had been one of the
William had an eye on Polish land and was first to call for the abolition of the monarchy.
not prepared to fight unaided. Thus, in the Brissot was not alone. By the winter of 1791-92
summer of 1791, in spite of growing the Jacobins could more than match the
antagonism within the courts of several Girondins for radicalism. Yet as a speech
capitals, the likelihood of joint military- delivered on 26 December by Gensonné, one
intervention in France remained slight. of Brissot's colleagues, shows, the Girondins
That situation soon took a decisive turn, were exceptionally provocative as they stood:
however, for since Leopold had assumed the 'The common enemy is at the gates of the city;
Imperial throne, Austro-Prussian relations - a general assault threatens us; so now there can
traditionally tense and occasionally be no more beating about the bush; let us rush
outwardly hostile - had improved to the breach; we must defend our ramparts or
considerably. This made possible a joint bury ourselves beneath their ruins.'
declaration by the respective sovereigns, A fortnight later Guadet stood before the
issued at Pillnitz on 27 August 1791, which Assembly and raised the members to fever
expressed their anxieties over Louis's pitch in a dramatic foretaste of the hysteria
predicament and their hope that the leading which was to engulf France during the Reign
royal houses of Europe would make a joint of Terror two years later. 'Gentlemen,' he
effort to assist him. Though outwardly declared earnestly, 'let us make known to all
threatening, it was not a general call to arms these German princes that the French nation
and in any event did not commit Austria and has decided to maintain its constitution in
Prussia to anything without the cooperation its entirety; we shall die here.' His words
of other powers. It aimed to were met with wild applause as the members
rose in acclamation with cries of 'Yes, we
put an end to the anarchy in the interior of swear it!' Waving their hats in the air and
France, to stop the attacks carried on against the with arms outstretched, the deputies,


government ministers, ushers, and those provoke the republican government in Paris,
thronging the public galleries shouted a Leopold paradoxically achieved the reverse
common oath: 'We shall live in freedom or of his intentions. Hoping to lend weight to
we shall die, the constitution or death!' the power of the moderates in Paris, he in
Amidst the tumult Guadet concluded his fact increased the power of the radicals. Thus
speech in words calculated to bring the was created a vicious circle: increasing
house down: 'In a word, let us mark out in French fears of emigre activity on their
advance a place for traitors, and that place borders and the apparently menacing
will be on the scaffold!' The message was posture of Austria and Prussia gave impetus
clear: the Republic must have war; a war to the general atmosphere of fear and the
with total victory or total defeat. The nation prospect of not only counter-revolution, but
was to live free or die in its defense, while also armed foreign intervention.
those at home who threatened France from Events took on a new momentum with 1
within would be crushed. March 1792, and the succession of Francis.
At the same time, those at the opposite Consistently unwilling to embrace the more
end of the political spectrum - the monarchy bellicose views of the Prussian king, the
and its traditional ally, the aristocracy - princes of the Empire, and the emigres,
increasingly viewed war as an answer to their Leopold had preferred merely to pressure
rapidly declining political fortunes. Into this France rather than openly threaten her with
cauldron of hostility was thrown the still force. True, he had shown greater support for
active efforts of the emigres to restore the the restoration to power of Louis XVI -
status quo, and however little their efforts may briefly suspended by the National Assembly
have as yet achieved, their very existence after Varennes before moderates reinstated
assumed an importance out of all proportion him in September 1791 - than most other
to the actual danger to the Revolution that crowned heads, yet Leopold's death ushered
they presented. The recent growth of an in an entirely new Habsburg attitude toward
emigre presence in the Rhineland, an area foreign affairs. Leopold had acted with
used as the springboard for the emigres' caution and restraint; Francis tended more
subversive schemes, naturally raised concerns toward belligerence. The hawkish elements
for the Republican government, ever vigilant of the court grew in influence while the new
for evidence of counter-revolutionary enemies cabinet, particularly with the replacement of
within and without France. the more pacific chancellor, Kaunitz, opened
Artois and his adherents amounted to a sort the way for an altogether more hostile policy
of royalist government in exile, based at toward revolutionary France. The road to war
Koblenz; although their influence in foreign was now free of its former obstacles.
courts was minimal, seen together with the
Declaration of Pillnitz, the emigres were OPPOSITE On the eve of the French Revolutionary Wars
erroneously assumed to be a real and powerful the European continent contained about 180 million
threat to the Revolution. In addition to people, most of whom still lived under feudal conditions
receiving large amounts of financial aid, Artois within the realms of a sovereign or prince endowed with
substantial - if not autocratic - power over his subjects.
could boast of a respectably sized emigre army
Representative institutions with more than simply a token
in the Rhineland. The threat posed by such political role were rare, and even in Britain the franchise
forces was negligible in military terms, but the extended only to men of sufficient property or financial
very presence of this emigre army caused means. In the realm of power politics five powers stood
widespread alarm in France, where war fever above the rest: Britain. France. Austria, Russia and Prussia.
Austria was a natural target for those revolutionaries
was spreading. looking to export their creed: to the north lay the Austrian
Austria was not only pressured by the Netherlands: to the east the Holy Roman Empire, over
emigres but also miscalculated the situation: whom the Habsburgs traditionally exercised their not
by adopting an increasingly threatening inconsiderable power and influence, and to the south lay
Italy, another region with strong Habsburg connections.
attitude designed to intimidate but not


