The Contemporary World: The Globalization of World Politics

THE CONTEMPORARY
WORLD
THE GLOBALIZATION OF WORLD POLITICS: AN
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Prepared by: ROMMEL R. REGALA, Ph.D.
Catanduanes State University

INTRODUCTION
FROM INTERNATIONAL POLITICS TO WORLD POLITICS

CHAPTER 1
GLOBALIZATION AND
GLOBAL POLITICS

CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND
GLOBAL POLITICS
• Globalization involves:
• A stretching of social, political, and economic activities
across political frontiers.
• A growing magnitude of interconnectedness in almost
every sphere of social existence.
• An accelerating pace of global interactions and
processes associated with a deepening enmeshment of
the local and the global.
• Globalization is considered a historical process of fast-
growing interconnectedness in every sphere of social,
political and economic life, across political and national
frontiers.

CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS
In the first wave, the age of
discovery (1450-1850),
globalization was decisively
shaped by European expansion
and conquest.
Globalization in the age of
discovery was a result of
European expansion and
conquest, which then
determined the order of the
world system.

The second wave (1850-1945) evidenced a major expansion in the spread
and entrenchment of European empires.
The second wave of globalization was characterized by the attempts of
European empires to enlarge their territories while at the same time securing
them from external interference.

GLOBAL POLITICS
• Asymmetrical globalization is the way in which
contemporary globalization is unequally
experienced across the world and amongst different
social groups.
• The concept of asymmetrical globalization describes
the unequal effects of globalization on different
parts of the world and among different social
groups leading to a distinctive pattern of inclusion in
and exclusion from the global system.

• The disaggregated state is the tendency for states to become increasingly
fragmented actors in global politics as every part of the government machine
becomes entangled with its foreign counterparts and others in dealing with
global issues through proliferating transgovernmental and global policy
networks.
• In a disaggregated state, the constituent agencies increasingly interact with
their counterparts abroad, international agencies and NGOs in the
management of common and global affairs. The image of a foreign-domestic
policy divide is replaced by formal and informal transgovernmental networks.

GLOBAL POLITICS
• Skeptical accounts of globalization dismiss its significance because
they argue that:
• By comparison with the period 1870 to 1914, the world is
now less globalized economically, politically and culturally.
• The vast bulk of international economic and political activity is
concentrated within the group of OECD (Organizations for
Economic Co-operation and Development) states.
• Globalization is at best a self-serving myth or ideology which
reinforces Western and particularly US hegemony in world
politics.
• Skeptical accounts assume that globalization and interdependence
have been highly exaggerated, or even are myths to conceal that
the world is much more regionalized and that globalization favors
OECD states and the West in general.

GLOBAL POLITICS
• State autonomy is challenged in the "post-
Westphalian" order because in a more
interdependent world, national governments are
forced to engage in extensive multilateral
collaboration and co-operation simply to achieve
domestic objectives.
• The capacity for self-governance of the state is
compromised by new types of problems that states
cannot solve on their own. The authority to do so is
increasingly shared between the local, national,
regional and global level.

GLOBAL POLITICS
• Time-space compression is the technologically
induced erosion of distance and time, which gives
the appearance of a world that is, in
communication terms, shrinking.
• The progress in communication technologies allows
interaction across the world immediately and
without time constraints.

The international Convention on the Elimination of Child Labor was the product
of a complex politics involving public and private actors from trade unions,
industrial associations, humanitarian groups, governments, and legal experts.
The Convention is one example for complex political coordination among
governmental, intergovernmental and non-state actors - both public and
private - in order to realize common purposes through the making of global
rules.

• The "Post-Westphalian Order" is characterized by:
• The sovereign power and authority of national government - the entitlement of states to
rule within their own territorial space - being transformed but not necessarily eroded.
• A real dilemma: in return for more effective public policy and meeting their citizens’
demands, whether in relation to the drugs trade or employment, states’ capacity for self-
governance - that is state autonomy - is compromised.
• The emergence of a new geography of political organization and political power, which
transcends territories and borders.
• The main three elements of the Westphalian order - sovereignty, state authority and
territoriality - are affected by the consequences of globalization. Sovereignty is increasingly
shared among national, regional and global actors; state authority is diminished by new types
of transnational problems and consequently, a strict principle of territoriality cannot be
maintained.

CHAPTER 2
THE RISE OF MODERN
INTERNATIONAL ORDER

CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN
INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• 'International orders' refers to regularized practices
of exchange among discrete political units.
• International orders are regularized practices of
exchange among discrete political units, which
recognize each other to be independent.
International orders have existed ever since
political units began to interact on a regular basis,
whether through trade, diplomacy or the exchange
of ideas. In this sense, world history has seen a
great many regional international orders.

INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• International society is regulated by
diplomacy, law, and the balance of power.
• The three regulating mechanisms of
international society are diplomacy,
international law, and the balance of power.

INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• Elements of international society can be found
in Medieval Christian Europe, Medieval Islam,
and Ancient China.
• Ancient China, India, Rome, and both Christian
and Islamic medieval civilization bear evidence
of international society.

INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• The Catholic Church helped constitute the
normative basis of international society.
• The Catholic Church, a form of supranational
authority, contributed to both the normative
basis of international society, and in
particular, just war theory.

CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF
MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• Both exploration and colonization of the
New World and The Protestant
Reformation contributed to the emergence
of international society.
• The exploration of the New World led to
an interest in a political entity's relations
beyond its borders, while the Protestant
Reformation implicitly strengthened the
principle of sovereign equality by
challenging Catholicism's claim to
supreme authority.

INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• Skeptical accounts of international society believe
both that it is a rhetorical cover for self-serving
powerful states and argue that it is unable to cope
with globalization.
• Skeptical accounts suggest both that international
society is a rhetorical justification of great power
politics, and that globalization poses significant
challenges to the order of international society.

INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• Challenges to international society posed directly by
globalization:
• Global warming.
• American power.
• Dissolution of the bonds of political community.
• The international society has endured for years in spite of
interstate war. New challenges involve civil conflict,
environmental strain, American hyperpower, and changing
forms of political community and identity; all of these
challenge the assumption of sovereign equality upon which
international society is founded. Interstate war is not a
challenge to international society posed directly by
globalization.

CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• Organized hypocrisy is a term coined by political scientist Stephen
Krasner to refer to sovereignty, which is a caution against idealistic
conceptions of international society or the legal fiction masking power
relations between states.
• Organized Hypocrisy, the title of a 1999 book by Stephen Krasner,
suggests that sovereignty is a norm honored more in the breach than in
the observance, and cautions against assuming that all states will
always honor the precepts of international society.

CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF
MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• The French and American Revolutions created
new challenges to international society by
raising the issue of nationalism while also
leading to the creation of the Concert of
Europe.
• The American (1776) and French (1789)
Revolutions brought new states and the concept
of nationalism to the forefront of inter-state
relations, and led to the creation of the Concert
of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.

INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• Hierarchical, Hegemonic, and Imperial offers
an alternative to international society as a
way of organizing world politics.
• International society is distinguished from the
above three ways of ordering the world
system by the principle of sovereign equality.

CHAPTER 3
INTERNATIONAL HISTORY 1900-1999

CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY
1900-1999
• Historian A.J.P. Taylor argued that Hitler was no
different from other German political leaders.
• In Origins of the Second World War, A.J.P. Taylor
argued that Hitler was no different from the
German political leaders who had preceded him.
Fritz Fischer argued in Germany’s Aims in the First
World War that the war was caused by the
international political needs of an autocratic elite.

CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL
HISTORY, 1900-1999
• Under a structural explanation, the central
problem of European security in the first half of
the twentieth century was the rise of a united
Germany.
• The increase in German power post-unification
was seen as the central security problem that the
Versailles settlement failed to solve. Although
nationalism and economic crisis were both
important issues, the structural explanation focuses
on the effects of Germany's rise.

HISTORY, 1900-1999
• The First World War led to the
dissolution of the Russian empire.
• Along with the German, Austro-
Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires,
the Russian empire ended with the
First World War.

CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999
Decolonization was partially
determined by local or tribal
factors, by the attitudes of
former colonizing powers, and
was sometimes replaced by
superpower involvement.
Decolonization varied across
regions and former imperial
powers, and was also partially
determined by factors in the
area undergoing decolonization
as well as the level of
involvement of the new
superpowers.

HISTORY, 1900-1999
• The Warsaw Pact was the Eastern bloc's
answer to NATO and gained impetus after the
1954 rearmament of West Germany.
• The North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO) was
the United States' military commitment to its
European allies. Signed in 1949, it was
followed in 1955 by the Warsaw Pact, which
was largely prompted by the rearmament of
the Federal Republic of Germany.

