Techniques used by Business Analyst

Acceptance and Evaluation Criteria Definition
 Purpose
o To define the REQthat mustbe metinorder fora solutiontobe consideredacceptable
 Description
o Determine whichREQcanmost effectivelybe usedasevaluationcriteria.
 Acceptance – To determine apossiblesolution
 Evaluation – To compare multiple solutions(usingbanknotes)
 Elements
o Testability –The REQ must be:
 Detailedintonaatomicform/ UC forsolutiontest
o Determine ranking
 Determine the orderof importance forthe requirements
 The Moscow technique
o Determine scoring
 Customersolutionforthe REQ
o Stakeholdermustagree onthe criteria
o The Moscow technique –Divide the REQintofour categories
 Must – essential,highpriority,successof the solution
 Should– important,buthave the workaround
 Could– lowpriority,canbe implemented
 Won’t– will notbe implemented(maybe inthe future)
 Usage Considerations
o Advantages
 Agile methodologiesmayrequire thatall the REQ be expressedinthe formof testable
acceptance criteria
 Acceptance criteriawhenthe REQexpresscontractual obligations
o Disadvantages
 Difficultchangesdue contractual obligation,bothforlegal andpolitical reasons

Benchmarking
 Purpose
o To compare the strengthsandweaknessesof anORG againstitspeersand competitors.
 Description
o Studiesare conductedtocompare organizational practicesagainstthe best-in-classpracticesthat
existwithincompetitorsenterprise ingovernmentorindustry,determininghow theses
companiesachieve theirsuperiorperfomance
o Focusedonstrategies,operationsandprocesses
 Elements
o Benchmarkingrequires:
 Identifythe areatobe studiedandorganizationsthatare leadersinthe sector
 Conducta surveyto understandtheirspractices
 Arrange for visitstobest-in-classorganizations
 Developaprojectproposal toimplementthe bestpractices
 Usage considerations
o Advantages
 Providesforthe enterpriseinformationsaboutnew anddifferentmethods,ideiasandtools
o Disadvantages
 Benchmarkingistime consuming
 Organizationsmaynothave the expertisetoconductthe analysisandacquire or interpret
useful competitive information
 Benchmarkingdoesnotprovide competitive advantageandmarketinnovative solutions,since
the solutionisalreadyusedbyothercompanies

Business Rules Analysis
 Purpose
o To define the rulesthatgoverndecisionsinnaORG andthat define ,constrainor enable
organizational operations
 Description
o Directe constrainthe organizationandoperationsof naorganization
o A businesspolicyisanon-actionable thatsuportsabusinessgoal
o A businessrule isaspecific,actionable,testable,thatsuportsabusinesspolicy
 Particularycomplex rulesmaybe expressedasa decisiontable ordecisiontree
o The businessrulesshouldbe:
 Statedinappropriate terminologytoenable domainSMEsto validate the rules
 Documentedandstatedat the atomiclevel
 Separatedfromthe processes
 Mainteinedinamannerthat enablesthe ORGto monitorandadapt the rules
 Elements
o Businessrulesrequire adefinedglossaryof termsandrelationships
o Insure thattheyare independentof anyimplementation,informationorassumptions
o Operative rules
 Guiding/forcing/preventingthe actionsof people
 Violable:“Allowhome boardingwith23kgof luggage”
 In thiscase,whatNeste caso,what are the penaltiesandexceptions(additional rule)
 “Charge the excessof baggage”
o Structural Rules
 Helpdetermine whensomethingisoris nottrue
 Notviolable:“Embarkonlywithboarding”
 Usage considerations
o Strengths – Changesto policywithoutalteringthe process,easyevaluation
o Weaknesses –Lengthylistsof businessrulesandconflictbetweenthem.

Data Dictionary and Glossary
 Purpose
o Defineskeytermsanddatarelevanttoa businessdomain
 Description
o Usedto formallyidentifyanddefine all terminologyusedbythe organizationororganizational
unit.
 Elements
1. Glossary
o Documentstermesunique tothe domain,inordertoensure thatall stakeholdersunderstood
whatis meantwhencertainwordsare used
o A termrelevanttothe domainanda unique definitionforeach,aswell ascross-referencing
aliases
2. Data Dictionary
o Stantarddefinitionsof dataelements,theirmeanings,andallowable values.Contains
definitionsof eachprimitive dataelementandindicateshow those elementscombine into
composite dataelements
o Primitive DataElements
 Name – unique,referencedbythe compositedataelements
 Aliases –alternate names
 Values/Meanings –listof acceptable values
 Description –definitioninthe contextof the solution
o Composite DataElements
 Sequences –primitivedatainorder
 Repetitions –Multiple occurrencesof the primitive element
 Optional Elements –may or may notoccur
Usage Considerations
o Is useful forensuringthatall the stakeholdersare inagreementonthe formatand contentof
relevantinformation,ensuringthatthese termswill be usedconsistently