As politicians in Paris were rightly on 21 May, wished to restore the old order in
perceiving the changing mood in Vienna, France, whereas for the revolutionaries this
they were growing more vocal and bellicose was to be an ideological struggle between
themselves. The new foreign minister, a free people and the tyranny of
Charles Francois Dumouriez, came to office monarchical rule. This had been the
from relative obscurity amidst the growing philosophy so stridently advocated by
war fever. Long hostile to Austria, Dumouriez Brissot since the autumn of 1791. Toward
demanded immediate military action. War this end the revolutionaries were confident
now seemed inevitable. Indeed, it was not in their hopes of seeing a general rising
long in coming: on 20 April, France formally of the minority nationalities of the
declared war on Austria. 'The National Habsburg Empire: they were to be sorely
Assembly,' the declaration of war ran, disappointed.
Those powers ranged against France clung
declares that the French nation, faithful to the steadfastly to a policy more than merely
principles consecrated in the constitution, not to ideological: there were distinct territorial
undertake any war with a view to making gains to be made, a wholly realistic aim
conquest, and never to employ its forces when one considers the Allies' complete
against the liberty of any people, takes arms confidence in the superiority of their
only to maintain its liberty and its professional, highly trained, highly
independence. disciplined armies over the rabble that
That the war which it is forced to sustain is appeared to them to constitute the forces of
not a war of nation against nation, but the just the Republic. It was therefore not surprising
defense of a free people against the unjust that the Allies did not yet appreciate the
aggression of a king. immense threat to the political stability of
That the French will never confound their Europe's monarchies posed by the armies
brothers with their real enemies; that they will marching in the name of 'the People', for
neglect nothing in order to alleviate the scourge those armies were as yet untested. They
of war, to spare and preserve property, and to could hardly then know - and indeed it
cause to return upon those alone, who shall would be to the astonishment of all - that
league themselves against its liberties, all the the revolutionary armies would, despite
miseries inseparable from war. some serious setbacks, achieve remarkable
triumphs in the field between 1793 and
1795, rapidly annexing neighboring
Little did anyone know that this war -
territories in great swathes never even
which all sides believed would be short -
imagined - much less achieved - by Louis
would eventually engulf all of Europe in
XIV or Louis XV. Nor could the Allies have
more than two decades of conflict.
dared to imagine the full horror that lay
Neither side bore sole responsibility for
ahead for them: seemingly unstoppable
the war. The conflict cannot be said to have
revolutionary forces carrying with them the
originated either exclusively in Paris or in
banner of liberté, egalité et fraternité across
Vienna. It was not only kings and politicians
western and central Europe, challenging the
who shaped foreign policy; prevailing views
very legitimacy of monarchical rule. Only
among the general populace in both capitals
then was the war perceived as the truly grave
played their role. In the end both sides
threat to European political and social
sought war, but their objectives proved very
stability that it actually was.
different. Austria, joined shortly by Prussia