• Efforts to achieve more cooperative relations
between the Western and Communist countries:
• Détente with the USSR.
• Rapprochement with China.
• German Ostpolitik.
• Détente with the USSR and rapprochement
with China were both efforts by the United
States to achieve more cooperative relations
with Communist states in the 1970's. The same
can be said of West Germany's Ostpolitik.

• The 'second cold war‘ followed the
election of Ronal Reagan and
described a confrontational period
in the late 1980s.
• After the election of President
Ronald Reagan in 1980, relations
between the superpowers entered a
more conflictual phase, which has
since been dubbed the "second cold
war".

• The US, the USSR, and Britain (in
order) were the first three states to
achieve nuclear capability.
• The United States dropped the first
atomic bomb in 1945; the USSR
tested in 1949, and the British
followed with a test off the
Australian coast in 1952.

HISTORY, 1900-1999
• The Sinatra doctrine was a
catchphrase for foreign policy under
Gorbachev.
• The Sinatra doctrine referred to
Gorbachev's policy toward Eastern
Europe. It replaced the Brezhnev
doctrine and was paired with
domestic policies of glasnost
(openness) and perestroika
(restructuring).

• Nuclear weapons crises during the cold
war included the following:
• Cuba (1962)
• Able Archer (1983)
• The Arab Israeli War (1979)
• In addition to the Berlin Crisis of 1961,
these crises all ran a significant risk of
escalation to nuclear war, though how
close the superpowers came to war is
still debated today.

CHAPTER 4
FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR
TO A NEW GLOBAL ORDER

CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE
COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER
• The 'unipolar moment‘ refers to US primacy
since 1989.
• The 'unipolar moment' is the position in which
the United States finds itself after the end of
the cold war. Although scholars debate
whether multipolarity or another international
system is emerging, most believe that the US is
still a global hegemon.

CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A
NEW GLOBAL ORDER
• Explanations for the end of the cold war
include:
• Gorbachev and Reagan's leadership.
• The relative economic strength of the
United States.
• The ideological attractiveness of
Western democracy and capitalism.
• There is no clear consensus on the causes
of the cold war; all three explanations
have been advanced.

CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF
THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER
• Globalization in the post-cold war
world became a defining term of
international discourse and had its
extent contested by scholars such as
David Held and Martin Wolf.
• Globalization, though its precise
meaning was contested, became the
key discourse of governments in the
post-cold war world.

NEW GLOBAL ORDER
• US primacy is a key feature of and
a challenge in the post-cold war
order.
• Very few people predicted US
primacy, but it has become a
defining feature of the post-Cold-
War world and as such is debated
hotly inside and outside the United
States. 9/11 gave direction to a
formerly drifting US foreign policy.

CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER
• Europe:
• Has struggled to reconcile deepening integration with fragmentation, such as that in the
former Yugoslavia.
• Is debating the extent and depth of a "European foreign and security policy" but remains
uncertain of their future.
• Emphasizes international institutions.
• Although Europe benefited immensely from the end of the cold war, it continues to struggle with
deepening integration and civil conflict on its borders, the extent to which it should pursue a
collective foreign policy, and the role of international institutions.

CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END
OF THE COLD WAR TO A
NEW GLOBAL ORDER
• Russian President Vladimir Putin
has nationalized Russian
economic assets.
• Among other shifts in an
authoritarian, assertive direction,
Putin has brought economic assets
back under state control.

NEW GLOBAL ORDER
• Challenges facing East Asia include
North Korea's nuclear program and
outstanding territorial disputes.
• The North Korean nuclear program,
territorial disputes between many of
the major powers, and the "rise of
China" are examples of challenges
facing East Asia today.

CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER
• The "rise of China“:
• Is an issue considered by every region of the world today.
• Is unequivocally a cause for optimism.
• Is characterized by a shift toward economic autarky.
• Regions around the world, from Europe to Africa, have had to incorporate China into
their foreign policy considerations as China has become more and more of an
international and economic player. However, realist theory predicts that the rise of
China is likely to provoke international conflict.

CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW GLOBAL ORDER
• Inequality:
• Creates new challenges in terms of domestic social stability, migration, and political
violence.
• Has become more important as globalization empowers sub-state actors.
• Has caused scholars to reconsider the helpfulness of the term "Third World".
• Although inequality has always been present, the end of the cold war led scholars to
reconsider the utility of the term "Third World" to characterize poor and still-developing
areas. It has led to new challenges posed by the empowerment of sub-state actors,
fluctuations in domestic social stability, increased migration, and possible political violence
against the West.

CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO
A NEW GLOBAL ORDER
• George W. Bush's foreign policy:
• Argued that old methods of dealing with contemporary
challenges were obsolete and ineffective.
• Changed direction sharply after 9/11.
• Led to a controversial war in Iraq whose reasons and effects
are still being highly debated.
• After 9/11 American foreign policy took a sharp turn: military
interventions in both Iraq and Afghanistan were based on the
premise that deterrence and the balance of power were
inadequate mechanisms by which to confront the threat posed
by transnational Islamic terrorism.

CHAPTER 5
RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING
GLOBAL ORDER

CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER
• What is "unipolarity"?
• Unipolarity denotes the period of time after the post-cold war era, in which the US emerged
as the sole superpower. It describes the unrivalled extent and many dimensions of US power.
• Unipolartiy refers to the dense set of trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific relations and alliance
systems.
• Unipolarity was marked by Western-dominated institutions and multilateral organizations
originally created in the wake of the Second World War.
• Unipolarity denotes the period of time after the post-cold war era, in which the US emerged as
the sole superpower. It was manifest in the dense set of trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific relations
and alliance systems, established, in the main, through U.S. initiative. Contemporarily, there has
been much debate as to whether or not unipolarity persists or whether we have now entered a
period of multipolarity.

CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS &
THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER
• Soft power is getting others to agree with you
without using coercive force.
• Soft power is distinguished from hard, coercive
power. In contrast to the former, soft power
refers to the power of attraction, of getting
others to emulate your own society and its
values.

• An example of how emerging powers have impacted the
international governance system:
• Brazil and India have joined the US and the EU as
members of the WTO inner negotiating circle.
• While there has been a lot of discussion about reforming the
UN Security Council, and possibly include new permanent
members, it has so far failed to generate any actual change. In
the WTO, "major", countries, such as those in the "new quad"
wield less formal power, and groups can be formed more
easily, and based on existing verities. This illustrates the
growing importance of the emerging powers, but also how
entrenched the more formalized governance systems are.

• Waiving special concessions based on their old
developing country status is an example of a nation
trying to "graduate" from the developing world
category.
• It has been suggested that if a nation wants truly to join
non-developing countries as a full and accepted peer; it
needs to forego the special privileges that came with its
old status as a somehow subordinate power. This will
likely be a test of the resolve of such an ambition, as
short-term pain must be weighed against less tangible
longer-term legitimacy and peer recognition.

• The Washington Consensus is a set of policy aims thought, by its promoters, to
maximize global welfare, by pushing for (among other things) market liberalization
and a reduced role for the state.
• The notion is that a set of preferences how to maximize global welfare was
gradually turned into a "standardized" package of policy recommendations
adopted and promoted by influential Washingtonites and others. The influence of
these policy shapers meant that the resulting "policy recipes" were in turn pushed by
international - but Washington-based - institutions such as the International Monetary
Fund and the World Bank. Critics have argued that this in fact meant the forced
adoption of neo-liberal ideas by countries in need of assistance (and thus less able
to resist any reciprocal demands).

Concert diplomacy is nothing new, but a resurgence of the idea that great powers
need to collaborate to organize norms of international interaction, and thus the very
order of international society. Organizations such as the G20 provide venues for
recurring talks about such issues, and the realization that more than just a handful of
states (compare the veto-wielding powers in the UN Security Council) are in fact
required to partake in these processes.
Creating new formal organizations (such as the G20) to organize countries is an
example of increased "concert diplomacy“.

CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE
EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER
• No reform(s) have been implemented during the tenure of
General Kofi Annan as Secretary despite of making it a priority
to reform the United Nations, including the Security Council.
• The structure of the UN Security Council is based on the political
realities of the late 1940s. Reform and modernization of its
governance system have been identified by numerous actors,
including Annan and Ban Ki-Moon, as crucial to reflect a
changing world, and so keep the organization relevant.
Suggestions have included the expansion of the number of
permanent members, the expansion of the number of non-
permanent members or both. Because change requires the
agreement of at least two-thirds of UN members and all the five
veto-wielding powers, it has so far proved impossible to reach a
consensus. Problems are compounded by conflicting demands by
hitherto "excluded" (i.e. non-permanent members) states.