Data Flow Diagrams
 Purpose
o Showhowthe informationisinput,processed,stored,andoutputfromasystem
 Description
o Providesavisual representationof how the informationis movedthroughasystem:
 External Entitiesthatprovide orreceive data
 The Processesthattransformdata
 The Data Storescollectedforsome periodof time
 The Data flowsmovesbetweenexternal entities,processesanddatastores
 Elements
1. External Entities
o Source or destinationof data
o Labeledrectangle
2. Data Store
o Locationwhere datais not movingortransforming,butisbeingstoredforfuture use
o Labeledrectangle withasquare
3. Data Process
o Transformsthe data insome way (combining,reordering,converting,filtering,etc).Naasterisk
isusedto identifydataprocessesthathave furtherdecompositionmodels.
o Circle or a rectangle withcurvedcorners
4. Data flow
o Where data isbeingmovedbetweenprocessandnaexternal entity
o Can be specifiedintoresultflows,control flowsandupdate flows
o Single ouforketline labeledwithadescriptorof the databeingmoved
Usage considerations
o Usedas part of a structuredanalysisapproach
o Understandthe range of data withinthe domain
o Usedafter a contextdiagramhas beencompleted
o Prerequisite orconcurrentactivitytodatamodeling
o Strengths
 Discoveryforprocessesanddata
 Verificationof afunctional decompositionordatamodel
 Easy to understand,useful deliverfordevelopingstructuredprogramming
o Weaknesses
 Cannoteasilyshowwhoisresponsible forperformingthe workandcannotshow alternative
pathsthrough the same process

Data Modeling
 Purpose
o Describe the conceptsrelevanttoadomain,the relationshipsbetweenthose concepts,and
information associatedwiththem
 Description
o The model takesthe formof a diagram, supportedbytexts
o Representsthe typesof people,places,thingsandconcepts,attributesandrelationships,
importantforbusiness
o Supportedbythe data dictionaryandglossaryandanalysisof businessrules
o Two types:
 Entity-relationshipdiagram –relational database
 Classdiagram– objectorientation
o Determinedratingbythe technologyplatformof the ORG
 Elements
o Logical data modelsdescribe the intormationrelevanttoanORG
o Highlevel ->Descriptionsof the pointsof mostimportance
o Detailed ->Descriptionsof all points
o Physical ->Descriptionsof storage anddata management
o Concept– Somethingof significance forthe domainbeingdescribed,whichdatathe ORGneeds,
musthave a unique identifier,are referredasentitiesorclasses
o Attributes –Definesaparticularpiece of informationassociatedwithaconcept,suchas allowable
valuesandtype of information
o Relacionships –Associationsbetweenthe businessconcept,how informationisusedinthe
operationof the businessandcardinality(numberof relationshipsallowed)
o Metadata – data about the data, context,use andvalidityof businessinformation,determine
whenandwhyna informationstoredinasystemhasbeenchanged
 Usage Consideration
1. Advantages
o Offerflexibilityindifferentlevelsof description
o Consistentapproachsupportsthe transitionfromplanning,analysis,designand
implementation
o Strongfoundationinmathematical conceptsandintegrityof information
2. Disadvantages
o Can be complex anddeal withconceptsthatmay notbe familiartothose whohave no
backgroundinTI
o Can be difficulttounderstantforusers

Document Analysis
 Purpose
o ElicitREQ throughthe studyof the available DOCof existingand comparable solutions,and
identifyrelevantsINFO
 Description
o Analysisof businessplans,marketstudies,contracts,requestsforproposals,statementsof work,
memos,guidelines,procedures,trainingguides,custumersuggestions,specificationsof existing
systems,etc
o Usedwhenthe objective istocollectdetailsof existingsolutions,includingRN,entitiesand
attributesforinclusioninthe newsolutionorupgrade the currentsolution
o It isalso appliedinsituationswhere expertsinthe fieldof the soluutionisnotmore onthe
organization,orare not available duringthe elicitation
 Elements
1. Preparation
o Evaluate whichexistingDOCaboutthe businessandsystemare relevant,available and
appropriate
2. Documentreview
o Studythe material,identifyingand documentingrelevantdetails
3. Wrap-up
o Reviewandconfirmthe detailsselected
o Organize informationinthe formof REQ
0. Advantages –Analysispartof something,use existingmaterials,checkREQindifferent
techniques(ex:interview)
1. Disadvantages –limitedto“as-is”,outdateddocumentation,timeconsumptioncanbe excessive
and tediousprocess