The fighting

The first and second coalitions

The War of the First Coalition, occupied the border with Piedmont, on the
1792-97 south coast. Each of these armies was
understrength and suffered from poor
The Campaign of 1792 discipline and disorganization.
The French Revolutionary Wars were divided Fighting began when French forces
into two distinct periods, organized around invaded the Austrian Netherlands (modern
the War of the First Coalition (1792-97) and Belgium), where, at Valenciennes, the
that of the Second Coalition (1798-1802), Republicans overcame all resistance in the
each with its own combination of European first action of the war. Further south, along
powers. The fervor of revolutionary ideology the Rhine, however, the Austrians and
in France, together with the revulsion that it Prussians were aiming directly for Paris itself.
inspired abroad, brought France into open The prospect of invasion had a profound
conflict with Austria and Prussia, soon to be effect in the French capital, where the
joined by various other states. The Allies National Assembly decreed that every citizen
expected a quick and decisive victory. was to come forward in defense of the
Once across the Rhine they expected to Republic, while radical politicians moved
brush aside the poorly equipped amateurish closer to deposing the King. On 24 July
forces sent to meet them. At the end of a Prussia, together with a number of lesser
decade of continuous fighting, the French German states, formally joined Austria's
Revolutionary Wars left France in a far cause by declaring war on France.
stronger position than she had begun On 1 August the Allies issued the
them, controlling not only the so-called Brunswick Manifesto, a statement that
'natural' frontiers of the Rhine, the Alps, proved immensely counter-productive since
and the Pyrenees, but exercising it inadvertently fanned the flames of
considerable influence over her satellite revolutionary fervor in France. While it was
states in the Low Countries, western meant to be an ominous warning of
Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. These punishment which would cow the French, as
achievements, though relatively swiftly well as being a pledge to protect Louis XVI,
attained, were made only after fighting on it played into the hands of French
an unprecedented scale, in many separate propagandists who presented it as a dire
theaters of war and under very different threat to the nation's existence. If the
geographical conditions. Tuileries were attacked, the Brunswick
When hostilities began in April 1792, Manifesto said,
France deployed her armies along all her
borders. To the north, two officers if the least violence or outrage he offered to their
distinguished by their previous service in the Majesties, the king, queen and royal family, if
War of American Independence, Generals their preservation and their liberty be not
Rochambeau and Lafayette, with about immediately provided for, they [the Allies] will
50,000 men each, held positions extending exact an exemplary and ever-memorable
from the northern coast to the Ardennes. A vengeance, by delivering the city of Paris over to
somewhat smaller army under General a military execution and to complete ruin, and
Luckner stood near the Rhine further south. the rebels guilty of these outrages to the
Fifty thousand men under Montesquieu punishments they shall have deserved.