• The BASIC is a group of developing countries (Brazil, South Africa, India and China) that have in
some cases acted in unison to strengthen their negotiation position vis-a-vis traditionally strong
parties such as the United States.
• The growing willingness of geographically far-flung emerging powers to set up separate venues
to explore and consolidate positions, and then act in unison to push a common agenda more
forcefully is challenging entrenched international negotiating norms and procedures - in some
cases forcing a sobering revision of presumed influence of these nations. BASIC like IBSA and the
BRICS developed out of the dissatisfaction of the developing world with globalization and
indicated a greater willingness among these nations to act in pursuit of its collective interests and
against the developed world

CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE
EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER
• Evidence that the United States has primarily been a status
quo power includes the statement is fundamentally flawed:
the United States has primarily been a revisionist power.
• The United States has often tried actively to promote values
and modes of governance that it subscribes to, with the
implicit or explicit aim to mold other nations in its own image.
Such activism also has an indirect component where guiding
norms are embedded in international organizations which will
then in turn promote them elsewhere in the world - sometimes
to the chagrin of regimes that do not naturally endorse such
values. In this sense, the US is not so much interested in the
sustenance of the contemporary mode of conduct across the
world, as it is in global reformism.

• The "liberal global order“ is a 1990s assumption that liberal
values, as defined and promoted by the United States, were
"winning", leading to a more tranquil world.
• In the 1990s, there was a sense that the United States would
be - for the foreseeable future - be threatened by any
competing powers, and that the Western order was working.
Weaker states would have to submit, and the liberal order
would gradually expand. The predominance of this view in
part obscured competing claims, and third world
dissatisfaction with the envisaged global order. The rise of
emerging powers, and their growing influence in world
affairs have further undermined the idea that a global
liberal order is achievable.

PART 2
STRUCTURES AND PROCESSES

CHAPTER 6
WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS
• Traditional view of state-to-state war:
• Inter-state war may be becoming increasingly obsolete.
• Inter-state war is rooted in our understanding of a
Westphalian state system.
• Traditional understandings of interstate war argue that it is
based on a Westphalian state system which assumes national
sovereignty, and that the prevalence of non-state actors and
civil conflict, coupled with processes of globalization, render
interstate war less likely.

CHAPTER 6: WAR AND
WORLD POLITICS
• Hedley Bull defined war as an "organized
violence carried on by political units against
each other“.
• This definition was propagated by English
school theorist Hedley Bull in 1977.

• "War made the state, and the
state made war."
• It comes from the work of
historical sociologist Charles
Tilly.
• Charles Tilly examined the effect
of war as a force both requiring
and creating large-scale political
organization in Europe during the
era 1000-2000 A.D.

• The characteristics of the Revolution in Military Affairs
(RMA):
• It emphasizes the role of advances in military
technology as bringing about radical change in the
character of war
• It neglects the complex political dimensions of warfare.
• The Revolution in Military Affairs focused on the effect of
superior technological and doctrinal development on
modern warfare, and became prominent in the 1990's.
However, critics charge that it omits discussion of war as a
political struggle and thereby grossly oversimplifies our
understanding.

• ‘War's character has changed,
though its nature has not’ is a major
theme of this chapter.
• As the title of the chapter indicates,
the form, or character, of war has
changed to reflect modern conditions,
but the nature of warfare, as
organized violence between political
units, remains unchanged.

• State autonomy challenged in the "post-Westphalian"
order because:
• Identity politics are increasingly important.
• Economic insecurity provokes civil conflict.
• Technological development and 'virtual war' have
enabled Western intervention.
• Today, economic insecurity exacerbated by
interdependence and the rising importance of
identity politics have created civil conflict which
challenges the autonomy of the state. This is
especially true since 'virtual' high-tech war has
facilitated Western involvement in these conflicts.

• The following best describes Clausewitz's philosophy of
war:
• War always involves passion, in the motives for
fighting and in the enmities that inspire and sustain
killing in war.
• War is a sphere of sheer chance. Anything can
happen.
• War involves reason. Political leaders and military
staffs seek to achieve objectives through war.
• Clausewitz's philosophy of war is premised on his
trinities: passion, chance, and politics. These, he argued,
come together in varying combinations in any given
historical instance of war.

Post-modern war is characterized by increased media transparency, while 'new
wars' often involve child soldiers and women as combatants, in comparison to
traditional understandings of combatants as uniformed men.
Roles that have been changed by contemporary warfare:
The media Women Children

• 'New wars' are supported by these types of
activities:
• Hostage-taking.
• Illegal trafficking of diamonds and drugs.
• Arms smuggling across weakly enforced
borders.
• Kaldor characterizes 'new wars' as those
taking place in failed or near-failed states
where the government lacks authority or
ability to enforce the state's monopoly on
violence; borders are therefore permeable
and a range of criminal activities occur to
facilitate the combatants' ability to conduct
conflict.

• 'Total war‘ means that a state or other
political entity is fighting for its
existence.
• A total war occurs when a state or
other political entity is fighting for its
existence. In the Second World War,
the Allies demanded unconditional
surrender from Nazi Germany. The war
ended Adolf Hitler's regime, the Third
Reich. Note that a war can be limited
for one participant, and total for
another.

CHAPTER 7
INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY
• National security is a security largely
defined in militarized terms.
• "National security" was the dominant
conceptualization of security during
the Cold War. Thinking about national
security during this time was mainly
defined in militarized terms.

• “Uncertainty" so crucial to the realist account
of security because it leads to lack of trust in
the international system.
• Uncertainty implies that states can never be
sure of the intentions of their neighbors and
therefore they must always be on their guard.
Concepts closely linked to realist
understandings of uncertainty are the security
dilemma and arms race.

• Security dilemma is a structural notion in which
self-help attempts of states to look after their
security needs, tend regardless of intention to
lead to a rise in insecurity.
• The "security dilemma" is a constant feature of
international politics. Due to anarchy and
uncertainty, any attempt by a state to increase
its security, regardless of its intentions, has to
be interpreted by other states as a threat to
their security. The total effect is a dynamic
action-reaction which enhances insecurity.

• The realist pessimist position is based upon the assumptions
about the way the international system works:
• The international system is anarchic.
• States that are claiming sovereignty will inevitably
develop offensive military capabilities to defend
themselves and extend their power.
• States will want to maintain their independence and
sovereignty and therefore survival will be the driving
force influencing their behavior.
• The realist pessimist view stems from Hobbes, Machiavelli,
and Rousseau viewing the international system as a brutal
arena in which states seek to further their own security at the
expense of those around them. Waltz and Mearsheimer also
take this stance.

• “Institutionalized cooperation“:
• Cooperation through international institutions
as an approach to international security.
• Cooperation through institutions to creating
mature anarchy
• The term "institutionalized cooperation" points out
the role institutions play in enhancing security.
Cooperation through international institutions can
develop into more durable and stable security
systems and thus opens up the opportunity to
achieve greater overall international security.

CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND
GLOBAL SECURITY
• How does democratic peace theory challenge realism?
• It places importance on internal norms and
institutions.
• It challenges realist occupation with balance of
power.
• It argues that war is a function of a state being
liberal or not.
• Democratic peace theory argues that internal norms
and institutions of liberal democracy do make a
difference in international politics. The balance-of-
power mechanism thus is not a general feature of inter-
state relations; the actual behavior of a state in the
system is a function of its regime type.

GLOBAL SECURITY
• “Security community“ is a group of people who
become integrated and within a territory develop
a sense of community.
• Deutsch's concept of "security communities" points
to the possibility that a group of people within a
territory, via the development of institutions and
common practices, can develop a sense of
community that enhances the belief that common
social problems must and can be resolved by
processes of peaceful change.

GLOBAL SECURITY
• Walter Lippmann said:
• "A nation is secure to the extent to which it is
not in danger of having to sacrifice core
values if it wishes to avoid war, and is able,
if challenged, to maintain them by victory in
such a war“.
• Walter Lippmann offered this as his definition
of national security. It is only one of several
notions of the concept of 'security'.