Estimation
 Purpose
o Forecastcost and effortinvolvedinfindingthe progressof anactivity
 Description
o Developabetterunderstandingof possible magnitudeof the costsand effortsassociatedwith
any initiative,whenit’spossibletodetermine the exactcost
o Can not eliminate the uncertainty,seekstoachieve reasonable assessmentof requiredcostsand
efforts
o The lessinformation,more the uncertainty
o Revisionemerge asmore information
o Supportfor historical records
o Importantto evaluate the extentof uncertainty
 Elements
1. Analogousestimation –Top-Down,use of similarproject,isnotwell knownatthe begginingof
the project,orderof magnitude (ROM– roughorder of maginitude)
2. ParametricEstimation –Parametersx numberof hours,requireshistorical ascomparative basis
(COCOMOII,functionpoints,pointsof use casesandstorypoints)
3. Bottom-upestimation–Collectsand gathersthe deliveries,activities,tasksandestimatesfor
estimatingsmall items
4. RollingWave – Refinementof estimates,review of future deliveriesbasedonwhatwasdelivered
5. Three-PointsEstimation –Basedon the scenarios(notaverage):
o Optimistic
o Pessimistic
o The most likely
6. Historical Analysis –similartoanalogousestimating,butusedtotop-downandbottom-up.Needs
historical repository
7. Evaluationof specialist –experience of internal orexternal experts
8. Estimationof Delphi –Combinationof the evaluationof the expertandhistory(top-downe
bottom-up),sharingtothe consensus,averageof the three estimates
0. Advantages –Helpmakingdecisionsbased
1. Disadvantages –Treatmentof the estimate asa compromise,usuallyalteredtoattendthe most
influential stakeholders

Focus Groups
 Purpose
o Elicitideasandattitudesabouta product,service oropportunityspecificininteractive group,
sharingimpressions,preferencesandneeds
 Description
o Similartobrainstorming, more structured,withlessbreadth,creativityandexaggerations
o Meetinginthe same room or remotely
o Sharingand re-evaluationof prospects
o Moderator managesthe work,facilitatesthe session,producesthe report
o Observerrecordsormonitorsthe group,withoutparticipation
o Resultsare analyzedandreportedasthemes
o Mediumusedduringanystage of the cycle
 ProductDevelopment –Update of the REQ
 Productin production – Reviewsforthe nextdelivery
 Elements
1. Preparation
o Participants
 6 to 12 participants (canbe extended),varieswiththe topic
 Composition
 Homogeneous –Similarfeatures,differentperspectivesare notshared
 Heterogeneous –Differenthistorical andperspectives,self-censorshipbecause of
discomfort
o Moderator andrecorder
 Promote discussion,open-endedquestions,groupinteraction,keepingfocus,neutral,
adaptable andflexible
o DiscussionGuide
 Goals/Objectivesof the session(5,6 openquestions)
o Local and Services
 Local,support,equipmentsforthe session
2. Conductfocusgroup session
o Moderator guidesthe discussion1-2hoursby a pre-plannedscrip(transparent),toensure
reachinggoals
o Recordercapturesthe group’scomments
3. Produce the report
o Moderator analyzesanddocumentsthe areasof agreementornotbetweenthe participants
and synthesizesonthemes
0. Advantages –Elicitgroup data ina single sessionsabestime andcost,tounderstandattitudes,
experiencesanddesires,active discussion(personalvisionandperspective)
1. Disadvantages –Distrustand indisposition aboutsensitive topics,difficultyinschedulingthe
group,doen’thelpthe elicitationof ideiasaboutanew product

Functional Decomposition
 Purpose
o To decompose processes,functional areasordeliveriesintheircomponentparts,allowing
independentanalysisof eachpart
 Description
o Breakbiggerproblemintofunctions/smallerdeliveries
o Ensure that the problemisseparatedintosubproblems
 Elements
o Identifyhigh-level functionsof naORG or solution
o Breakingtasksintosmallerpieces(sup-processes, activities,recourses)
o HighLevel Function ->Sub-function ->Process ->Activity
 Until it can’t be brokenanymore
o Representationbyahierarchydiagram, tree or numbering
o EAP -> Breakthe scope of the projectinphases,workpackagesand deliveries
1. Advantages
o Conceptual model of the completedworktodeliveranew businesssolution
o Providesaconsistentview of the scope of the effort
o Assistsestimatinginthatestimatescanbe made forsmaller
2. Disadvantages
o There isno guarantee that all componentswere captured
o Create a inappropriate structure if there isnocomplete understandingof the relationship
betweenthe partsof the problem