Parisians bid farewell to the National Guard, September 34,000 professional troops under Brunswick.
1792. Scenes like these took place all over France: At last, on September 20, the two armies met
soldiers leaving for the front kiss their sweethearts and
at a position prepared by the French at Valmy.
receive bouquets from enthusiastic ladies lining the
streets while men cheer and raise or throw their hats Both sides opened a cannonade until 1 pm,
into the air. 'Every citizen should be a soldier proclaimed when the Prussian guns fell silent and their
one revolutionary,'and every soldier should be a citizen.' infantry, arrayed in two lines, marched
(Print after Coginet, Roger-Viollet)
forward in attack. Kellermann seized the
moment: raising his hat on his sword he cried
Received in Paris on 3 August, it caused 'Vive la Nation!' and thousands of troops
widespread public demonstrations and the answered back in a great surge of patriotic
imprisonment of the King, who was now enthusiasm. To the astonishment of the
sovereign in name only. The determination French, Brunswick halted his attack and
to repel the enemy grew enormously withdrew - and he did not stop until he had
and volunteer enlistments rose at an gone back across the Rhine. Goethe, who was
astonishing pace. present with the allied army, rightly perceived
Initially the army of the Duke of Brunswick the great historical significance of the French
met little resistance in its August advance on victory, for not only did it save Paris, it saved
the French capital. In leisurely fashion he the Revolution itself. 'From here and today,'
took the fortresses at Longwy and Verdun he told his colleagues, 'there begins a new
before proceeding through the Argonne epoch in the history of the world, and you
forest. Opposing him was the Army of the can say that you were there.'
Centre under General Francois Kellermann, On the southern front Montesquieu's army
joined by part of the Army of the North invaded Piedmont and Savoy, capturing Nice
under General Charles Dumouriez. Together in the process. Dumouriez, for his part, made
the Generals could deploy 36,000 men progress in the north. On his approach the
of dubious quality compared to the Austrians raised the siege of Lille and made

The fighting 27

camp for the winter at Jemappes, just over the This, together with a French declaration
Belgian frontier. Now was the time for on 16 November that opened the Scheldt
Dumouriez to strike. While Austrian and Estuary to international shipping (in overt
Prussian attention was diverted by matters in violation of existing treaties which
Poland, where the Eastern powers were guaranteed Holland sole control), led Britain
arranging the second partition of that to make war preparations. British security
unfortunate country, Dumouriez launched rested on the premise that no great maritime
another, more powerful invasion, this time power held control of the Channel ports.
with 40,000 men and 100 guns, defeating the Britain was right to be concerned, for
13,000 Austrians at Jemappes on 6 November. Dumouriez planned to invade the Dutch
The battle was a turning point in the war, Republic in the spring. In Paris Anglophobia
for the French followed up by taking Brussels was growing rapidly, particularly within the
10 days later, and sent a squadron up the National Assembly.
Scheldt to besiege Antwerp. Significantly, the The so-called 'Edict of Fraternity', issued
French had now adopted new tactics and on 19 November, gave further alarm in
displayed a thirst for the offensive, of élan, Britain, for it was an open invitation for
which was to serve them well over the next radicals across Europe - and specifically
several years. Meanwhile, on the Rhine front, within the small German states of the Holy
neither side had gained the upper hand.
General Custine took Mainz but penetrated
Valmy, 20 September 1792. In one of history's most
into Germany only as far as Frankfurt. decisive battles, the Duke of Brunswick made two
Nevertheless, by the end of 1792, republican half-hearted advances against Dumouriez and
armies had preserved the nation and, Kellermann before acknowledging his numerical
moreover, sat ominously on the borders of inferiority and declaring:'We shall not strike here.' French
morale soared. The French Revolutionaries have come
Holland, while at home the Revolution had through their baptism of fire,' noted one Prussian officer
taken a more radical turn. A new government, They expected more from us. Now we have fallen in
the National Convention, came to power and their estimation, but they have risen. We have lost more
promptly abolished the monarchy. than a battle. Our credibility is gone.' (Gamma)


