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Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education
Technology, Research
and Professional
Learning
Jingjing Zhang
Constructing Intellectual Exchange in
the Rise of Network Society

Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming
Education
Series editors
Zhongying Shi, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
Shengquan Yu, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

This book series brings together the latest insights and work regarding the future of
education from a group of highly regarded scholars around the world. It is the first
collection of interpretations from around the globe and contributes to the
interdisciplinary and international discussions on possible future demands on our
education system. It serves as a global forum for scholarly and professional debate
on all aspects of future education. The book series proposes a total rethinking of
how the whole education process can be reformed and restructured, including the
main drivers and principles for reinventing schools in the global knowledge
economy, models for designing smart learning environments at the institutional
level, a new pedagogy and related curriculums for the 21st century, the transition to
digital and situated learning resources, open educational resources and MOOCs,
new approaches to cognition and neuroscience as well as the disruption of
education sectors. The series provides an opportunity to publish reviews, issues of
general significance to theory development, empirical data-intensive research and
critical analysis innovation in educational practice. It provides a global perspective
on the strengths and weaknesses inherent in the implementation of certain
approaches to the future of education. It not only publishes empirical studies but
also stimulates theoretical discussions and addresses practical implications. The
volumes in this series are interdisciplinary in orientation, and provide a multiplicity
of theoretical and practical perspectives. Each volume is dedicated to a specific
theme in education and innovation, examining areas that are at the cutting edge
of the field and are groundbreaking in nature. Written in an accessible style, this
book series will appeal to researchers, policy-makers, scholars, professionals and
practitioners working in the field of education.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14177

Jingjing Zhang
Technology, Research
and Professional Learning
Constructing Intellectual Exchange in the Rise
of Network Society
123

Jingjing Zhang
School of Educational Technology
Beijing Normal University
Beijing, China
ISSN 2366-1658 ISSN 2366-1666 (electronic)
Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education
ISBN 978-981-13-0817-8 ISBN 978-981-13-0818-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0818-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018942919
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
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Singapore

Keep going towards the horizon. Sit down
and have a rest every now and again. But
keep on going. Just keep on with it. Keep on
going as far as you can. That’s how you get
there.
Leunig 1996, p. 42

Preface
Academics in universities have witnessed considerably increasing uses of many
different network technologies, each coming with new capabilities (Nentwich
2003). These technologies have potentially changed many aspects of research
practice. The Web is providing academics with the opportunities to access millions
of pages of information. Furthermore, many new distributed, networked tech-
nologies are becoming widely available to academic researchers (Voss et al. 2007).
They are providing exciting opportunities for researchers to work and communicate
together across the conventional boundaries of time and distance.
It is reasonable to suppose that these changes have affected the nature of
intellectual engagement between academics involved in the course of their varied
interactions with fellow researchers. In scholarly debate, dialogue is understood as a
special form of these interactions, allowing people to connect at a deeper level to
achieve mutual understanding with respect in discourse (VL-Inc. 2008). Intellectual
exchange might be described as what takes place when insights and understandings
emerge from everyday academic dialogue within the context of ongoing research
activity both on and offline.
This book presents a study that undertakes empirical investigation to analyse the
use of network technology in research, to explore the nature of intellectual
exchange, and to understand how the use of network technology potentially
changes the nature of intellectual exchange. In this work, network technology is
used as a general term to describe a variety of technologies that are used or perhaps
will come to be used in academic research. Previous research into the scholarly use
of technology has tended either to focus narrowly on one speciﬁc tool or to broadly
quantify general usage of all technologies. The book will illustrate which tech-
nologies are actually adopted in real-world research environments. Examples of the
relevant technologies include, but are not limited to, email, the Web and video
conferencing.
Intellectual exchange is seen as engagement in a continuing dialogic process in
which collective intelligence is constructed. This book will present many forms of
participation in intellectual exchange embedded within dialogue amongst aca-
demics in the context of daily research activity, both on and offline. The nature of
ix

intellectual exchange, as a collective and relational process in academic dialogue,
will be discussed throughout the whole book. Drawing on a social constructivist
view of technology and learning, the nature of research settings is taken into
consideration so as to explore a series of the intriguing issues involved in the
changes in the nature of intellectual exchange arising from academic dialogue.
Beijing, China Jingjing Zhang
x Preface

Acknowledgements
The publication of this book is funded the National Education Science Foundation
[Project No. CCA120110]
I would like to thank my supervisors, Chris Davies and Rebecca Eynon, who
discussed with me every single draft of this work, and who facilitated my work in
every possible respect. Their expertise, encouragement, and guidance have been
invaluable for me.
I would also like to thank Comprehensive Discipline Construction Programme
of Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University for their generous support.
xi

Contents
Part I Historical and Theoretical Accounts
1 The Historical Accounts of the Use of Network Technologies
in Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Technical Driven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Large-Scale Research Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Distributed Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Quantitative Approaches to Studying Formal
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Qualitative Change Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Disciplines Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Theoretical Accounts of Technology and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Theoretical Perspectives Towards Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Theories of Learning to Inform the Understanding of
Intellectual Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Challenges of Understanding Technology, Research
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1 The Changing Nature of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Unspoken Intellectual Engagement at the Workplace . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 The Richness of Research Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4 Deﬁnitions and a Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1 Network Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Scholarly Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Intellectual Exchange in Academic Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.4 Research Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
xiii

Part II Scholars and Their Research Contexts
5 Interviewing Oxford Scholars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.1 The Proﬁle of Oxford Scholars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.1.1 Interdisciplinary Researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1.2 Senior Scholars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 The Use of Technology in Research Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2.1 Email . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2.2 Video/Telephone Conferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2.3 Websites/Proﬁles, Mailing Lists and Blogs . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2.4 Social/Professional Networking Sites, Wikis
and Online Research Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.5 Other Network Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.6 Users of Network Technology in Research . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3 Changes to Scholarly Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3.1 Wider Channels of Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3.2 Accelerated Communication and Internet Access . . . . . . 40
5.3.3 Communication Overload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.4 Intellectual Exchange in Academic Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.4.1 Learning from Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.4.2 The Extent of Academic Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.4.3 Engagement in a Constructive Process of Dialogue . . . . 46
5.5 Academic Dialogue Conducive to Intellectual Exchange . . . . . . 47
5.5.1 Academic Encounters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.5.2 Distributed Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.5.3 Personal Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.5.4 A Mix of Collocated Work and Distributed Work . . . . . 52
5.5.5 Informality of Academic Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.5.6 Research Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6 Wellcome Centre for Neuroethics at Oxford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.1 The Case—Neuroethics Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.1.1 The Field of Neuroethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.1.2 The Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.1.3 Research Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.1.4 The Research Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.1.5 Their Collaborative Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2 The Use of Network Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.2.1 Email . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.2.2 Video Conferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.2.3 Website . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.2.4 Blogging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
xiv Contents

6.2.5 Wiki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.2.6 A Virtual Research Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.3 Scenarios of Academic Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.3.1 Exchange in Spoken and Written Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.3.2 Intellectual Exchange in Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.3.3 The Role of Specialists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.3.4 Exchange Across Disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.3.5 Core Researchers Versus Associates/Collaborators . . . . . 85
6.3.6 New Researchers Associated with Supervisors . . . . . . . . 86
6.3.7 Dual Identities of Visiting Scholars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.3.8 Remote Research Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Part III Network Technology, Intellectual Exchange
and Research
7 The Nature of Network Technology in Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.1 The Value of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.1.1 Oral Communication, Synchronicity and Close
Proximity (Face-to-Face Communication) . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.1.2 Oral Communication, Synchronicity and Perceived
Proximity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.1.3 Written Communication and Synchronicity . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.1.4 Multimedia and Synchronicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.2 The User of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.3 The Use of Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8 Intellectual Exchange in Academic Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.1 Engaging in Sharing, Interpreting and Generating
Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.2 A Constructive Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.3 Hidden and Incidental Intellectual Exchange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9 Changes to Scholarly Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.1 Reciprocity in Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.2 Visibility of Communication Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
9.3 Informal Communicative Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.4 All Forms of Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
9.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10 Research Contexts Conducive to Intellectual Exchange . . . . . . . . . 117
10.1 Interdisciplinary Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.2 Distributed Work Across Boundaries of Distance and Time . . . 119
Contents xv

10.3 Interconnected Research Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
10.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
xvi Contents

List of Figures
Fig. 4.1 A conceptual framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 6.1 Connected network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 6.2 Layout of the Centre ofﬁce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Fig. 6.3 Centre website. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fig. 6.4 A screen capture of the practical ethics blog in the Centre . . . . . 72
Fig. 6.5 A cascade information network formed by reading blogs . . . . . . 74
Fig. 6.6 A screenshot of the Wellcome Centre for Neuroethics wiki . . . . 76
Fig. 6.7 Changes made on the wiki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Fig. 6.8 Working relationship between a specialist and the Centre. . . . . . 83
Fig. 6.9 New researcher’s experience of the Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Fig. 7.1 Use of technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 11.1 A revised model for network technology, research
and intellectual exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
xvii