Interface Analysis
 Purpose
o Identifyinterfacesbetweensolutionsand/orcomponentsof the solutionanddefineREQthat
describe howtheywill interact
 Description
o Interface isa conexionbetweentwocomponents
o Applicationsof softwarerequireonormore interfaces,of the type:
 Users interactingdirectlywiththe system
 Amongexternal applications
 Betweenhardware devices
o Helpto clarifythe bondariesbetweenapplications
o Distinguishwhichapplicationprovidesspecificfunctionalitieswiththe needsof inputandoutput
data
o Confirmstakeholderswhowill use the interface
o Model for the subsequent analysisof the detailedREQ
o Alsouseful foranon-software solution
 Elements
1. Preparate forinterface identification
o Reviewthe actual documentationcontainingindicationsof REQ
2. ConductInterface Identification
o Identifywhatinterfacesare neededfor eachstakeholder:
 Describe the interface purpose
 Evaluate whichtype of interface isappropriate
 Elicithighlevel details,dependingonitstype
 Usuary-System–Use prototyping
 System-System–Contentandname of the events
3. Define interfaces
o REQ focusedondescribingthe inputsandoutpusof the interface
o Validationrulesandeventsthattriggerinteractions
o Interactionsspecifiedindividually
0. Advantages
o Highlevel viewof interoperability
o Planimpacton deliverydate,more accurate andpotential timesavingsandcost
o Planthe collaborationwithothersystemsorprojects
o Negotiationandcooperationbetweenleadersof the involvedapplications
o Preventdifficultiesof integratingmultiple components
1. Disadvantages
o It doesn’tprovide insightsaboutotheraspectsof the solution
o It doesn’tevaluate internalcomponents

Interviews
 Purpose
o Elicitinformationsfromapersonorgroup oof people throughaconvertationwithna
interviewee,withquestionsanddocumentedresponses
 Description
o The interviewermake questionsthathe formuledtoa stakeholder
o Obtainresponsesthatwill be usedtocreate REQ
o StructuredInterview –pre-definedsetof questions
o Non-StructuredInterview –Nopre-definedquestions,opendiscussionof topics
o SuccessFactors
 Understandingof the fieldbythe interviewer
 Experience inconductinginterviews/Empathy(Rapport)
 Skill indocumentingdiscussions
 Alertnessandclarityof the interviewee ->Provideinformation
 Elements
1. Preparationforthe interview
o Define the focusorthe interview goal
o Identifythe intervieweesinpotencial
 Who holdsa confiable/authentic/currentINFO
 What’sthe stake inthe initiative
o Designthe interview,adaptedforeachinterviewee
 Closedquestions –Unique response (Yes/No)
 Openedquestions–Conversation,responseswithjustifatives
 Organizationof the questions–Logical orderor priority
 Localizationof the participants –Personalyorremote
 Time and local of the interview
 Necessityornotof scribe or recording
o Contact the interviewees inpotencial
 Justificate the interview goal
2. Conductof the interview
o Openingthe interview
 Purpose statementandnotestome made and sharedat the end
o Duringthe interview
 Focuson goalsand pre-definedquestions
 Concernsof the interviewee attendedduringthe interview ordocumentedforfuture
interview
 Active listeningtoconfirmthe understandingof the INFO
o Closingthe interview
 Checkfor neglectedissues
 Summarize the session
 Rememberthe reviewprocessandthankthe interviewee
3. Follow-upinterview andconfirmation
o Organize information,sendforreview of the interviewee
o Viewof all the relatedcontext,pointingoutincorrectormissingitems
o Documentinginformationandnottoevaluate the REQ
o Advantages

 Encouragesparticipants andestablishesempathy,simple anddirect
 Discussion,comprehensiveexplanations,observingnon-verbal aspects,expressopinions
privatly
o Disadvantages
 It doesnotestablishconsensusgroup,andtrainingisnecessarytoconductthe business
domain,riskof influence
 Transcriptioncomplex andexpensive,subjecttointerpretation