Roman Empire - to overthrow their administrative collapse left the armies of the
governments, whether or not those Republic lacking in supplies and pay and
governments were then hostile to France. suffering from low morale. In theory they
The French could hardly have produced a numbered 270,000, but the true figure must
more provocative document: have been considerably lower, and with
morale at its lowest point there was no telling
The National Convention declares, in the what the next season of campaigning would
name of the French nation, that it will grant bring. To make matters worse, France had
fraternity and assistance to all peoples who wish now also to contend with the powerful Royal
to recover their liberty, and instructs the Navy, which was reckoned by all more than a
Executive Power to give the necessary orders to match for its French counterpart. With France
the generals to grant assistance to these peoples already on the verge of bankruptcy, the
and to defend those citizens who have been - or prospect of losing her colonies and having
may be - persecuted for their attachment to the her commerce swept from the seas must have
cause of liberty. seemed like a nightmare.
The French duly invaded Holland in the
The critical point came on 21 January middle of February, but the Allies were
1793. The execution of Louis XVI caused meanwhile launching their own offensive
outrage throughout Europe, including with 40,000 Austrians under the Prince of
Britain, where the government had already Saxe-Coburg, who crossed the Meuse to
begun discussing military plans with retake Belgium. On the Rhine, Brunswick
Austrian and Prussian officials. Just 10 days returned with 60,000 Prussians to besiege
later, on 31 January, the National Assembly Custine in Mainz, but neither of their two
formally annexed Belgium, and it declared operations was vigorously pressed. Indeed,
war on Britain and Holland the next day. the allied campaign in Flanders stumbled
The power of the Allies' coalition was along without any rush to reach the French
enormously increased with the additional frontier. Adhering to the strategies of
military, naval, and above all financial previous wars, the forces of the coalition
resources of Britain, who began to use her instead chose to spend the summer
diplomatic influence to draw in other consolidating their ground by laying siege to
members. Naples and Portugal soon joined the cities of Valenciennes, Condé, and Mainz.
the ranks of the Allies, followed by Spain, on Nevertheless, the French under General
whom France declared war on 7 March. To Francisco de Miranda suffered defeat at
these Sweden and Russia gave their Maastricht on 6 March, while on the 18th, at
sympathy, if not their practical support. Neerwinden, Dumouriez launched eight
separate columns totaling 45,000 men
The Campaign of 1793 against Saxe-Coburg in an attempt to turn
France faced a whole host of threats in the his left. The French columns were defeated
spring of 1793: to the south Spain could in detail, rapidly putting paid to French
mount an attack across the Pyrenees; Austrian plans of swift conquest. The Austrians retook
and Italian troops were preparing for the Brussels, and Dumouriez, unwilling to face
spring campaign season near Nice; a the inevitable backlash in Paris where his
multinational army under British command Jacobin political enemies demanded blood,
was being readied for operations in Flanders defected to the enemy on 5 April. Custine,
in conjunction with Habsburg forces; and the who ultimately replaced him, was defeated at
Allies now boasted an army of the besieged city of Valenciennes on
120,000 men along the Rhine. These 21-23 May, and fell victim to the ruthless
combined forces numbered nearly Committee of Public Safety in Paris, the
350,000 men, while in France civil and main instrument of the Reign of Terror (a
political instability, workers' strikes, and sort of revolutionary dictatorship led by