GLOBAL SECURITY
• The problems with collective security:
• States find it difficult to distinguish between victim
and aggressor in international conflicts.
• It assumes that all aggression is wrong.
• Historical enmity or friendship complicates the
working of the system.
• According to J. Mearsheimer, the idea of collective
security is problematic as (among other reasons) states
find it difficult to distinguish between aggressor and the
victim in international conflicts; it considers all aggression
to be wrong whereas there may be circumstances where
its use is necessary against a threatening neighbor and it
underestimates the effects of historical enmity.

AND GLOBAL SECURITY
• Post-modernists view realism as:
• A central problem of international security
because it is the dominant discourse of power
and rule.
• A statist ideology out of touch with the reality of
globalization.
• Unable to take into consideration the enormous
complexity and indeterminacy of human
behavior across its cultural, religious and
historical roots.
• Realism as the dominant discourse in international
politics has provided an image of the world that
encourages behavior that helps to bring about war.
Thus, Realism cannot grasp the globalizing tendencies
in world politics that is part of the complexity and
indeterminacy of human life.

CHAPTER 8
GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL
ECONOMY
• Increased trade barriers and devalued
currencies resulted from the Great Depression.
• While each of the countries involved in the
Great Depression believed that by increasing
trade barriers and devaluating currencies it
could manage to keep its economy afloat, the
Great Depression demonstrated that this did
not work.

CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY
• The main role of the IMF is to ensure a
stable exchange rate regime and provide
emergency assistance to countries facing
crises in balance of payments.
• The IMF was created to promote
international monetary cooperation and
resolve the inter-war problems of the
Great Depression. The main goal of IMF
is to achieve stable exchange rates and
one of its main tools is the provision of
emergency assistance to countries facing
serious payment challenges.

ECONOMY
• The main role of the World Bank is to assist
countries in development.
• What we now call the World Bank started as
the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development and has since become the
world's largest source of development
assistance, providing nearly $16 billion in
loans annually.

• The "Washington Consensus“ is the ten
point guideline to liberal economic reform
for development around the world.
• The term "Washington consensus"
originally referred to a set of policy
advice on liberal economic reform being
given by Washington-based institutions to
Latin America. Nowadays the term is
often used interchangeably with the
phrase American "neoliberal policies."

CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL
POLITICAL ECONOMY
• States undertake protectionist
measures to keep competitive
foreign goods from flooding the
market.
• When using protectionist measures,
states try to "shield" their internal
production, and hence domestic
business and employment, from
international competition.

• Structural adjustment involve:
• Measures to reduce inflation.
• Measures to curb government expenditure.
• Deregulation.
• The term "structural adjustment" is usually used
when referring to the IMF's policy towards
indebted countries. Structural adjustments
mean immediate measures to reduce inflation
and, more broadly, mean the correction of the
role of the government in the economy.

ECONOMY
• The nationalist/realist view of International Political
Economy (IPE):
• The world economy is where states seek to
maximize their wealth and independence
relative to other states.
• The nationalist/realist tradition stands in stark
contrast to a liberal perception. As mercantilists
share the presumptions of realists in international
politics, states will attempt to ensure their self-
sufficiency and hence their relative strength and
power in key strategic industries and commodities.

• Dependency Theory refers to economic
activity in the richer countries that often
leads to serious economic problems in
the poorer countries.
• Dependency Theory is part of the
Marxist tradition in IPE and has
traditionally focused on Latin America to
explain how underdevelopment and
poverty is caused by economic, social
and political structures in the core
countries and the type of exchange this
is generating.

• The constructivist approach pays attention to
how states and other actors construct their
preferences, highlighting the role of identities,
beliefs, tradition and values.
• The constructivist approach focuses on the role
of historical and sociological factors and
examines the beliefs, roles, traditions, ideologies
and patterns of influence that shape
preferences and behavior of states and other
actors.

• Under what conditions will states create international institutions?
• It depends on the school of thought.
• Competing accounts of institutions will make different statements about the
possibility and probability of cooperative behavior and international
institution building. For example, institutionalism emphases the role of
institutions in achieving absolute gains, whereas realists argue that institutions
will only be created when dominant states wish to do so.

CHAPTER 9
GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS
“Emancipatory knowledge“ is a
knowledge that will lead to
changes in favor of a normative
ideal, such as gender equality.
Much feminist theory is based
on the idea of emancipation -
the belief in the capacity of
knowledge to drive positive
normative change - specifically
related to the improvement of
women's lives worldwide.

• The myth of protection:
• It characterizes men as protectors and women as
protected.
• It is used to justify and shape national security policies.
• It is a myth challenged by changing gender roles in
contemporary warfare.
• The protection myth is a popular assumption that men fight
wars to protect the vulnerable, including women and children,
and has been used to justify national security efforts.
However, changing roles of women as both the objects of
violence in warfare and in terms of increased participation
as combatants has prompted some revision of this myth.

CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN
WORLD POLITICS
• The gendered division of labor is
based on gender-structured conceptions
of appropriate work.
• The gendered division of labor results
in women doing a high proportion of
unpaid labor in the home, while men
work outside for wages; it creates a
"double burden" for women who seek
to work outside the home and has
reinforced women's lower pay in the
global economy.

• The idea of the gender-sensitive lens came from the
feminist theorists: Peterson and Runyan.
• Various "lenses" help us focus our attention and
formulate questions with regard to world politics. A
gender-specific lens, as proposed by Peterson and
Runyan, helps us see how gender structures world
politics.

The gendering of world
politics is seen in the
following areas:
Prostitution and human
trafficking.
Civil wars and refugee
flows.
Trade and development.
In addition to many other
areas of world politics,
gender shapes the three
named above by defining
roles and framing debates.

Intersectionality describes overlapping global structures of inequality, which
define the everyday lives of people simultaneously. This means that gender is
often found alongside other forms of oppression/domination. In this sense, the
experience of gender domination is always located, while gender becomes a
global phenomenon.
Intersectionality describes:
Overlapping global structures of
inequality
A concept developed by feminists
to analyze how sex and gender
play out in the everyday lives of
women across the globe
The intertwining of economic and
social status of women

• Gender theorists see the following developments as progress (but it depends on
which gender theory you pick):
• The establishment of the UN Gender Development Index.
• The election of US Speaker Nancy Pelosi.
• The incorporation of "gender mainstreaming" into policy discourse.
• Although all of these developments have positively influenced women around the
world, different theorists would have different views of the extent of this 'progress'.
For example, postcolonial feminists would argue for diversifying the focus of gender
scholarship to include more women outside the West.

CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD
POLITICS
• The impact of globalization for women:
• It has created new areas for women's
advancement.
• It has led to new challenges and dangers for
women.
• It has not changed the fundamental inequality of
gender relationships in the world enough.
• Globalization has created new opportunities as well as
challenges for women, but most feminists would agree
that the gender structure of world politics remains
fundamentally unequal and that continuing advocacy
for change is needed.

POLITICS
• The feminized labor refers to less desirable or
secure work, which has come to be associated with
specific 'female' qualities.
• Feminized labor refers to less desirable or secure
work, which has come to be associated with
specific 'female' qualities. This is often
accompanied with lesser liberties and freedoms
and higher violations of human rights at the work
place.

POLITICS
• “Double burden“:
• It refers to the disproportionate share of housework
done by women.
• It dates to the 17th century.
• It is rooted in gendered conceptions of the
distinction between public and private life.
• The "double burden' arose in the 17th century and
refers to the situation in which women were restricted to
low-paying production or service industries and also
responsible for significant amounts of unpaid domestic
labor.

CHAPTER 10
RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS
• 'White privilege‘ refers to the social advantages
that accrue to white persons
• The legal concept of 'white privilege' refers to the
social advantages that accrue to white persons
due to their transparent and fundamentally
unquestioned competence and humanity. It is
examined by 'whiteness studies', where scholars
now seek to explain how the (often unspoken)
privileges enjoyed by white persons depend upon
(often violent) processes of exclusion. Answers a.
and c. refer to the concept of 'whiteness'. While
this is, of course, related to notions of 'white
privilege' it does not define it directly.

CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD
POLITICS
• The cultural calculus of racism describes the racial
ordering of children of mixed race.
• The cultural calculus came out of the theological
debate over indigenous peoples. It was used to
adjudicate the cultural competencies of a group
whose heritage lay outside of the 'old' Biblical
world, and the degree to which these competencies
- the ability to reason especially - allowed them to
enjoy basic protections as human beings.

• A 'Mulatto' described the cross
between white and negro in the
official color hierarchies of the
French Caribbean colony of St.
Dominque.

POLITICS
• Karl Marx argues that capitalism was premised
on the 'turning of Africa into a warren for the
commercial hunting of black-skins‘.
• It was Karl Marx who argued that capitalism
was premised on the 'turning of Africa into a
warren for the commercial hunting of black-
skins'. Indeed, this is related to his more
fundamental claim that capitalist economic
development for some/in some places requires
the exploitation of others/other places.