Lessons Learned Process
 Purpose
o Compile anddocumentsuccesses,opportunitiesforimprovement,gapsandrecommendations
for improvingperfomance
 Description
o Sessionsmayinclude anyformof meetingorforum
 Elements
o Reviewof activities,processesanddeliveriesof NA,final product,questionsormanagerial
concerns,performance x plan,rootcause of variations,recommendedcorrectiveactions
1. Advantages –Identificationof improvementopportunitiesandassiststaff motivation
2. Disadvantages –Requirespreparationof the teamtoavoidsessionof complaints/guilty,honest
discussioncannothappen,staff maybe reluctantto discussproblems

Metrics and Key Performance Indicators
 Purpose
o Measuringthe perfomance of solutions,componentsandotherissuesof interesttostakeholders
 Description
o Metric: a quantifiable levelindicatortomeasure progress
o Indicator:identifies specificnumerical measure thatrepresentsthe degreeof progresstoward
achievingagoal,objective,outputoractivity
o Keyperformance indicator:Measure the progresstowardagoal or strategicobjective
o Report:Processto informthe partsabout the metricsof the indicatorsinspecifiedformatsand
rangers
o The main componentsare:
 Monitoring– Continuousdatacollectiontodeterminehow well asolutionwasimplementedx
expectedresults
 Evaluation – Systematicjudgment,determine statusandeffectiveness of the solution,identify
howto improve solution
 Elements
1. Indicators
o Identifiesaspecificnumerial measure formeta,impact,output,activityorinput.Five
characteristics:
 Clear/ Relevant/Economic/ Adequate /Quantifiable
 Interestsof the stakeholderare alsoimportant
o Weaknessescanbe identifiedinsome indicators
o Considerthe source,method,andresponsible forthe collectionandcost
2. Metrics
o Quantifiablelevelsof indicatorsthatare measuredata specificpointintime
 Target metric– goal to be achievedoveraperiodof time
o Importantto clearlyunderstandthe baselinestartingpoint,the resourcesdevotedtothe
improvementof the factorsand issuescoveredbythe indicator/political concerns
o Can be a specificpointorrange limit
3. Structure
o Monitoringandevaluationsystemrequiresprocedure of:
 Collection –Unitsof analysis,samplingandinstruments
 Analysis –Conductinganalysisandconsumerdata
 Report– Models,addresses,frequencyandmethods
o Keyfactorsfor qualityassessment:
 Reliability –Stabilityandconsistencyof datacollection
 Validity –Cleardata anddirectmeasurementof perfomance
 Opportunity –Adequacyof the frequencyandlatencydata
4. Reports
o Compare the base-linecurrentmetricsandandtargetmetrics,with calculationsof the
differencespresentedinabsoluteandrelativeterms
o Visual presentationsare more effective thantables,whensupportedbyatextto explainthe
qualitative data
0. Advantages

o Allowsstakeholderstounderstandhow the solutionmeetsthe goal andhow effectivewere
the inputsandactivitiesforthe developmentof output/solution
o Facilitate organizational alignmentlinkinggoalstoobjectives,supportsolutions,keytasksand
resources
1. Disadvantages
o Collectingtoomuch datathan necessarywill resultinunnecessaryexpensesinthe collection,
analysisandreporting
o Program metricsbureaucraticfailure tocollectdatawithoutgeneratingreportsuseful

Non-Functional Requirements Analysis
 Purpose
o Describe the qualitiesrequired forasystem, ina complementary functional requirements
character
 Description
o Importantfor users anddevelopers
In practice applies whendevelopingasoftware
 Elements
1. Category – Checklistof characteritics
o Reliability- Availablewhenneeded
o Performance –Time for implementingactivities
o Operability- Usability
o Security- TrustedInformation
o Compatibility –coexistwithotherapplications
o Maintainability- Changecomponentwithout affectingother
o Portability- Executableindifferentenvironments
2. Measurement
o It mustbe includedasuccessmeasure inthe definitionof REQthat can be tested
3. Documentation
o Declarative descriptions (Ex:The systemshouldprovide 90% of the responses inuptwo
seconds), aspart of the document total of REQ
0. Advantages
o Influence onthe acceptance orrejection of the systemby users
1. Disadvantages
o Difficulttodefine, qualityexpectations cannotbe described, the accuracy can impactthe cost
and feasibilityof developing
o