The fighting 29

Maximilien Robespierre). Custine was sent to Execution of Louis XVI. His death at the guillotine not
the guillotine, setting a chilling precedent only galvanized existing opposition to the Revolution
from abroad, it went far in persuading even many British
for many other generals who would either republicans that things had gone sour 1 will tell you what
fail on the battlefield or whose loyalties to the French have done.' said William Cowper. 'They have
the Republic would come under suspicion. made me weep for a King of France, which I never
Saxe-Coburg duly followed up his success by thought to do, and have made me sick of the very name
of liberty, which I never thought to be.' (Roger-Viollet)
taking Condé on 10 July and Valenciennes
on the 29th.
While the Terror sought to cleanse France Fortunes shifted, however, as a result of
of its internal enemies - real and imagined - faulty allied strategy and wrangling among
the nation was in an increasingly dangerous the various governments. The new offensive
position, with fighting along the Pyrenees in Flanders failed to concentrate its forces,
and, from August, serious royalist counter- dividing them instead between the British,
revolutions under way in the Vendee, Lyon, who marched on Dunkirk, and the Austrians,
and Toulon. An Anglo-Spanish fleet under who laid siege to Quesnoy. These forces now
Admiral Lord Hood appeared off Toulon, confronted French armies that were newly
disembarked troops for its defense against enlarged, well led, and encouraged by the
republican forces, and prepared to burn or far-reaching reforms instituted by Lazare
capture the French fleet sitting at anchor. Carnot, the new War Minister. Later dubbed
The British were also active to the north, the 'Organizer of Victory', Carnot was
dispatching an Anglo-Hanoverian expedition instrumental in formulating the famous levee
under the Duke of York to Flanders, where it en masse, decreed on 23 August, by which the
invested Dunkirk and linked forces with the Republic ordered the conscription of the
Austrians to the east. Elsewhere, with low entire male population. From this moment until
morale among both their leaders and men, that in which the enemy shall have been driven
French forces along the Rhine could not from the soil of the Republic, ran one of the
hope to stop the allied advance from the east Revolution's greatest documents,
that recaptured Mainz in August. These were
dark times indeed for France, a country now all Frenchmen are in permanent requisition for
apparently on the point of collapse. the service of the armies. The young men


shall go to battle; the married men shall forge William Pitt addressing the House of Commons, 1793.
arms and transport provisions; the women shall His early prediction that the Revolution would bring
Britain 15 years of peace was entirely misplaced, though
make tents and clothing and shall serve in the
not. at the time, inconceivable. After the strategic and
hospitals; the children shall turn old linen into ideological threat posed by revolutionary France became
lint; the aged shall betake themselves to the clear Pitt became a staunch advocate for war and was
public places in order to arouse the courage of instrumental in establishing the First and Second
the warriors and preach the hatred of kings and Coalitions, which he backed with only limited, often
unsuccessful, military expeditions but a significant naval
the unity of the Republic. and financial commitment. (Ann Ronan Picture Library)

Within a matter of weeks the tireless
OPPOSITE Shifting fortunes and policies inevitably meant
Carnot had raised an astonishing
that nations entered and left the conflict at different
14 new armies. times:
On the very day this call to arms was 1. France At war. April 1792-October 1797: hostilities
issued, Marseilles fell to republican forces. continued against Britain and Portugal.
The following two months witnessed a series 2. Austria Against France. April 1792-October 1797.
3. Britain Against France. February 1793-March 1802.
of great battlefield achievements. On
4. Prussia Against France. June 1792-April 1795.
8 September the French counter-attacked the 5. Holland Against France. February 1793-1795:
Duke of York at Hondschoote, near Dunkirk. thereafter a French ally as the Batavian Republic.
The new commander in Flanders, General 6. Spain Against France. August 1792-July 1795: French
Houchard, flung his 42,000 men forward in a ally against Britain. October 1796-March 1802.
7. Portugal Against France. March 1793-1801: against
series of madcap and uncoordinated assaults.
Spain, France's ally. 1801.
The sheer size of his army gave the Anglo- 8. Small G e r m a n states of the Holy Roman
Hanoverians, though they were better Empire Baden, 1793-96: Bavaria, 1792: Hanover,
trained and more experienced, no choice but 1792-95: Hessel-Cassel, 1792-95: Hesse-Darmstadt,
to retreat and abandon their siege train. 1792-1799: Saxony, 1792-96: Wurttemberg, 1792-97.
9. N o r t h e r n and central Italian states Initiated war
Hondschoote ended the revolutionary
against France or attacked or forcibly occupied by her:
armies' series of defeats and turned the tide Sardinia, 1792-96: Parma, 1796: Genoese Republic,
in their favor once again. The French armies 792: Venetian Republic, 1796.
went forward, bent on further victories and 10. Naples Against France, 1793-96.

the french revolutionary

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