• ‘Standard of civilization‘ is a hierarchical
ordering of humanity, travelling through
savagery, barbarism and civilization, which
was informed by enlightenment thinkers in
Europe.
• The 'standard of civilization' denoted
hierarchical stages of humanity that
travelled through savagery, barbarism and
finally civilization. It was developed in
Europe during the mid-19th century, but
drew on enlightenment thinkers such as
Baron de Montesquieu.

POLITICS
▪Distinctive characteristics of international
legal arguments:
• They are limited to the scope of the
legislation at hand.
• They are rhetorical as well as logical.
▪International law is characterized by a
peculiar language and practice of
justification or legal arguments. As
interpretation plays a central role in
determining which rule applies, its meaning
and the nature of the case at hand, legal
arguments are logical as well as rhetorical.

• In 1848 Algeria became a departement
of the French Republic.
• In 1848, Algeria became a departement
of the French republic. It was, therefore,
no longer a colony. Therefore while
citizens of Algeria would have formerly
enjoyed equal rights to French citizens,
when the French republic proposed
equality among all citizens, the culture of
Algeria's indigenes (indigenous peoples)
was deemed too barbaric to be included
in this equality.

▪'Scientific racism' was particularly prominent in the
following era:
• Graeco-Roman antiquity.
• Age of the Enlightenment.
• The end of the 19th century.
• The beginning of the 20th century.
▪'Scientific racism' has a long-standing history in world
politics. While some periods of time were more
prominently influenced by the cultural calculus of racism,
'scientific racism', premised on the biological calculus of
racism, never completely vanished. It is important to
remember that 'scientific racism' is no more than a kind
of 'pseudoscience', though policy practices have had a
real and devastating impact on human lives.

• UNIA stands for Universal Negro
Improvement Association.
• UNIA stands for Universal Negro
Improvement Association. It collaborated
with the African Communities League and
was founded in colonial Jamaica. Over
the years the organization developed
branches in almost all continents and
came to take on outward trappings of a
state, responding directly to the legacies
of slavery, colonialism and racism.

▪ 'New Racism‘:
• Denotes the claim that 'ethnic minorities' migrating to Europe culturally lack the institutional
and moral sophistication to integrate into advanced liberal-democratic societies.
• Is fundamental to development and security policies in the era of the Global War On Terror.
• Is present in the arguments of 'liberal peace' proponents, who claim that societies of the
Global South can only avoid poverty and conflict by adopting Western systems of
governance.
▪ The "New Stream" critique of Liberalism (also termed "Critical Legal Studies") challenges the
inherent Liberalism of modern international legal thought. The three given propositions all refer to
the claim that traditional legal theory is somewhere stuck between "apology" (a rationalization of
the status quo) and "utopia" (a naive image that international law can civilize the world of states).

CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW
• "Jus ad bellum“ refers to laws of war
governing when it is legal to use force or
wage war.
• The legal concept of "jus ad bellum" refers
to those laws that determine when it is
legally permitted to use force or wage
war. For instance, Chapter 7 of the UN
Charter restricts the legitimate use of force
to international peace enforcement actions
authorized by the Security Council and
individual and collective self-defense.

• The following are necessary before a rule can be
considered customary international law:
• Evidence of general state practice.
• Evidence that states accept such practice as
law.
• Evidence of general practice means that states
habitually act in a manner consistent with the rule.
The Opinio juris claim implies that states are
convinced that they act according to a law when
they carry out this practice. In that case, customary
law is binding upon all states.

• The three levels of institutions in modern
international society:
• Constitutional institutions, fundamental
institutions, and regimes.
• In modern international society, states have
created these three levels of institutions.
Constitutional institutions are deep institutions,
such as the principle of sovereignty;
fundamental institutions provide the basic
rules and practices of states; regimes (or
issue-specific institutions) enact fundamental
institutional practices in particular realms.

Distinctive characteristics of the modern institution of international law?
• A peculiar language of reasoning and argument.
• Multilateral form of legislation.
• A strong discourse of institutional autonomy.
Contemporary international law is structured by the social and
political conditions of modernity and contains imprints of its
revolution for social thought. Hence, the language of reasoning and
argument, a distinct multilateralism in lawmaking and a discourse of
institutional autonomy are some of its characterizing features.

• Ways that the nature and scope of international
society have been conditioned by international legal
instruments:
• They have defined the nature of legitimate
statehood.
• They have clarified the bounds of rightful state
action, international and domestic.
• Referring to the constitutional dimension of
international law, some legal instruments in history
have been decisive in defining the nature and scope
of international society, such as the Treaties of
Westphalia. This helped to define the nature of
legitimate statehood and the Charter of the United
Nations, clarifying the bounds of legitimate action
towards other states.

• Distinctive characteristics of international legal
arguments:
• They are limited to the scope of the legislation
at hand.
• They are rhetorical as well as logical.
• International law is characterized by a particular
language and practice of justification or legal
arguments. As interpretation plays a central role
in determining which rule applies, its meaning and
the nature of the case at hand, legal arguments
are logical as well as rhetorical.

• Legal positivism:
• The idea that legal rules have legitimacy from their
logical and practical derivation from a fundamental
"grundnorm".
• The idea that authority of legal rules comes from their
status as the commands of a sovereign authority.
• Legal positivism has dominated international legal theory
in the 20th century. It assumes the authority of the law lies
in the legal rules themselves and thus can be derived from
either their status as commands of a sovereign authority or
from their derivation from a fundamental "grundnorm".

• Neo-liberal approach to international law is NOT limited
through:
• By its inability to explain the development of law in areas
where the self-interests of states are unclear.
• By the failure to explain the origins of the modern system
of international law.
• By its rejection of the idea that international law
constitutes the identities and interests of states.
• The neo-liberal approach emphasizes the domestic origin of
state preferences as, in turn, international law. Hence, its
principal limitation is that it neglects the role international law
can play in constituting the domestic realm.

• New Haven School is also known as the
policy approach.
• The New Haven School is one attempt to
move beyond legal positivism in international
legal theory. It is a "policy-oriented"
approach that assumes that the authority of
international law rests upon an empirically
derived normative philosophy of human
justice.

• "New Stream" critique of Liberalism:
• The determinacy of international legal rules is
questionable.
• The underlying logic of Liberalism in international law is
incoherent.
• International legal thought operates within a confined
intellectual structure.
• The "New Stream" critique of liberalism (also termed
"Critical Legal Studies") challenges the inherent liberalism of
modern international legal thought. The three given
propositions all refer to the claim that traditional legal
theory is somewhere stuck between "apology" (a
rationalization of the status quo) and "utopia" (a naive
image that international law can civilize the world of states).

CHAPTER 12
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
IN WORLD POLITICS

CHAPTER 12:
INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS
• International Organizations means
a catch-all term, which is concerned
with intergovernmental
collaboration in organizations.
• IO is a catch-all term, which
includes any organization operating
at the international level, comprised
of actors from at least three states.
NGO's are only sometimes included
in such terminology.

• The first modern IO was the Central
Commission for the Navigation of the
Rhine
• The first modern IO, the Central
Commission for the Navigation of the
Rhine, was established in 1815 to
facilitate states' riparian relations
(between land and water).
ORGANIZATIONS IN WORLD
POLITICS

ORGANIZATIONS IN WORLD POLITICS
• The creation of 'spin-off' IO's occurs through the
process of Emanation.
• It is becoming more common for IOs to be
established by approval of the members of a pre-
existing IO through a process known as emanation.

CHAPTER 12:
INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS
IN WORLD POLITICS
• The ILO is a tripartite decision-
making body.
• The International Labor
Organization (ILO) has a
tripartite decision-making
process that gives equal voice
to states, workers, and
employers at its labor
• conference, in its governing
council, and in its office.

ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS
• Hybrid international organization refers to an
international organization comprised of both state
and non-state actors.
• Hybrid international organizations have multi-level
members, which illustrates the complexity of public-
private, multi-actor governance at the global level.
An example of a hybrid international organization is
International Standard Organization (ISO).

ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS
• PIU stand for Public International
Unions.
• Many of the first modern IOs in the
19th century were 'apolitical' technical
organizations created to devise
solutions to the differing standards
among states, known as Public
International Unions (PIU).

ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS
• Multilateralism refers to the practice
of coordinating national policies in
groups of three or more states.

CHAPTER 12:
INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS
• According to this chapter,
an IO must be comprised
of actors from at least
three states.

ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS
• The United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees (UNHCR) was established in
1951.
• In 1951 states created the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) to aid states in meeting their
obligations under the Refugee
Convention. This is an example of the
relevance of moral authority for the
establishment of IO's.

ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS
• 'Collective action' means that States
can benefit from international
cooperation.
• Collective action is a term most
commonly associated with liberalism
and neo-liberalism. It denotes the idea
that states can benefit from
international cooperation, in the
context of the anarchic international
system.

CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS
• The main powers and duties of the UN Secretary-
General:
• Provide support for peacekeeping activities.
• Carry out a number of research functions and quasi
management functions.
• The Secretary-General as head of the Secretariat is
responsible for the substantive and administrative work
as directed by the General Assembly and the Security
Council. Hence, support of peacekeeping activities and
execution of management functions are among his tasks,
but not the approval of UN resolutions.

• The permanent members of the UN
Security Council:
• France, Russia, USA, Britain, China.
• These five permanent members (France,
Russia, USA, Britain and China) were
seen as the major powers when the UN
was founded in 1945. They were
granted veto rights on the view that if
big powers were not given a privileged
position the UN would not work.

• Specialized UN agencies refers to large
institutions which are part of the UN system
that have their own constitutions, regularly
assessed budgets, executive heads, and
assemblies of state representatives, not
subject to the management of the central
system.
• Institutions such as the World Health
Organization, the International Labor
Organization and the Food Agriculture
Organization, even though part of the large
UN system, are self-contained constitutionally,
financially, and politically.

• The current members of the
Trusteeship Council are the permanent
members of the Security Council.
• The Trusteeship Council, which
completed its work in 1994 with Palau
attaining independence, consists of the
five permanent members of the
Security Council.

CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED
NATIONS
• Classical peacekeeping involves the
establishment of a UN force under UN
command to be placed between conflicting
parties after a ceasefire.
• Classical peacekeeping mandates are
based on Chapter VI of the UN Charter. It
involves the consent of the host state and can
only take place after the negotiation of a
cease-fire. UN forces are placed between
the parties to secure this ceasefire and will
only use weapons in self-defense.

• Main ways in which the UN became involved in
maintaining peace and security in the mid-1990s:
• By resisting aggression between states and
attempting to resolve disputes within states,
• By focusing on conditions within states, including
economic, social, and political conditions.
• In the 1990s, the UN started to address international
conflicts as well as civil wars. In doing so, the concept
of international stability and peace was broadened to
issues of economic, social and political conditions within
states.

• Argument against relaxing the principle
of non-intervention:
• Because it may lead to military
action by individual states without
UN approval.
• Even though the UN has been more
ready to intervene within states, state
sovereignty and non-intervention remain
important. Actions within the territory of
another without a clear UN
authorization such as the US-led action
against Iraq in 2003 could illustrate the
danger of relaxing the principle of non-
intervention.

• Country strategy notes:
• They are statements about the overall development process tailored to the
specific needs of individual countries, setting out targets, roles and priorities.
• They are country-specific strategies set out by the United Nations General
Assembly, later ratified by ECOSOC as part of the reform process to the UN.
• "Country Strategy Notes" are a result of attempts to professionalize and reform the
country level process of the UN economic and social programs. Specialized agencies
and programs develop a country-specific development strategy that sets out a clear
set of target, roles, and priorities.

CHAPTER 13: THE
UNITED NATIONS
Human security refers to the security of individuals, including: their
physical safety, their economic and social well-being, respect for their
dignity, and the protection of their human rights.
The concept of "human security" represents one attempt to broaden
the traditional concept of security by including social, political,
economic and environmental threats to the security of people.

CHAPTER 13:
THE UNITED
NATIONS
Changes in the nature of international politics and sovereign
states and the rise of new threats and challenges have to be
reflected in changes and adaptation within the UN system in
order to improve the capacity of the UN of providing
solutions to those problems.
Why will further UN reform be necessary?
Because of the heightened concern over terrorism and security
threats from non-state actors, the pervasiveness of inequality
and injustice around the world, and the predominance of
United States military power, and the need for regional
representation in the UN Security Council.

CHAPTER 14
NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS
• Transnational actors refers to any civil society
actor from one country that has relations with any
actor from another country or an international
organization.
• The term "transnational actors" is very broad and
entails any actor involved in international relations
that are society-based rather than state-based.

• Problems with the state-centric approach to IR:
• There are different meanings to the term
"state".
• There is a difference between nation and
state.
• There is a lack of similarity between
countries.
• "State" is a contested concept as there are many
different and inconsistent meanings to the term
and the entities that we normally describe as
states are in themselves very different from each
other. In particular differences between the
concepts of "nation" and "state" are often
confused.

CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD
POLITICS
• The term 'nongovernmental organization' was first
used by Dwight W. Morrow, the US politician and
diplomat, in 1919.

• "Nongovernmental organizations“:
• Can be initiated by states.
• Can be initiated by individuals.
• Is an umbrella term applied to a broad range
of organizations that differ in size, scope,
motives, and functions.
• NGO is an umbrella term applied to a broad
range of organizations that differ in size, scope,
motives, and functions. Despite its name, some
NGOs have been initiated by states rather than
individuals

• A "network“ is any structure of communication for
individuals and/or organizations to exchange
information, share experiences, or discuss political
goals or tactics.
• Compared to an NGO, a network is a broader
term comprising any form of structured
communication on an issue-area. It normally has a
less permanent organizational form, no formal
leadership or declared membership and rather
focuses on exchange of information than on
collective action.

• Partnerships of the kind that Oxfam maintains
with the British department store Mark and
Spencer is an example of Public-Private
Partnership.
• Partnerships of the kind that Oxfam maintains
with the British department store Mark and
Spencer is an example of a public-private
partnership. These are governance
arrangements intended for mutual benefit and
to ensure adherence to agreed rules.

• Hybrid INGO is formed when a government
and an NGO form joint organizations of
which both can be members.
• The normal sharp distinction between inter-
governmental organizations and
international non-governmental organizations
does not apply for hybrid INGOs in which
governments work with NGOs. Among the
most important hybrids are the International
Red Cross and the World Conservation
Union.

• The term 'transnational NGO' make reference to
the fact that national NGOs increasingly mobilize
at the international level.
• Transnational NGOs (TNGOs) has become a
popular term to take account of the fact that
national NGOs increasingly mobilize at the
international level. This means that there is wider
cooperation among TNGOs and other civil society
actors, whose interests TNGOs claim to represent.

POLITICS
• Policy domain refers to a set of political
questions that are seen as being related.
• A policy domain may cover several issues as it
comprises a set of political questions that are
linked by the political processes in an
international organization, e.g. financial policy is
resolved in the IMF.

POLITICS
• 'Track-tow-diplomacy' refers to the idea that
TNGOs have become an alternative to the official
negotiations of government diplomats.
• Track-two-diplomacy refers to the idea that
TNGOs have become an alternative to the official
negotiations of government diplomats.

CHAPTER 15
REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
• Regionalism refers to development of institutionalized
cooperation among states and other actors on the basis
of regional contiguity as a feature of global politics.
• Regionalism is, alongside globalization, one of the
major trends in global politics. It refers to the
cooperation and integration on a regional (meaning
continental) scale.

CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
• Supranationalism refers to a concept in
integration theory that implies the creation
of common institutions having independent
decision-making authority and thus the
ability to impose certain decisions and
rules on member states.
• Supranational organizations have to be
viewed in contrast to merely intra-
governmental international organizations
in that they create an independent
decision-making authority to which
governments delegate their decisions. This
allows organizations to impose certain
decisions and rules on member states.

• European Court of Justice refers to the EU's highest
court, ruling in disputed matters of EU law between
member states.
• The European Court of Justice is one of the
organizations at the supranational level of the European
Union. It is the highest juridical authority for EU law and
rules in disputes between member states and institutions.

• Role of the European Commission:
• Initiating, administering and overseeing the
implementation of EU policies and legislation.
• The European Commission is the central supranational
institution of the EU. It is the 'guardian of the treaties'
and has the right to initiate, administer, and oversee EU
policies and legislation.

• Role of intergovernmental conferences:
• It is where representatives of national
governments negotiate the legal
framework within which the EU
institutions operate.
• The IGCs set the future direction of the
European Union by negotiating the further
development and changes of the legal
framework within which the EU institutions
operate. They are considered as the "great
bargains" in the evolution of the EU.