List of Tables
Table 2.1 Adapted theories of technology from Feenberg (1991) . . . . . . . 14
Table A.1 Interview participants in the case study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Table A.2 Participants in the interview study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
xix

Part I
Historical and Theoretical Accounts

Chapter 1
The Historical Accounts of the Use
of Network Technologies in Academia
All forms of scholarly practice have, to some extent, changed with the increasing
use of new technologies in academia (Lynch 2008). For example, email has long
been used for asynchronous communication at a distance and has potentially led to
increasedelectronicglobalinterconnectivity(Cooneyetal.1998).Itsusagerateshave
nearlyreached100%inresearch: 95–100%for Americanbiologists, mathematicians,
physicists and sociologists (Walsh et al. 2000), and 99.7% for European astronomers,
chemists, computer scientists, psychologists and economists (Barjak 2004).
The World Wide Web, as another example, is providing academics with oppor-
tunities to access millions of pages of information, thus extending their knowledge
based on the information at hand. Extensive resources at our fingertips are restruc-
turing the way we live, work and learn, regardless of space and time (Bonk and
Cunningham 1998). It has grown into a vast repository of information, with “over a
billion interlinked pages created by the uncoordinated actions of tens of millions of
individuals” (Kleinberg and Lawrence 2001, p. 1849).
The development of the Web also led to a rapid growth in e-journals in the 1990s,
which numbered over 8,000 by the year 2000 (Okerson 2000). Blogging also rep-
resents a new means of publishing with unprecedented potential, as nearly half of
the Internet users (42%) (equivalent to one-third of all adults) have read blogs, with
one-third of these doing so on a typical day (Smith 2008).
In addition, many have observed that communication via Web applications, such
as Skype, is also continually expanding (Jankowski 2009). Email, the Web, blogging,
e-journals and Skype are but a few of these new technologies that affect virtually
all forms of scholarly activities in academia (Nentwich 2003). More distributed,
networked, interoperable technologies are clearly changing the research world (Voss
et al. 2007).
The increasing use of technology in research has led to numerous emerging social
studies of the technology. However, some of these studies are problematic and the
most significant major problems identified from these studies are as follows: taking
a strong technical focus; too much attention to large-scale collaboration; tendency
to take quantitative approach to formal communication; narrowly focusing on dis-
J. Zhang, Technology, Research and Professional Learning,
Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0818-5_1
3

4 1 The Historical Accounts of the Use of Network Technologies …
tributed research; overlooking qualitative change; moving preferentially towards the
use of technology in sciences. Lessons are drawn from these studies, which are
important to inform the future studies in technology, learning and research.
1.1 Technical Driven
The traditional approach to studying technology has been in itself somewhat technol-
ogy driven. A large proportion of the literature on technology in support of research
is somewhat overshadowed by a series of technical reports advocating the capability
of technology itself (e.g. Berge and Collins 1995; Duggan 2003). A number of dis-
courses of technological understanding (e.g. Hiltz and Turoff 2005; Mayadas 1997)
are only conceived of by extrapolating from the features of technologies. Researchers
often looked into the technical side of technology to support the use of technology and
overlooked the human aspects of technology that potentially affect and shape the use
of it. For example, a number of scholars (e.g. Birchfield and Megowan-Romanowicz
2009; Larusson and Alterman 2009; Lymer et al. 2009) investigated computer support
for shared knowledge, but they mainly focused on the practical design of technolo-
gies to support collaborative learning. Secondly, many studies (e.g. Lee et al. 2004;
Stolterman and Wiberg 2010; Zhang et al. 2007) have tended to study the human
factors of technology in so much as they could facilitate better design of future tech-
nologies from technical points of view, which is usually conducted by researchers in
the sub-field of computer science research. Thirdly, a number of studies (e.g. Gaines
et al. 1997) explored human discourse through technical infrastructure with regard to
Shackel’s (1991) basic human factors, utility, usability and likeability. There is, per-
haps, a general belief among scholars that the discussion of technology itself could
lead to better use of technologies, meaning that far more attention has been paid to
the design of technology that could support scholarly practice.
It seems that these authors commonly think about how to harness the power
of new technology for our academic world needs without critically engaging with
an understanding of how technologies and academics interact. In this respect, the
underpinning assumptions of how technology and academics interact are often unar-
ticulated in discussions of technology in academia. Little concern has been paid to a
comprehensive discussion of the relations between technology and human beings.
Recently, it is increasingly argued that a social approach instead of a technical
approach is needed to address research questions in order to understand how technol-
ogy can be used to advance research (Dutton et al. 2010; MacKenzie and Wajcman
1999; Schroeder and Fry 2007). What has changed is certainly beyond a purely
technical perspective, such as “the expanded capacity to send, receive, and use infor-
mation” (Ikenberry 1999, p. 57) and “the capacity to bridge time and space” (Garrison
and Anderson 2003, p. xi). It has long been argued that the adoption of technology is
less a function of technology itself than of the use of it by human beings (DeSanctis
and Poole 1994; Karsten and Jones 1998; Menold 2009; Orlikowski 1992), as tech-
nologies are subordinate to actual uses and many other influences (Nentwich 2003).
Clearly, social studies of the use of technology in research are now, more than ever,
at a premium.

1.2 Large-Scale Research Collaboration 5
1.2 Large-Scale Research Collaboration
A great deal of research has explored the issues around large-scale collaboration
with a new digital infrastructure, comprised of distributed and interoperable tech-
nology, which is generally recognised as e-research. This phrase refers to “a form
of scholarship conducted in a network environment utilising Internet-based tools
and involving collaboration among scholars separated by distance, often on a global
scale” (Jankowski 2009, p. 7). It is “the development of, and the support for, informa-
tion and computing technologies to facilitate all phases of research processes” (JIEF
2008, p. 1). Traditional e-research, which is commonly known as e-science,1
is inter-
ested in how to advance scientific research by collaboration across disciplinary and
geographical boundaries. It is closely associated with grid computer network archi-
tecture that enables global collaboration in the large-scale natural and biological
science contexts (NeEF 2010). The major contributions of e-research lie in the area
of distributed access to massive datasets, the sharing of computational resources, and
online environments for collaboration and communication (Jankowski 2009).
Recently, there has been a major emphasis on adopting a social science approach
in the development of e-research (Jankowski 2009). The UK National Centre for
e-social science (NCeSS) was established by the Economic and Social Research
Council (EKLC) in 2004. The American Council of Learned Societies issued the
Atkins report (2003) on cyberinfrastructures for the Humanities and Social Sciences
(ACLS 2006). Alongside these policy developments, researchers (e.g. Genoni et al.
2009; Halfpenny et al. 2009) have begun to explore the emergence of e-research in the
social sciences and humanities. Researchers exploring e-social science commonly
take two approaches: one with a development perspective, and the other with a
social shaping perspective. Studies of the social shaping of technology look into
technological change that is affected by the social context in which it develops,
rather than developing the technical capabilities of technology itself (MacKenzie and
Wajcman 1999). The main focus of the development perspective is data infrastructure
and integration. The research from a social shaping perspective (Schroeder 2007; e.g.
Woolgar and Street 2003) is interested in how technology is being used and what its
implications are for research practices.
Although these two approaches have been taken in e-social science, most of the
projects nevertheless followed the e-science route (Jankowski 2009). In examining
the changes wrought by network technology, scholars tended to study advanced tech-
nologies, such as high-performance computing, advanced computer communication
networks, sensor array, grid, mining and visualisation and large-scale simulation.
They focused on the incorporation of grid computer architectures into the infrastruc-
ture of the social sciences. Many researchers studied how content, in the form of
digital and often very large datasets and databases, is made available by technology,
1Cyberinfrastructure is an American version of the European term ‘e-science’.

such as the NCeSS-funded modelling and simulation for e-social science,2
grid-
enabling quantitative social science datasets (Cole et al. 2003), grid technologies
(Anderson 2003) and statistical analysis and modelling (Peters et al. 2007).
Recent studies show that these advanced technologies are perhaps not used as
widely as appears to be frequently assumed in the literature. In one of the few
qualitative studies designed to systematically explore informal communication in
academia, Harley and his colleagues (2008) conducted explorative interviews with
faculty (including natural sciences) mainly located at the University of California,
Berkeley. Their research suggested much less interest in and use of new technologies
for scholarship that is presented in the majority of the literature. There is an urgent call
for more empirical research into the actual use of technology in everyday research.
Instead of following some of the hyperbole that has commonly described the growth
of advanced technology itself in many existing research studies, studies are advised
to investigate those technologies that are actually used by the majority of scholars.
1.3 Distributed Research
Distributed work over geographical distance is not new, but this century has wit-
nessed a rapid extension of this kind of work (MacDuffie 2008). The use of many
technologies has been regarded as one of the key factors that encourages and enables
an increasing geographic distribution of work (Hinds and Kiesler 2002). “It is now
possible for more people than ever to collaborate and compete in real time with more
other people on more different kinds of work from more different corners of the
planet and on a more equal footing than at any previous time in the history of the
world” (Freidman 2007, p. 8).
In academia, it has also been increasingly common for geographically dispersed
researchers toworktogether (Haythornthwaiteet al. 2006; Hinds andMcGrath2006).
In the old days of academia, physical distance not only reduced the likelihood of
distributed collaboration (mainly among scientists), but also had a negative impact
on possible distributed work (Cummings and Kiesler 2005; Kiesler and Cummings
2002; Kraut et al. 1990), as communication at a distance used to very costly and slow
(Borgman 2007).
Today, in contrast, advances in technology have made distributed research feasi-
ble, as new technologies allow researchers to exchange information and resources
more frequently and rapidly (Finholt 2002; Sonnenwald 2003). As Atkins notes,
“New technology-mediated, distributed work environments are emerging to relax
constraints of distance and time” (Atkins 2003, p. 9). When network technology
is widely used in this digitalised world, people are “unlocked from the shackles of
fixed and rigid schedules, from physical limitations” (Salmon 2003, p. 11). Thus,
advanced network technologies are allowing researchers to share ideas and expertise
across distance and time.
2MoSeS: http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/projects/moses.html.

1.3 Distributed Research 7
These new issues arising in distributed research have gained considerable atten-
tion in scholarly debate. A large number of researchers (e.g. Armstrong and Cole
2002; Schunn et al. 2002) have focussed their research on the distributed work that is
made possible by technological advances. Many of them (e.g. Kraut et al. 1990; Liang
et al. 1995) tended to study remote research collaborations that heavily relied upon
technology in a distributed work environment. Cummings and Kiesler conducted a
study of 62 scientific collaborations in 1998 and 1999, supported by a programme of
the United States National Science Foundation, with a focus on the structure of such
collaborations facilitated by technology at a distance (Cummings and Kiesler 2005).
Sproull and Kiesler conducted field research in well-established electronic mail com-
munities (Sproull and Kiesler 1992). Moon and his colleagues (2002) investigated
an online work group whose members rarely meet if ever. It seems that these studies
were often carried out on the assumption that most of academic research today is con-
ducted at a distance. Their studies seemed to imply that technology revolutionised
the way scholars organise their research work and that academics working in the
same office had already become a thing of the past.
Very few studies took a broader approach to study how distributed research may
be occurring as part of the real-world research environment. For those who looked
at both distributive work and collocated work, it seems that they made an explicit
distinction between face-to-face communication and communication at a distance in
their research. For example, Nardi and Whittaker (2002), in an ethnographic study,
studied the place of face-to-face communication in distributed work. These stud-
ies shed little light on how distributed work fits into the main collocated research
environments (Cummings and Kiesler 2007).
In the real world of research, researchers constantly engage in varied research
activities in multiple research contexts, neither exclusively at a distance nor just
face-to-face. For instance, some research requires intimate interactions, which often
occur opportunistically in collocated groups but may be difficult to generate in dis-
tributed groups (Nomura et al. 2008). These studies perhaps implied the importance
of studying the use of technology in natural research settings. Research into dis-
tributed research should not be taken out of the real-world research contexts that it
takes place within. The focus of future research into technology use should be nei-
ther constrained by a purely distributed work environment nor excluded from what
is happening at a distance.
1.4 Quantitative Approaches to Studying Formal
Communication
Many of the studies in mediated communication have focused on traditional written
communication channels (Tenopir and King 2004), such as peer-reviewed journals
and book publications (Alexander and Goodyear 2000; Jankowski 2009; Odlyzko
1998; Rowlands et al. 2004). The vast majority of these studies have emphasised
analysis of co-authorship in e-journals (Kling and Callahan 2003). In the humani-

ties, the focus has been on the creation of networked repositories that serve as an
intellectual framework for collective work in the humanities (Crane 2008).
To investigate collaborative work using co-authored papers as the key measure,
bibliometrics and sociometric approaches are often employed (Beaver and Rosen
1978; Borgman and Furner 2002; Laudel 2002; Wouters 1998). Other techniques
include social network analysis, and a number of social network analysis3
tools,
such as UCINET (Borgatti et al. 1999) and Krackplot (Krackhardt et al. 1995), have
been used to construct sociograms and maps to clarify social forms of interaction. In
addition, some studies have involved quantitative analysis of survey data or secondary
data collected from the Internet.
The quantitative approach to studying formal written communication seems not
to be sufficient to capture a detailed picture of what is actually happening in schol-
arly communication. The research world highly values “… face-to-face meetings,
formally presenting ideas at conferences, exchanging views with old and new col-
leagues, taking field trips, and having fun” (Brunn and O’Lear 1999, p. 299). Schol-
arly communication takes place via a number of written communication channels,
but as well as conversational means. Many scholars (e.g. Becher and Trowler 2001)
in their writings stressed the importance of formal modes of interchange, as well of
as informal communication channels in research. Videge (2007) in his study also
found it to be particularly useful in analysing the typically informal communication
that is happening between academics who chose to work together.
In the literature, nevertheless, there are limited studies of informal communica-
tion. As argued above, many of these studies tended to focus on documents and
citation data rather than on the actual communication processes of researchers who
do scholarly work. Little insight into underlying informal communication has been
revealed (Lievrouw and Carley 1990; Zuccala 2006). On the one hand, as Borgman
(2007) argued, perhaps the change to formal communication is the area where new
technologies have irrevocably changed scholarship; hence, it attracts much more
attention than other form of communication. On the other hand, as Lievrouw (1990)
claimed, perhaps the structural component of scholarly communication rather than
the interpersonal or social component is more likely to be tackled.
Many scholars have argued that it is more appropriate to employ a qualitative
approach to investigating informal scholarly communication (Costa and Meadows
2000; Gargiulo 1993; Ibarra and Smith-Lovin 1997; Lievrouw and Carley 1990;
Nentwich 2005). Their studies have clearly demonstrated that qualitative research
methods, primarily by observation and interview, are capable of revealing detailed
3Social network analysis, rooted in sociology and education, grew out of Harvard in the 1920s; it
has been applied in a wide range of cases since its inception (Liebowitz 2007). Since the 1940s,
sociometry as proposed by Jacob Moreno has attracted a lot of attention among social psychologists
for understanding small group structure. These methods, however, were not adopted widely because
computers were not then sufficiently complex. In the 1960s, the realisation of graph theory and
the introduction of high-speed computers significantly increased the size of the groups that were
researchable within the scope of mathematical methods (Wagner 2005). The study of networks
pervades all of science, but the most fundamental issue is their structure. Researchers are only now
beginning to unravel the structure and dynamics of complex networks.

1.4 Quantitative Approaches to Studying Formal Communication 9
ways of informal communication. In their research, there is also the suggestion
that more explorative research into informal mediated communication in real-world
research environments is necessary.
1.5 Qualitative Change Matters
Many social studies of the role of technology in scholarly communication have been
rudimentary. Their discussions have been frequently based simply on the facts, such
as increasing access to different communication means, high-speed and remote com-
munication, and inexpensive communication tools (Kling and Callahan 2003). Some
researchers have contributed to the view that the Internet has revolutionised formal
academic communication (Ginsparg 1995; Harnad 1997; Odlyzko 2002). Some have
shown that recent technologies, such as email and electronic publishing, have pro-
foundly changed patterns of communication (Tenopir and King 2004). Some hold
concerns that established communication conventions are altered with haste, as well
as some rigorous research traditions disrupted (Barjak 2004; Kling and McKim
2000). These studies on the use of technology have solely concentrated on the pos-
itive or negative perspectives of scholarly communication, leaving more compound
changes to such communication unexplored. Our knowledge about what exactly has
been changed is therefore still fragmented.
In real-world research, change to scholarly communication has not simply been
related to the fact that technology advances or impedes communication. That is,
the use of many new technologies does not only provide more, faster and cheaper
communication, as frequently assumed, but also has potentially led to more quali-
tative changes. Many researchers, such as Nentwich (2003), stressed that many of
the recent technological developments potentially lead to qualitative changes in the
work environment of scholars, as well as changes to the content of their research. The
use of technology has therefore entailed changes, some encouraging or disappoint-
ing, some invisible or influential, which have consequently created unique dynamics
in research work. It is such qualitative changes that merit more investigations in
scholarly debate. In contrast to quantitative changes as in degree (e.g. the speed of
communication), qualitative change is understood as “to what extent” and “in what
ways” in terms of the use of technology, such as in what research contexts technolo-
gies are used to facilitate research, and the role technologies play in some aspects of
research communication.