• MERCOSUR is a Latin American
regional institution.
• MERCOSUR (or "Common Market of
the South") is the result of regional
integration efforts in Latin American.
Its contracting states are Argentina,
Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.

• What did the Single European Act of 1985
create?
• It removed all non-trade barriers to
the mobility of goods, people, services
and capital.
• The Single European Act is the result of
efforts to accomplish the project of the
"Single Market". It removed all non-trade
barriers by establishing a general freedom
of movement for goods, people, services
and capital throughout the EU.

• The 2001 Nice Treaty led to the
expansion of majority voting.
• The Intergovernmental Conference in
Nice aimed at dealing with the so
called "Amsterdam leftovers," which
included an expansion of the majority
voting in order to make EU decision-
making more efficient on the eve of
enlargement.

• The 2004 Constitutional Treaty:
• Simplified the earlier treaties.
• Creates the post of President of the Council and EU
Foreign Minister.
• Incorporates the Fundamental Rights Charter.
• The agreement to adopt a Constitutional Treaty is
regarded as a step towards greater political union. By
simplifying earlier treaties, the creation of the post of
a President and the incorporation of the Fundamental
Rights Charter, more transparency and thus options for
identification of the citizens with the EU should be
achieved.

• Dynamics of globalization that have been mirrored by the developments in the EU:
• EU integration has fed on and contributed to the global trend towards neo-liberal
economic policy.
• The trend towards greater social and cultural exchange has intensified.
• Despite the growth of an integrated market there is a limited integrated civil
society.
• From this perspective, the EU reflects global trends prevailing in the current international
economy. Trade barriers have been replaced by an open, internal market, which in turn
enhances not only economic but also social and cultural exchange. These effects however
have not entirely trickled to the level of individuals and societies.

CHAPTER 16
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
• Traditional environmental issues
include the following:
• Natural resource conservation.
• Pollution.
• Exploitation of maritime
resources
• From the 1960s, environmental
attention focused on conservation of
natural resources and pollution
problems. Climate change gained
increasing attention on the agenda
during the 1990s.

• The tragedy of the commons:
• It results from an inherent tension between
collective and individual responsibility.
• The tragedy of the commons is based on
inherent conflict between individual and
collective interest and rationality in the use of
property that is held in common; it is mitigated
by a high carrying capacity of the good in
question and, in non-IR models, is often solved
through privatization and nationalization.
However, this solution is not always feasible for
global political commons.

• Realist approaches to environmental
politics:
• Realist theories focus on questions of
state power and interest.
• Realist theories of environmental politics
refer to questions of state power and
interest rather than the role of ideas,
communities, or institutions.

• “Precautionary principle“:
• It is German in origin.
• It advocates for a higher
standard for environmental
action.
• It has become increasingly
popular.
• The precautionary principle,
originally coined by German
policy-makers, states that where
there is a likelihood of
environmental damage, banning
an activity should not require
full and definitive scientific
proof.

• Norms of environmental protection includes the
following:
• The precautionary principle.
• The polluter pays.
• Prior informed consent.
• Various norms of increased environmental
protection have been increasingly disseminated
throughout the international system, including the
ones listed above.

• Capacity building involve:
• Arrangements for the transfer of funds,
technology and expertise.
• Environmental projects in developed countries.
• Most environmental conventions now aim at
'capacity building' through arrangements for the
transfer of funds, technology and expertise to
developing countries, because most of their
member-states simply lack the resources to
participate fully in international agreements.

• Influences of scientific knowledge:
• It is disseminated through epistemic
communities.
• It has played a key role in the creation of
framework conventions and control protocols.
• It has particularly influenced the discourse of
climate change.
• Scientific knowledge, disseminated through
epistemic communities, has played a key role in the
creation of legal and institutional mechanisms to
address environmental issues, particularly climate
change.

• Estimating the area of productive land or aqua
system required to sustain a population at its
specified standard of living creates ecological
footprint.
• Used to demonstrate the load placed upon the
Earth's carrying capacity by individuals or nations,
an ecological footprint estimates the area of
productive land or aquasystem required to sustain
a population at its specified standard of living.

CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES
• The regime under which the production
and trading of CFCs and other ozone
depleting substances would be
progressively phased out is called the
Montreal Protocol.
• The Montreal Protocol negotiated a
regime for the cessation of production
of CFC's and other substances
responsible for depletion of the ozone
layer.

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change:
• Was set up in 1988 under the auspices
of WMO and UNEP.
• Focuses on climate science, impacts, and
economic and social dimensions of
climate change.
• Has concluded that warming of the
climate system is unequivocal.
• The IGCC began in 1988 and focuses on
the consequences and causes of climate
change, which it concluded in February
2007 is undeniably taking place.

CHAPTER 17
TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION
• Which characteristic do globalization
and terrorism share?
• Both are complex and open to
subjective interpretation.
• Both are complicated, interdisciplinary
phenomena that defy simple
characterization. Definitions of
terrorism vary widely but all include
the use of violence as a main feature;
beyond that, definitions involve, as for
globalization, different elements and
value judgements.

CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND
GLOBALIZATION
• The realists suggested that the State has a
monopoly on the legitimate use of physical
force.
• Realists suggest that the political violence used
by terrorist groups is illegitimate on the basis
that states alone have a monopoly on the
legitimate use of physical force.

• Factors that lead to the birth of
transnational terrorism:
• The expansion of air travel.
• The wider availability of televised
news coverage.
• Broad common political and
ideological interests.
• Expansion of air travel, wider news
coverage and broad common political
and ideological interests allow terrorism
to grow from a local and regional
phenomenon into an international threat.

GLOBALIZATION
• Elements composing bin Laden's central message:
• The defense of oppressed Muslims and the
defeat of theological enemies of Islam.
• The requirement for absolute religious piety and
devotion.
• The defeat of the theological enemies of Islam.
• The message of Osama bin Laden combined a
number of disparate elements such as the restoration
of the former greatness of Islam, the defense of
oppressed Muslims and the defeat of the theological
enemies of Muslims, the requirement of absolute
religious piety and a rejection of secular
materialism.

CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM
AND GLOBALIZATION
• Global Capitalism was the target of the
symbolic attacks against the World Trade
Centre in 1993 and 2001.
• Economic aspects appear to be a
fundamental motivating factor in the use
of violence to effect political change.
Globalization is seen as a new form of
"economic imperialism" in which the
"West" dominates and forces unfavorable
policies on the underdeveloped countries.

• Video recordings are useful to
terrorist groups to recruit members.
• Video footage has been used to
record the preparations or results of
attacks and helps to "inspire"
potential recruits, but is also suitable
to reach the widest audience
possible through global news outlets.

• Complications in the search for terrorists and terrorist cells:
• Increase in trade and commerce throughout the world.
• The use of cellular phone technology.
• The globalization of commerce.
• Added mobility and the reduced size and increased power of
personal electronics gives terrorists the capability to
coordinate the activities of dispersed cells and increased
volumes of air travel and goods create control problems.
Although one of the main contemporary worries with regards
to refugees is that terrorists are able to transfer national
borders more easily under this demise, increase legal
immigration should not complicated the search for terrorists
and terrorist cells.

• Hollywood blockbuster films has
provided inspiration for terrorist
attacks by bin Laden and Islamic
Fundamentalists.
• This is another element of the
interconnection between terrorism
and the influence of globalized
media, which is suspected to be a
motivating element behind the
fascination of Al Qaeda leaders
with mass casualties and spectacular
scenes of destruction.

• Arguments over semantics and
definitions has stalled action in the UN
directed towards terrorism.
• A rules-based attempt to fight terrorism
within the framework of the UN has
been unsuccessful mainly because
various debates in the General
Assembly could not resolve arguments
over semantics and definitions.

GLOBALIZATION
• What can terrorists hope for in order to
be successful in the future?
• Widespread uprising of the
disaffected and oppressed, or
collapse of the USA.
• Globalization and a growing gap
between the rich and poor might cause
more people to fight against
suppression. Further, terrorism might
become more attractive if it actually
reaches its goal through a collapse of
their adversary after an attack.