1.6 Disciplines Matters
The success or failure of technology use is largely dependent on the contexts in which
they are used (Matzat 2004). The discussion of the qualitative change in scholarly
communication needs to be situated in the research practices to which technology is
applied (Fulk 1993; Kirkpatrick 2008; Williams and Edge 1996). In academia, the
research contexts feature in unique academic disciplines (Lattuca 2001). Disciplines
are seen as “recognisable communities of scholars that develop conventions govern-
ing the conduct of research and its adjudication”, relying upon “technical language”,
“methods of analysis” and “standards of evaluation” (Salter and Hearn 1997, p. 20).
They serve as the structures of knowledge in which their members carry out the tasks
of teaching and research (Beyer and Lodahl 1976).
Recently, research practice that is of an interdisciplinary nature is growing, for
the current “demands of many societal, environmental, industrial, scientific and
engineering problems that cannot be adequately addressed by single disciplines
alone” (NSERCA 2006, p. 1). The importance of interdisciplinary research also
reflects on the fact that the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) 2001, for the
first time, included explicit reference to the submission of interdisciplinary research
(RAE 1998, pp. Paragraph 30–31). With this increasing growth in interdisciplinary
research,4
the development of interdisciplinarity clearly challenges the way knowl-
edge is understood, produced and disseminated in research, as well as the way and
extent to which academic researchers work (Shailer 2007). This spotlights the impor-
tance of investigating the use of technology in support of research in such interdis-
ciplinary settings.
However, in the studies of network technology use, much attention has been given
to interdisciplinary settings that are usually dominated by the research culture of sci-
ence. A number of researchers have worked on science communication and have
claimed that new technologies are changing the ways in which scientists discuss
research ideas within scientific communities (Bates 2000; Nowotny et al. 2001; Sch-
neckenberg 2009). Price originally coined the term “invisible college” in reference
to a communication network of scholars, and subsequently it is mainly (perhaps
exclusively) used to describe communication relationships among scientists (Zuc-
cala 2006). More studies have focused particularly on how to use technology to
promote scientific collaboration, such as the idea of a co-laboratory for transform-
ing scholarly work. A co-laboratory is a virtual space where scholars come together
to control experiments, share access to observational instruments, analyse data and
write collaboratively (Lynch 2008).
Fewer studies have looked into what is happening in the social sciences and
humanities (Costa and Meadows 2000). This is perhaps due to the fact that, in the
past, social sciences and humanities research has been commonly perceived as an
individual endeavour that requires little use of technologies for academic interac-
4It is worth noting that the trend toward interdisciplinarity is not against disciplinarity, as in the
meantime the growth of knowledge has rapidly produced increasing specialisation of individual
academics and research disciplines (Ziman 1994).

1.6 Disciplines Matters 11
tion. Nonetheless, this image is changing given the increasingly wider adoption of
network technologies in these areas (Fry and Talja 2007). The use of technology
in research spreads out across every single academic discipline (Oblinger 2008).
Nowadays, social scientists and humanities researchers frequently interact with fel-
low researchers using various technologies. Nevertheless, the extent and ways in
which the use of network technologies have impacted on scholarly communication
(and on intellectual exchange) in the social sciences and humanities is still not clear.

Chapter 2
Theoretical Accounts of Technology
and Learning
There is a substantial body of theoretical discourses on technology and learning,
and this chapter illustrates these theoretical debates, from which to inform how to
understand technology, research and professional learning in its own right.
2.1 Theoretical Perspectives Towards Technology
Feenberg’s framework presents an overview of the key theoretical views about tech-
nology. He summarises technology with regard to its relations to human beings from
two perspectives: value and power. On the vertical axis, technology is believed to be
either value-neutral or value-laden. They are two distinctive categories, exclusive of
each other. Feenberg argues that not everything has physical or chemical properties,
and posits that technologies have a special way of containing value in themselves as
social entities (Feenberg 1991). Thus, it is important for researchers to explore the
various kinds of value that technology affords academic endeavour. As we can see in
Table 2.1, on the horizontal axis, technologies are indicated as either autonomous or
controlled. On the one hand, technology can be said to be autonomous, in the sense
that human beings merely follow the growing development of technology itself. On
the other hand, technology is designed and implemented by human beings, as the
introduction of new technology is in accordance with the intentions of human beings.
Following a broadly Kuhnian (1962) approach, four popular theories of technology
that fall into Feenberg’s classification are discussed below.
While technology is often described as the most important influence upon society,
the theory of technological determinism interprets technology as being the sole force
which shapes society. Supporters of this view see technology as an “exogenous force
which determines or strongly constrains the behaviour of individuals” (Markus and
Robey 1988, p. 585). The belief in technological determinism dates back to at least
the early stages of the Industrial Revolution and was once widely recognised as the
key to increased work efficiency and effectiveness (Smith 1994). Recently, it has
J. Zhang, Technology, Research and Professional Learning,
Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0818-5_2
13

14 2 Theoretical Accounts of Technology and Learning
Table 2.1 Adapted theories of technology from Feenberg (1991)
Technology Autonomous Controlled by humans
Value-neutral Determinism Instrumentalism
Value-laden Substantivism Critical theory
been largely discredited within academia. Technological determinism has resulted
in an overemphasis on technical capability and the implementation of hardware and
software. Such a theoretical viewpoint reflects on the studies that are criticised in
Sect. 1.1. Such a view of determinism would assume that the opportunities for adding
value in professional learning would only depend on the features and quality of the
technology. This view discounts the impacts engendered by the context into which
technology is introduced (Cohen 2002). Technology, while being a relevant driving
force, is far from being the only variable determining how academia is moving
towards cyberspace (Zhang 2006). Such a viewpoint avoids the deterministic pitfalls
of techno-optimism and techno-pessimism.
As noted in Table 2.1, instrumentalism is value-neutral and controlled by humans.
This position, where technology is seen simply as a tool used by human beings to
achieve better work outcomes, is a fairly outdated view of technology. Perhaps this
was an early mistake of the e-research initiatives that are addressed in Sect. 1.2. It is
easy to think of a computer as a technological instrument to accomplish a certain task,
such as is the role of a pencil, but a computer is more like a vehicle for interacting
with our intelligence—a thinking tool and a creative tool (Goldman-Segall et al.
2003). For example, most people think that the Internet is a basic storage room for
facts. Researchers claim that they consult Google or Wikipedia for the facts, such
as dates of events. As far as being concerned with analytic arguments about certain
facts, the Internet is secondary to a book or a professional journal article, etc.
Substantivism became a popular view of technology in the 1960s and 1970s.
In the writings of Jacques Ellul and Martin Heidegger, technology constitutes a
new cultural system that restructures the entire social world (Ellul and Wilkinson
1964; Heidegger and Lovitt 1977). The term “substantivism” is chosen to describe
the fact that technology holds particular substantive values, a position in contrast
with views, such as instrumentalism and determinism, which consider technology
as value-neutral (Feenberg 1999). If technology has a substantive value to it, it is
not simply an instrument that can be used everywhere for all sorts of purposes. It
would be a specific value choice in technology for different needs, instead of achiev-
ing certain goals in an efficient and effective way. In this sense, when academics
choose to use technology, they do not simply render their existing way of doing their
research more efficiently, and they choose a different way of researching. Studies into
pure distributed research (see Sect. 1.3) seem to echo this viewpoint of technology.
Compared to instrumentalism, substantivism is closer to determinism and, in fact,
most substantive theorists are determinists as well. However, determinism is usu-
ally optimistic and progressive, while substantivism is critical rather than optimistic
(Feenberg 1991).