CHAPTER 18
PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• Sagan's proliferation pessimism argument:
• Because of common biases, professional military organizations
display organizational behaviors that are likely to lead to
deterrence failures and deliberate or accidental war.
• In the future, there will be a lack of positive constraining
mechanisms of civilian control while military biases may serve to
encourage nuclear weapons use, especially during crises. This is
because future nuclear-armed states are likely to have military-
run or weak civilian governments.
• With his arguments, Sagan tries to counter the argument that the
gradual spread of nuclear weapons to additional states might be a
good thing as nuclear deterrence is the only way to maintain stability
in conflict situations. Sagan argues that the risk of deterrence failures
is too big, especially in military-run and weak civilian governments.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• Criticisms of the nuclear non-proliferation regime:
• It is not well-suited to the demands of the complex and
potentially more dangerous second nuclear age.
• It does not address the security motivation which leads
states to acquire nuclear weapons in first place.
• It is unable to alleviate the security dilemma that many
states confront and it is a discriminatory arrangement.
• Critics of the non-proliferation regime argue that it is a
product of a bygone "first nuclear age" (1945-1990). The
second nuclear age presents different demands. States face a
different security dilemma and hence have some motivation to
acquire nuclear weapons due to the uncertainty of their status.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• The category "WMD" include:
• Atomic explosive weapons.
• Lethal chemical and biological weapons.
• The UN Commission introduced the concept of
"weapon of mass destruction" for Conventional
Armaments in 1948 in order to distinguish nuclear
weapons from conventional forms. Any weapons
should be included that have "characteristics
comparable in destructive effects to those of the
atomic bomb", hence also chemical and biological
weapons.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• In 2001, the USA withdraw from the ABM treaty.
• The interest of developing a means to counter a
possible ballistic missile attack on US mainland, the
so-called Ballistic Missile Defense, led to erosion
and finally the withdrawal of the USA from the
ABM treaty on 13 December 2001.

CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF
WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• How are the motivations for having nuclear
weapons best described?
• Strategic deterrence, political and prestige
benefits.
• The strategic motivation focuses on the role that
nuclear weapons play as war-fighting and war-
winning weapons or the deterrence of other nuclear
weapons-capable states. The political and prestige
motivation refers to the conviction that nuclear
weapons are the most modern form of weaponry.

CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS OF MASS
DESTRUCTION
• "Atoms for Peace“ refers to the the title of an
Eisenhower speech which culminated on the
creation of the IAEA.
• Eisenhower proposed in this speech an initiative to
open the benefits of atomic energy to the world
community; i.e. implementing "Atoms of Peace".
The IAEA hence was a necessary and
comprehensive monitoring system to ensure that
nuclear energy programs were not diverted for
military use.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• The first Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone
was applied in Latin America.
• The Treaty for the Prohibition of
Nuclear Weapons in Latin America
(or Tlateloco Treaty) was one of the
first measures to prevent the
nuclearization of a specific
geographical area. It was opened for
signature in 1967.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• Counter proliferation is a strategy which
emphasizes the use of measures such as ballistic
missile defenses and a more proactive stance in
the prevention of nuclear proliferation.
• Counter proliferation is one of the measures to
prevent nuclear proliferation during the so-called
second nuclear age. It implies the use of
conventional weapons and missile defense, i.e. a
more proactive or offensive policy of prevention.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• Agreements that controls export among
suppliers to constrain the proliferation of missile
technology:
• The Hague Code of Conduct.
• The Missile Technology Control Regime
• The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)
are guidelines established in 1987 by seven
missile technology exporters to control the sale
of nuclear-capable ballistic or cruise missiles.
The Hague Code of Conduct (2002) seeks to
develop standards of appropriate behavior in
the transfer of missiles and missile parts.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• Which states are NOT signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)?
• Israel
• Pakistan
• India
• The treaty has 189 State Parties, which is the largest number of any arms control agreement. However, India, Israel and
Pakistan have not signed the NPT. It remains questionable, how, if at all, these states can be brought into the Treaty. North
Korea announced its withdrawal in 2003, and further announced that it had conducted an underground nuclear explosion
in 2006 and 2009. As of October, 2016, North Korea has conducted five announced nuclear tests between 9 October
2016 to 9 September 2016.

CHAPTER 19
NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM,
NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION
• The basic assumptions of nationalism:
• The nation as the fundamental political unit.
• The nation as basis of political loyalty and
identity.
• The demand for self-determination.
• Nationalism takes the nation as its fundamental
political unit and the basis for people's political
identity and loyalty; the latter of which results in
the demand for self-determination, usually in the
form of an autonomous state.

CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-
DETERMINATION
• Difference between the nation and the state:
• "State" and "nation" are both contested concepts as there are many different
and inconsistent meanings to the terms, which are in addition often confused with
each other. Nationality is often correlated with ethnic identity while state is often
correlated with civic organization; however, these descriptions are not consistent.

DETERMINATION
• Primordialism refers to the theory which
determines that nations are primary
groups constituted by descent and/or
culture, accompanied by the idea that
nationalism arises from a prior sense of
national identity.
• Primordialism suggests that nations are
constituted by descent and culture, and
that this national identity creates
nationalism. Ethnic nationalism is a specific
type of nationalism, which claims that the
nation is based on common factors many
of which stem from common descent.

• Perennialism refers to the historical claim which
argues that there have been cases of nations and
even nationalism before the modern period.
• Perennialism is different from primordialism and
ethno-symbolism because it is presented as an
empirical historical claim rather than a theory
about primary descent or culture or the centrality
of ethnic myths and memories.

• British nationalism:
• It has been attributed to Christianity,
parliamentary institutions, and free trade.
• It was resisted by colonial areas.
• It can be characterized as state-strengthening,
civic, and elite.
• British nationalism was civically minded, elite-driven,
and state-strengthening. While the British attributed it
to Christian values, domestic institutions, and trade, the
imposition of this nationalism was resisted by parts of
the British Empire in complex historical interactions. See
the India case study for an example.

• In the 20th century, the following is a way in
which war altered nationalism:
• By giving rise to a fascist variant.
• By giving voice to the demands for self-
determination.
• War in Europe arose in part from
fragmentary processes set in motion by
destabilizing nationalism; the settlement of the
First World War attempted to give voice to
the demands for national self-determination
but then enabled the rise of fascism, a non-
insular, aggressive form of nationalism.

DETERMINATION
• German nationalism:
• Competed between ethnic nationalism and a liberal constitutional form.
• Became increasingly state-strengthening over time.
• Was facilitated by industrialization.
• German nationalism emerged as ethnic nationalism, but as the state industrialized in
ways conducive to the development of military power, it gradually emphasized state-
strengthening more and more.

CHAPTER 19:
NATIONALISM, NATIONAL
SELF-DETERMINATION
• Indian nationalism come from a
complex hybrid of elite civic
nationalism, resistance to imperial
Britain, and ethnically fragmented
national identities.
• Indian nationalism emerged from
the legacy of British colonialism as
a form of elite civic nationalism
but from its inception had to
wrestle with state-subverting
ethnic nationalisms as well.

CHAPTER 19:
SELF-DETERMINATION
• Those entities "that claim to be national
(however defined), [that] are not challenged
by powerful state-opposing nationalist
movements, and [which] are recognized
internationally" are called Nation-states
• Nation-states, which are both states and
nations, derive their claim to legitimacy in
part from the representation of the national
identity and interest of the community over
which the state rules.

CHAPTER 19:
SELF-DETERMINATION
• Results of the end of the cold war:
• It has led to discussion of forms of
political community beyond the nation-
state.
• It has broken up some multi-national
states in processes of state subversion.
• It came hand in hand with globalization.
• Globalization and the cold war's end, in
tandem, fragmented some states along ethnic
national lines and prompted discussion of
order based on supra-national political
community.

CHAPTER 20
GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE
• Cross-border transactions refers to the movement across borders of countries of
goods, people, money, investments etc.
• Measuring increased cross-border transactions in terms of the movements of
goods, people, money, and investments across borders is one way of conceiving of
economic globalization.

CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND
GLOBAL FINANCE
• The Great Transformation is the name of the famous
book published just before the end of the Second
World War, by Karl Polanyi.
• Just before the end of the Second World War,
intellectual Karl Polanyi published The Great
Transformation, on the economic causes of the
European embrace of fascism in the 1930s. This
distinguished between two generic models of the
market economy: 'embedded' and 'disembedded'
markets.

CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL
TRADE AND GLOBAL
FINANCE
• Countries that had their own East
India Companies by the eighteenth
century.
• Britain.
• The Netherlands, Denmark and
Portugal.
• France and Sweden.
• Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark,
Portugal, France and Sweden all had
their own East India companies that
allowed them to operate the trading
route centred on modern-day India.

CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND
GLOBAL FINANCE
• When the housing market boom first began to
unravel globally in 2007, banks discovered their
over-exposure to 'Toxic assets' of mortgage-
backed securities
• Banks discovered their over-exposure to 'toxic
assets' of mortgage-backed securities.

The Contemporary World: The Globalization of World Politics

The Contemporary World: The Globalization of World Politics

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