2.1 Theoretical Perspectives Towards Technology 15
Drawing upon “the critical theory of technology” that sits in the fourth quadrant of
Feenberg’s table, I take this standpoint to analyse the use of technology. It holds traits
(value-laden, controllable by humans) of both instrumentalism and substantivism as
indicated in Table 2.1. The boundary between the critical theory of technology and
the other theories is permeable from different viewpoints. It agrees with instrumen-
talism that technology is, at least to a certain extent, controllable, and it is also in
accordance with substantivism that technology is value-laden. The substantivist cri-
tique of instrumentalism reveals to us that technologies are not only neutral tools,
while the instrumentalist critique of substantivism tells us that the human control of
technology is possible, but is not at the level of instrumental control.
This book presents the empirical study that takes the perspective proposed in Feen-
berg’s own framework that technology is value-laden and controllable. Technology
assists not just in one research task but provides a number of different ways of doing
research, each of which reflects the different possibilities to which technology can
be applied in practice. This philosophical viewpoint on technology is applied to con-
ceptualise technology in support of academic dialogue and is discussed from a social
constructivist standpoint throughout the whole project. Consequently, this discussion
leads to further develop a sociocultural theory of technology to account for the role in
support of academic dialogue in research contexts. As Don Ihde alleges, “technology
is only what it is in some use-context” (Ihde 1990, p. 128). The view of technology
taken in this book also draws significantly on the social shaping of technology (Kling
and McKim 2000; MacKenzie and Wajcman 1985) and social construction of tech-
nology (Bijker et al. 1989). Technology is socially shaped in a context, and hence
to study the ways in which technology is used entails the knowledge of how it is
embedded in the social context.
2.2 Theories of Learning to Inform the Understanding
of Intellectual Exchange
Dewey (1933), the educational philosopher, defined learning as “the continual pro-
cess of discovering insights, inventing new possibilities for action, and observing the
consequences leading to new insights” (Ahmed et al. 2002, p. 17). Three key theoret-
ical views of learning—cognitivism, constructivism and social constructivism—are
studied to gain theoretical understanding of intellectual exchange in academic dia-
logue.
The classical view of cognition considers humans as processors of knowledge.
Knowledge as an object can be transferred from one mind to another. Processing
works as an algorithm that handles knowledge according to a series of steps. Although
the metaphor of knowledge processors may work well with highly planned tasks
step-by-step, they appear to be unable to explain the full range of human learning in
most real-world situations (Mayer and Weiner 2003). In contrast, the constructivist
view of cognition is established in the epistemologies of educational philosopher

Other documents randomly have
different content

On the whole, the evidence collected in the last two cases is as
confused as it is incomplete, and we can scarcely say how much we
regret the obstinacy of these unfortunate victims in refusing to
submit to our treatment, for the serum would undoubtedly have
produced its maximum effect in them, since it would have been
possible to make use of it in good time. These disastrous
occurrences, however, will not cure natives of their exclusive reliance
upon empirical practices; and as regards the inhabitants of the Tamil
country, that is to say, Southern India, it may be foreseen that for a
long time to come they will continue to remain refractory to the
serotherapic treatment, submission to which the English have had
less difficulty in securing from the natives of Bengal, whose
intellectual development undoubtedly stands on a higher plane.

d’Abbadie, M., on inoculation, 238.
Acalyptophis, 133.
Acanthophis, 96.
“ antarcticus (death adder), 96.
“ “ “ “ bite dangerous, 100.
Acanthopterygii, 290, 301, 304.
Acanthurus, 301.
“ luridus, 301.
Adder, 25, 26. See also Vipera berus.
Africa, poisonous snakes in, 57-81.
“ “ “ geographical distribution of genera
(tables), 143, 144.
“ (Central), witch doctors of, snake-bite remedies, 237.
“ (East), Vatuas’ method of inoculation, 239.
Agglutinins of venoms, 202.
Aipysurus, 140.
“ annulatus, 140.
“ australis, 140.
“ lævis, 140.
“ eydouxii, 140.
Albuminoid of snake-venom produces hæmorrhages, 162.
Albumins of venom devoid of toxic power, 164.
Albumose of snake-venom attacks nerve-cell of respiratory centres,
162.
Albumoses of venoms of Colubridæ, 162.
“ “ “ method of separation, 162.
“ See also Proto-albumoses, Hetero-albumoses.
Alcatifa, extraction of venom from, for inoculation, 239.
Alcock, researches of, on glands of snakes, 147.
Alexins, 198, 209.
“ characteristics of, 207.
“ fixation of, 210, 211.
“ of normal serum, fixation by cobra-venom, 211.
“ neutralisation of, 212.
Alkaloids in venom, 160.

Alps, and mountains of Central Europe, Salamandra atra found in,
313.
Amboceptors, 198, 210.
“ fixation of, 208, 220.
America, snakes in, geographical distribution of genera of (table),
146.
“ venomous snakes in, 100-131.
America, (Central), Batrachus tau found on shores of, 302.
“ (North), musical toad found in, 318.
“ (South), witch doctors of, snake-bite remedies, 237.
“ (Tropical and Sub-tropical), Latrodectus mactans found in,
275.
Ammonia, injection of, only temporary antidote against snake-
venom, 261.
Ancistrodon, 49, 109, 110.
“ venom of, precipitation of anticoagulant substance in, 195.
“ acutus, 49.
“ bilineatus, 111.
“ blomhoffii, 50.
“ contortrix, 111.
“ himalayanus, 50.
“ hypnale, 51.
“ intermedius, 50.
“ piscivorus, 110.
“ rhodostoma, 51.
Anderson, relation of escape from Naja haje, 60.
Anemone scultata, 269.
Aniline colours, action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, 167.
Animals, venomous, definition of, 1.
Arachnolysin, poison from Latrodectus prepared by, 276.
Araneida (spiders), 274.
Armstrong, H., chemical analysis of cobra-venom, 159.
Arrows, poisoned by Hottentots with venom of Bitis arietans, 72.
Arthropods, poisonous species of, 274.
Asia, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30, 57.

“ “ “ “ geographical distribution of
genera (tables), 142, 143.
Asp, 27, 28. See also Vipera aspis.
Aspidelaps, 64.
“ lubricus, 64.
“ scutatus, 64.
Atheris, 78.
“ ceratophorus, 78.
“ chlorechis, 78.
“ squamiger, 78.
Atlantic (Tropical), Acanthurus found in, 301.
“ “ Muræna moringa found in, 309.
Atractaspis, 78.
“ aterrima, 80.
“ bibronii, 80.
“ congica, 79.
“ corpulenta, 80.
“ dahomeyensis, 80.
“ hildebrandtii, 79.
“ irregularis, 79.
“ leucomelas, 81.
“ microlepidota, 81.
“ micropholis, 81.
“ rostrata, 80.
Australia, health authorities’ notices against venomous reptiles, 100.
“ mortality from snake-bite in, 100, 261.
“ poisonous snakes of, 81-100.
“ snakes of, almost all confined to sub-family Elapinæ, 5.
Bacteriolytic action of venoms, 206.
“ “ “ how differing from that of rat-serum,
208.
Bailey, action of venom on brain, 185.
Batrachians, 312.
Batrachiidæ, 302.
Batrachus grunniens, 302.

“ tau, 302.
Bavay on the spitting snake, 63.
Bee-sting, remedies for, 286.
Bees, venom of, 282.
Bertrand, researches of, 147.
Bertrand and Phisalix, experiments on immunity of hedgehog to
venom, 226.
“ “ preparation of toad-venom, 319.
Bettencourt, R., venom antitoxin treatment of yellow fever, 184.
Bibron and Duméril on coloration of snakes, 16.
“ “ Naja worship in Egypt, 61.
Bile, destructive effect on cobra-venom, 215.
Birds, symptoms after inoculation with lethal doses of venom, 172.
Bitis, 69.
“ arietans (puff adder), 69.
“ “ “ “ bite from, 350.
“ “ “ “ venom used for poisoning
arrows by Hottentots, 72.
“ atropos, 72.
“ caudalis, 73.
“ cornuta, 73.
“ gabonica, 73.
“ “ does not attack man, 74.
“ inornata, 72.
“ peringueyi, 72.
Black snake, 88.
See also Pseudechis porphyriacus.
Blin, bite from Cerastes, 349.
Blindness following bite of viper, 178.
Blood, anticoagulant action of venom on, mechanism of, 195.
“ coagulability, action of venom of Lachesis lanceolatus on,
191.
“ “ destroyed by venoms of Colubridæ, 179, 188,
189, 191, 192, 193.
“ “ “ “ certain species of Crotalinæ,
191, 192, 193.

“ “ uncertain action of venom of Vipera berus on, in
certain animals, 189, 190.
“ coagulation of, connected with action of venoms of
Viperidæ on nervous system, 185, 186.
“ “ produced by venoms of Viperidæ, 179, 188, 189.
“ not coagulated after death caused by venoms of
Colubridæ, 171, 188, 189.
“ of hedgehog toxic before heating, antitoxic afterwards,
226.
“ of scorpion antitoxic, 279.
Blood, toxicity of, in reptiles, 217.
“ “ “ confers partial immunity to venom, 218,
219.
“ “ “ destroyed by heating, 218.
“ “ in venomous snakes, 217.
Blood-corpuscles, red, agglutination by venoms, 202.
“ “ dissolution only effected by combination of venom
with blood-serum or lecithin, 197.
“ “ dissolved by snake-serums, 219, 220.
“ “ effects of venom upon, 196.
“ “ resistance to large doses of venom, 199, 200,
201.
“ “ “ “ “ “ explanation,
200, 201.
“ “ washing of, important before presentation to
action of venom, 196, 197.
“ unaltered under action of simultaneous doses of venom
and serum, 220.
“ white, effects of venom on, 203.
Bombay, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, 248,
252.
Bonaparte, Lucien, chemistry of venom of vipers, 160.
Bothrops, bites from, 353, 354.
Bottard on venomous fishes, 288.
Boulengerina, 58.
“ stormsi, 58.

Brachyaspis, 95.
“ curta, 95.
Brain, comparative action of venoms of Colubridæ and Viperidæ on,
185, 186.
“ substance of, fixation of venom on, 186.
Brazil, Thalassophryne maculosa found on shores of, 303.
Brehm, on Crotalus confluentus, 125.
“ the daboia (Vipera russellii), 46.
“ Echis carinatus (efa, viper of the pyramids), 76, 77.
“ reverence paid by Hindus to Naja, 38.
Broad-headed snake, 94.
See also Hoplocephalus variegatus.
Briot, A., experiments with weever-venom, 298, 299.
“ poison of Scolopendra prepared by, 280.
Bromized water, saturated, modifies or destroys venoms, 164.
Brown snake, 87. See also Diemenia textilis.
Brunton, Sir Lauder, on harmless ingestion of venom exceeding
lethal dose, 214.
Bufo calamita (natter-jack), 318.
“ musicus (musical toad), 318.
“ viridis (green toad), 318.
“ vulgaris (common toad), 318.
Bufotalin, 319, 320.
“ first active principle of toad-venom, and cardiac poison,
319, 320.
Bufotenin, 320.
“ second active principle of toad-venom, and neurotoxic
poison, 320.
Bungarus, 30.
“ venom of, active hæmolysing power possessed by, 199.
“ cæruleus (common krait), bite, cure of, 337.
“ “ “ “ venom of, dose lethal for
different animals, 174.
“ candidus, 32.
Bungarus candidus, resemblance to Lycodon aulicus, 33.
“ fasciatus, 31, 32.

Buprestidæ, food for larvæ of Cerceris bupresticida, 285.
Bushmaster, or surucucu, 112.
See also Lachesis mutus.
Calamaridæ, species of Callophis feed only upon, 42.
Callionymus, 301.
“ belennus, 301.
“ lacertus, 301.
“ lyra, 300-301.
“ vulsus, 301.
Callophis, 40.
“ feeds only on snakes belonging to Calamaridæ, 42.
“ bibronii, 41.
“ gracilis, 41.
“ maclellandi, 41.
“ maculiceps, 41.
“ trimaculatus, 41.
Calmette’s serum, cobra-bites treated with, 363-5.
See also Serum, antivenomous.
Calvados, Callionymus lyra common on coast of, 301.
Cantharis (blister-beetles), 281.
Cantor, on venom of Naja bungarus, 39.
“ vindictiveness of Naja bungarus, 39.
Captivity, poisonous snakes kept in, 61, 62, 125, 156, 223.
Carawalla. See Ancistrodon hypnale.
Cardiac poison of toad-venom (bufotalin), 319, 320.
Caribbean Sea, Scorpæna grandicornis found in, 293.
Carpi and Morgenroth, lecithide of bee-venom prepared by, 285.
Carrière, experiments on ingestion of venom, 214.
Cascavella (Crotalus terrificus), 124.
Cato, army of, patronage of snake-charmers by, 228.
Causus, 67.
“ defilipii, 67.
“ lichtensteinii, 68.
“ resimus, 67.
“ rhombeatus, 67.

Cells, dissolution of. See Cytolytic action.
Cerastes, 47, 75.
“ bites from, 348-350.
“ “ cured, 358.
“ secretion of, 150.
“ venom of, fatal to barefooted pedestrians, 76.
“ cornutus, 47, 75.
“ vipera, 75.
Cerceris bupresticida, 285.
Ceylon, snake-charmers of, 229.
Chameleons succumb rapidly to snake-poisoning, 172.
Chelicera (fang of spider), 274.
Chemical reactions exhibited by venoms, 162.
Chemical substances modifying or destroying venoms, 164.
Chemistry of snake-venoms, 159.
Cherry and Martin on antagonism between toxins and antitoxins,
253.
Chilomycterus, 307.
“ orbicularis, 307.
“ tigrinus, 307.
China and Japan, Lophius setigerus found in seas of, 304.
Chloride of gold, antidote to venom before absorption, 261, 263.
“ “ solution, modifies or destroys venom, 164.
“ lime solution, modifies or destroys venom, 164.
Cholesterin, antidote to lecithin, 198.
Chromic acid, antidote to venom before absorption, 260.
“ “ solution, modifies or destroys venoms, 164.
Clamouse, on bites from European vipers, 343.
Clot Bey on Egyptian snake-charmers, 228-229.
Clothing protective against dangerous effects of snake-bite, 170.
Cobra, bite of, clinical symptoms, 169.
“ “ “ “ exhibit rapid general
intoxication, 169.
“ “ treated with Calmette’s serum, 363.
“ extraction of venom from, method, 153.
“ Egyptian (Naja haje or haie), 59.

“ method of carrying after capture, 21.
“ snake-charmers’ skill with, 229.
“ venom of, 149.
“ “ alkaloids in, 160.
“ “ chemical analysis, 159.
“ “ comparison of toxicity by means of intra-cerebral
injections, 186.
“ “ destructive action of bile on, 215.
“ “ dissolution of trypanosomes by, 207.
“ “ dose lethal for different animals in twenty-four
hours, 174.
“ “ fixation on nervous elements, 186.
“ “ local effects on serous membranes slight, 179.
“ “ potency of antineurotoxic antivenomous serum
against, 250, 251, 252.
“ “ vaccination against, 242, 244, 245.
Cobra-di-Capello, 33.
See also Naja tripudians.
“ “ spectacled, used by Hindu snake-charmer, 229.
Cœlenterates, poisonous species of, 269.
Cœlopeltis, 22.
“ moilensis, 23.
“ monspessulana, 23.
Cold, intense, toxicity of venom not diminished by, 166.
Colombia, herons of, probably immune to snake-venom, 227.
“ “ hunt young snakes for food, 226.
Coloration of snakes, 15, 16.
“ “ subject to biological laws of mimicry, 15, 16.
Colubridæ, 3, 30, 57, 82, 100, 101-109.
See also Acanthophis, Aspidelaps, Boulengerina, Brachyaspis,
Dendraspis, Denisonia, Diemenia, Elapechis, Elapognathus,
Furina, Glyphodon, Homorelaps, Hoplocephalus, Micropechis,
Notechis, Ogmodon, Opisthoglypha, Proteroglypha,
Pseudechis, Pseudelaps, Rhinhoplocephalus, Rhynchelaps,
Sepedon, Tropidechis, Walterinnesia.
Colubridæ (sub-family Elapinæ).

See also Bungarus, Naja, Hemibungarus, Callophis, Doliophis.
“ resemblance to harmless snakes, 3.
“ species of, bite rapidly produces general intoxication, 168.
“ venoms of, absorption by digestive tract often without ill-
effect, 180, 181.
“ “ “ “ “ “ “ cause,
181.
“ “ action on nervous centres profound, 185.
“ “ affinity of scorpion poison to, 278.
“ “ albumoses of, 162.
“ “ destroy coagulability of blood, 179, 188, 189.
“ “ dialyse slowly, 161.
“ “ lethal effects on mammals, 170.
“ “ minimum doses lethal for guinea-pig in twenty-
four hours, 173.
“ “ precipitation of anticoagulant substance in, 195.
“ “ recovery rapid after non-lethal doses, 177.
“ “ resistant to heat, 161.
“ “ richness in neurotoxin, 249.
Common rattle-snake, 125.
See also Crotalus durissus.
Congestin, poison from Anemone scultata, 271.
Conjunctivitis caused by discharge into eyes of venom of spitting
snake, 63, 64.
Copperhead, 90.
See also Denisonia superba.
Coral-snake, 104.
“ immunity from bite of, 238.
“ venomous nature of, 108.
“ See also Elaps corallinus.
Coral or harlequin snake, 106.
See Elaps fulvius.
Cordier, D., cobra-bites treated with Calmette’s serum, 363.
Cotes, E. C., on extraction of venom by charmers, 234.
Cottus, 289, 290, 292.
“ poison-apparatus of, 293.

Crabronidæ, 285.
“ stings of females of, toxic to other insects, nearly harmless
to man, 285.
Crotalinæ (Viperidæ), 101, 109.
“ characteristics of, 6.
“ venoms of certain species of, non-coagulant, 191, 192,
193.
“ See Ancistrodon; Lachesis.
Crotalus (rattle-snake), 110, 122.
“ comparative toxicity of organs, 220.
“ eggs of, rich in poison, 220.
“ poison glands of, 148.
“ venom of, alkaloids in, 160.
“ “ comparison of toxicity by means of intra-cerebral
injections, 186.
“ “ ingestion causing death, 180.
“ “ weak hæmolysing power possessed by, 199.
“ adamanteus, venom of, dose lethal for rabbit, 175.
“ cerastes (horned rattle-snake), 129.
“ confluentus (Pacific or mottled rattle-snake), 124.
“ “ “ “ “ habits, 125.
“ “ devoured by pigs, 125.
Crotalus confluentus, secretion of, 150.
“ durissus (common rattle-snake), 125.
“ horridus, 127.
“ “ bites from, 355.
“ lepidus, 129.
“ mitchelli, 127.
“ polystictus, 129.
“ scutulatus (Texas rattle-snake), 124.
“ terrificus (dog-faced rattle-snake or cascavella), 124.
“ tigris, 127.
“ triseriatus, 129.
Cryptobranchus japonicus (great Japanese salamander), 313-315,
317.
“ “ venom of, 317.

“ “ “ action similar to that of viperine venoms,
317.
Curados de Culebras, immunity produced by inoculation by, 235-237.
Cytolytic action of venoms, 206.
Daboia. See Vipera russellii.
Deafness following bite of viper, 178.
Death adder, 96.
See also Acanthophis antarcticus.
Delezenne, establishment of existence of kinase in venoms, 204.
“ on the kinasic properties of venoms, 204, 213.
Dendraspis, 65.
“ angusticeps, 66.
“ antinorii, 66.
“ jamesonii, 66.
“ viridis, 66.
Denisonia, 88.
“ carpentariæ, 92.
“ coronata, 89.
“ coronoides, 89.
“ dæmelii, 90.
“ flagellum, 91.
“ frenata, 90.
“ frontalis, 91.
“ gouldii, 91.
“ maculata, 91.
“ melanura, 92.
“ muelleri, 90.
“ nigrescens, 92.
“ nigrostriata, 92.
“ pallidiceps, 92.
“ par, 92.
“ punctata, 91.
“ ramsayi, 90.
“ signata, 90.
“ superba (the copperhead), 89.

“ suta, 90.
“ woodfordii, 93.
Dialysis, results of, in experiments with venoms of Colubridæ and
Viperidæ, 161.
Diastases, action upon venoms, 214.
Diastasic actions of venoms, 212.
Diemenia, 86.
“ modesta, 87.
“ nuchalis, 87.
“ olivacea, 87.
“ psammophis, 87.
“ textilis (brown snake), 87.
“ “ “ “ bite dangerous, 100.
“ torquata, 87.
Digestion of snakes aided by venoms, 213, 214.
Digestive tract, absorption of venoms of Colubridæ often without ill-
effect on, 180, 181.
“ “ “ “ “ “ “ cause,
181.
Diodon, 305.
Dipsadomorphinæ, sub-family of Opisthoglypha, 3.
“ geographical distribution, 4.
Dipsas, teeth of, 8.
Distira, fresh-water genus of Hydrophiinæ, 5, 136.
“ cyanocincta, 137.
“ jerdonii, 137.
“ ornata, 136.
“ subcincta, 137.
Dog, minimal dose of cobra-venom lethal for, 174.
Dog-faced rattle-snake, 124. See also Crotalus terrificus.
Doliophis, 42.
“ bilineatus, 43.
“ bivirgatus, 42.
“ intestinalis, 42.
“ philippinus, 43.
Domestic animals, treatment of poisonous bites in, 265.

Duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus or O. anatinus),
323.
Duméril and Bibron, on coloration of snakes, 16.
“ “ Naja worship in Egypt, 61.
Dutch Indies, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30-57.
Dyer, venom antitoxin treatment of yellow fever, 184.
Eau de Javel, antidote to venom before absorption, 263.
“ “ in treatment of wasp- or bee-stings, 286.
Echidnin, chemistry of, 160.
Echinoidea (sea-urchins), 273.
Echinoderms, poisonous species of, 273.
Echis, 48, 76.
“ carinatus (efa, viper of the pyramids), 48, 76.
“ “ bite from, 347.
“ “ dreaded by Egyptians, 77.
“ “ venom rapid in action, 49.
“ coloratus, 77.
Efa (Echis carinatus), 48, 76. See also Echis carinatus.
Eggs of bees, venom contained in, 284.
“ fowls, artificial intoxication by venom, effect on embryo,
214.
“ Crotalus rich in poison, 220.
Egypt, laboratory researches in, 149, 150.
“ snake-charmers of, 228-229.
Egyptians, dread of Echis carinata (Efa) shown by, 77.
“ “ and pursuit of Naja haje among, 60.
Ehrlich, theory of lateral chains, 208, 220.
Elachistodontinæ, sub-family of Opisthoglypha, 3.
Elapechis, 58.
“ boulengeri, 59.
“ decosteri, 59.
“ hessii, 59.
“ guentheri, 58.
“ niger, 58, 59.

“ sundevallii, 59.
Elapinæ, sub-family of Colubridæ, 30.
Elapognathus, 97.
“ minor, 97.
Elaps, 101, 108.
“ ancoralis, 108.
“ annellatus, 103.
“ anomalus, 103.
“ buckleyi, 103.
“ corallinus (coral snake), 104.
See also Coral-snake.
“ decoratus, 104.
“ dissoleucus, 106.
“ dumerilii, 104.
“ elegans, 103.
“ euryxanthus (Sonoran coral-snake), 102.
“ filiformis, 107.
“ fraseri, 107.
“ frontalis, 106.
“ fulvius (harlequin or coral-snake), 106.
“ gravenhorstii, 102.
“ hemprichii, 104.
“ heterochilus, 102.
“ heterozonus, 103.
“ langsdorffii, 103.
“ lemniscatus, 107.
“ marcgravii, 106.
“ mentalis, 107.
“ mipartitus, 107.
“ narduccii, 108.
“ psyches, 106.
“ spixii, 106.
Elaps surinamensis, 102.
“ tschudii, 104.

Electricity passed through solution of venom in form of continuous
electrolytic current destroys toxicity, 165.
See also High frequency currents.
Embryo, anomalies in development consequent on introduction of
venom into eggs of fowl, 214.
Enhydrina, 139.
“ venom of, fixation on nervous elements, 186.
“ bengalensis (syn. E. valakadien), 139.
“ valakadien (syn. E. bengalensis), 139.
“ “ venom of, dose lethal for different animals, 174.
Enhydris, 138.
“ curtus, 138.
“ “ venom of, dose lethal for rat, 174.
Entomophaga, 286.
Eosin, photodynamic action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, 167.
Epeira, 276.
Erythrosin, photodynamic action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms,
167.
Europe, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 22-29.
“ “ geographical distribution of genera (tables), 142.
“ (Central). See Alps.
“ Triton cristatus and T. marmoratus found in, 313.
Ewing, action of venom on brain, 185.
Facial bones, special arrangements of, characteristic of poisonous
snakes, 6.
Fasting, prolonged, snake-venom shows greatest activity after, 176.
Faust, S., salamandrine prepared by, 316.
Fayrer, Sir J., fatal results of experimental ingestion of venoms, 180.
“ “ on the daboia (Vipera russellii), 47.
“ “ habits of the krait (Bungarus candidus), 33.
“ “ harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal
dose, 214.
“ “ Naja bungarus, 39.
Feeding, artificial, in laboratories for collection of venom, 157.
“ “ of poisonous snakes, 17, 18.

Fer-de-lance (Lachesis lanceolatus), 112, 113, 114.
Féré, Ch., experiments on development of embryo after introduction
of venom into fowl’s egg, 214.
Fishes succumb rapidly to snake-venom, 172.
“ venomous, 288.
“ “ poison-apparatus of, 289.
Flexner and Noguchi, on action of snake-serum on red corpuscles,
219.
“ “ cytolytic action of venoms, 206.
“ “ investigations on toxicity of snakes’ organs, 220.
Food, abstinence from, by snakes, 149.
Fowls killed by causing them to ingest venom, 180.
Fox, W. A., bite from Sepedon hæmachates, 337.
France, mortality from snake-bite in, 3.
Fraser, on destructive action of bile on cobra-venom, 215.
Frog-serum, antidote to poison of pedicellariæ, 274.
Frogs succumb slowly to snake-poisoning, 172.
Furina, 98.
“ bimaculata, 99.
“ calonota, 99.
“ occipitalis, 99.
Gaboon viper, 73.
See also Bitis gabonica.
Gangrene, produced by venom of Viperidæ, 177.
Gautier, Armand, chemical constituents of venom, 160.
Geographical distribution of poisonous snakes in Africa, 143, 144.
“ “ “ “ America, 146.
“ “ “ “ Asia, 142, 143.
“ “ “ “ Europe, 142.
“ “ “ “ Oceania, 145.
Geracki, collection of venom, 156.
Gibbs, Wolcott, chemical constituents of venom, 160.
Glands (acid and alkaline), poison-organs of the hymenoptera, 282.
“ secretion of venom from, 147.

Glandular secretions of persons and animals bitten by venomous
snakes, toxic, 181.
Glycerine, means of preservation of concentrated solution of venom,
166.
Glyphodon, 83.
“ tristis, 84.
Gobiidæ, 300.
Gouzien, Paul, collection of venom from poisonous snakes in French
settlements in India, 359.
“ “ on collection of venom, 156.
Grage (Lachesis atrox), immunity from bite of, 238.
Grass-snakes, parotid glands of, 147.
“ “ withstand large doses of venom, 172.
Gressin on poisoning from weever-stings, 299.
de Gries on bites from Bothrops, 353, 354.
Ground rattle-snake, 120.
See also Sistrurus miliarius.
Grunting batrachus. See Batrachus grunniens.
Guiana, witch-doctors of, snake-bite remedies, 237, 238.
Guinea-pig, minimal doses of various venoms lethal for, 173, 174,
175.
“ vaccination against cobra-venom, 242.
Hæmolysins of venom, resistance to heat, 202.
Hæmolysis, failure of, under exposure of red corpuscles to large
doses of venom, 199, 200, 201.
“ in venoms, comparative study of, 196.
“ power of, possessed by various venoms, 199.
Hæmorrhages produced by albuminoid of snake-venom, 162.
“ visceral, complicating recovery from bites of Viperidæ, 177,
178.
Hæmorrhagin in venoms, 187.
“ local effects of, not prevented by antineurotoxic serum,
251.
“ predominance in venom of Viperidæ, 249.
Hæmorrhagin, present in some species of Viperidæ, 249.

“ sensitive to heat, 249.
Hamadryas elaps, 37.
See also Naja bungarus.
Harlequin or coral snake, 106.
See also Elaps fulvius.
Heart, action of venom on, 184.
Heat, comparative effect on venoms of Colubridæ, Hydrophiidæ and
Viperidæ, 161.
“ hæmorrhagin sensitive to, 249.
“ resistance of hæmolysins of venoms to, 202.
“ sole agent in attenuating venom submitted to alternating
high frequency currents, 165.
Heating destroys toxicity of blood of reptiles, 218.
Hedgehog, immunity of, to venom of Vipera berus, 226.
“ “ “ “ proved experimentally, 226.
“ blood of, toxic before heating, antitoxic afterwards, 226.
Heloderma horridum, 321.
“ “ saliva sometimes toxic, sometimes harmless, 323.
“ “ venom of, 321, 322.
Hemibungarus, 39.
“ calligaster, 40.
“ collaris, 40.
“ japonicus, 40.
“ nigrescens, 40.
Henri, V., poison from pedicellariæ prepared by, 273.
Herons of Colombia hunt young snakes for food, 227.
“ “ probable immunity to snake-venom, 226, 227.
Hetero-albumoses, active principle of snake-venom, 164.
“ separation from snake-venom, 162, 163.
Heterometrus maurus, venom of, 279.
“ “ “ effect upon sparrows, 279.
High frequency currents, alternating, attenuate venom only by
thermic action, 165.
Hill, Patrick, on duck-billed platypus, 324.
Hindus, worship bestowed on Naja by, 38.
Holbrook on Crotalus confluentus, 125.

Holocanthus, 305.
“ imperator, 305.
Homalopsinæ, sub-family of Opisthoglypha, 3.
“ aquatic, 4.
Homorelaps, 57.
Hoplocephalus, 93.
“ bitorquatus, 94.
“ bungaroides (syn. H. variegatus, broad-headed snake), 94.
“ curtus (Notechis scutatus, tiger-snake), 95.
“ “ “ “ “ bite dangerous, 100.
“ “ “ “ “ secretion of, 149.
“ stephensii, 94.
Horned rattle-snake, 129.
See also Crotalus cerastes.
Horse, bleeding, aseptically, after vaccination to obtain
antivenomous serum, 245, 246.
“ immunisation to venom, difficulties attending, 244, 245.
Horse, minimal dose of venom lethal for, 176.
“ polyvalent serum prepared from, 251.
“ red corpuscles of, reasons for choice of, for exposure to
action of venom, 196, 197.
“ vaccination of, against cobra-venom, 244, 245.
Horse-serum must be added to venom to dissolve washed red
corpuscles, 197.
Hottentots, venom of Bitis arietans employed for poisoning arrows
by, 72.
Hydrelaps, 134.
Hydrophiidæ (sea-snakes), 100.
“ bite from, cure, 338.
“ “ rapidly produces general intoxication, 168.
“ venoms of, resistant to heat, 161.
Hydrophiinæ (sea-snakes), 4, 131.
“ “ habitat and geographical distribution, 4, 5.
“ “ habits of, 131.
Hydrophis (sea-snakes), 134.

“ “ venom from, 360.
“ cærulescens, 135.
“ cantoris, 135.
“ elegans, 135.
“ fasciatus, 136.
“ gracilis, 135.
“ leptodira, 136.
“ nigrocinctus, 135.
“ obscurus (syn. H. stricticollis), 136.
“ spiralis, 135.
Hydrus, 132.
Hymenoptera, 281.
“ poison-glands of, 281, 282.
Hypochloride of calcium solution modifies or destroys venoms, 164.
Hypochlorite of lime, antidote to venom before absorption, 261, 263.
“ “ remedy for wasp- or bee-sting, 286.
Hypochlorites, alkaline, antidotes to venom before absorption, 261.
Hypoleucocytosis, accompanying snake-bite, in lethal cases, 211,
212.
“ following fatal dose of venom, 216.
Immunity to venom, active, incontestably possible, 240.
“ “ doubtful, by Vatuas’ method, 239.
“ “ hereditary, pretended, 238.
“ “ “ “ in India and Egypt, 240.
“ “ natural, 222.
“ “ partial, enjoyed by snakes due to diastasic
substances in blood, 218, 219.
“ “ in lethal doses not conferred by ingestion of
venom, 215.
India, French Settlements in, collection of venom and treatment of
bites from poisonous snakes in, 359.
“ legend relating to Naja in, 37.
“ mortality from snake-bite in, 2, 38, 363.
“ “ “ “ excessive, due to snake-worship,
2.

“ “ “ Naja bites, 38.
India, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30-57.
“ “ snake-charmers in, 229-234.
“ “ “ remedies for bites, 237.
“ Teuthis found in, 301.
Indian Ocean, Chilomycterus orbicularis and C. tigrinus, 307.
“ “ Naseus found in, 301.
“ “ Plotosus found in, 308.
“ “ Pterois found in, 296.
“ “ Scorpæna diabolus found in, 293.
“ “ Tetrodon stellatus found in, 306.
Inoculation, experimental, by Fraser, of Edinburgh, 235.
“ extraction of venom from alcatifa for, 239.
“ graduated, by French viper-catchers, 234.
“ immunity incontestable from, 240.
“ subcutaneous, productive of immunity, 234.
Insects, venomous species of, 281.
Invertebrata easily killed by venom inoculation, 173.
Jacolot, on Mexicans’ method of immunisation, 255-257.
Japan, Cryptobranchus japonicus found in, 315.
“ Prionurus found in, 301.
“ Tetrodon rubripes found on shores of, 306.
“ “ “ See also China and Japan.
Jararacussu (Lachesis lanceolatus), 112, 113, 114.
Jean, bite from Trigonocephalus, 352.
Jugglers called in to expel efas (echis carinatus) from Egyptian
houses, 77.
Julus, 280.
Kanthack, A. A., on chemical constituents of venom, 160.
Kasauli, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, 248,
252.
Katipo (Latrodectus scelio), 275.
Kayalof, Mlle., poison from pedicellariæ prepared by, 273.
Kidney, action of venom on, 183.

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Technology, Research and Professional Learning Jingjing Zhang

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