Observation
 Purpose
o Evaluation of the workenvironment of the stakeholder, todocumentthe detailsof the current
processes toimprove orchange the current process
 Description
o Studyingpeopleincarryingoutits functions (jobshadowing/followingpeople around)
o Assistthe execution of the workforunderstandingof itsflow
o Approaches
 Passive /invisible –noquestioning,just log
 Active / visible –Interactwith the user, questioningthe reasonforthe execution of some
action
o Can participate in the actual workfor practical experience
o It can become a temporary apprentice
o Assistdemonstrationof the process ortask-specificexecuted
 Elements
1. Prepare forthe observation
o Determine samplingof userswillbe observedand whatactivities andquestions toask
2. Observe
o Presenttothe observed
o Ensure to the observed thatthere isno question abouthiswork,only observationto study
o Explainthatthere maybe disruptionto questions
o Suggest“thinkingaloud”while working
o Observe the work, take notesnecessary withorwithoutquestions
3. PointObservationWrap-Up–DocumentationandConfirmation
o Get answerstothe original or new
o Summarize the notesforrevisionandclarification
o Many users: compile notes (commonpoints)
0. Advantages
o Practical and realisticvisionof the business (“handson”)
o Detailsof the informal communicationand formof the currentwork
1. Disadvantages
o Onlyforexistingprocesses
o Can consume a lotof time
o Can disruptthe observed
o Unusual circumstances orexceptionsmaynotoccur duringthe observation
o It may notwork whenthe currentprocess istoo complex orinvolve otherdifficultworkto
observe

Organization Modeling
 Purpose
o Describe roles,responsibilitiesandchain ina ORG, alignedwithorganizational goals
 Description
o Define the scope andhowan ORG or an unitis structured, formal relationships, rolesand
interfaces
 Elements
1. Organizational PurposeandStructure
o Functions – Groupingpeople basedon theirskills orareasof expertise,standard of work, cost
managementeasierandreduces duplicationof work
o Markets – Focus on customers, market,sector, tendstodevelop inconsistenciesandduplicate
work
o Matrix – Differentmanagersin functional areas andproducts, service orgroups
2. Roles
o Specificsetof skills,knowledgeandresponsibilities
3. Interfaces
o Work packages,with REQ qualitystandard,formal orinformal
4. Org Charts
o Chart, featuring:
 ORG units– teams,departments, divisions
 Reportinglines –Continuous (directauthority) x Dashed(temporarysituation ortransfer
of information)
 Rolesandpeople
o Advantages –Almostall the ORG have it
o Disadvantages –The organizational redesign maybe controversial, the existence of
informal linesof authority andcommunication are notreflected

Problem Tracking
 Purpose
o Organizedapproachto screening, managementandresolution of defects, issues,problemsand
risksoverthe activities of AN, ina timelymannertoensure success.
 Description
o Problems mayinclude issues, questions,scratches,defects,conflicts,concernsthatmustbe
trackedintothe resolution
o Ensure that issues are notneglected orlost
o For each issue, include anidentification, statusupdate,description of stocks,
monitoring, resolution outcomes, actionsand decisions,priority andimpact
o Currentsituation mustbe communicated torelevantparts
o Eliminate negative impacts
o Allocate resources tosolve problems
o Identifythe rootcausesof problems
 Elements
1. Recordof problems
o Clearand concise description, whoidentified anddate,impact, priority(high,medium,
low), date,owner(managinguntil closing), status(open, assigned, resolved, canceled),needed
actionto solve, responsibleforaction, actioncompletion date (estimated oractual) andresult
2. Managementof problems
o Problemmustbe trackedand managed tobe resolved, ornoactiontaken
o Regularreview ensures visibilityandfocus onproblems
o Escalate if there isno solutionin reasonabletime
3. Metrics
o Measure and reportthe problem(forsituationand priority, time between identification
and resolution)
0. Advantages
o Organizedmethod fortrackingandresolutionof risks,issuesand defects
o Mechanismforreportingproblems tothe team
o Helpskeepthe focuson openissues, keepingthe focus until itis solved
1. Disadvantages
o Outdatedandirrelevantlist andirrelevantwhennotprioritized andmanaged
o Leadingmembers unavailable ->slow process
o Secondarymanagement (lowerpriority) if there isany deadline fordelivery of the solution
o RCA can take more time and resourcesthan are available

Process Modeling
 Purpose
o Understand howwork involvingmultiple departments androlesisplayedinanorganization
 Description
o Process describe as multiplepersonsorgroupscooperate overaperiodof time to
performa labor
o Involve anumberof activitieslinked byaflow sequence, repeatable and canhave manyways
to complete
o Startedby an eventinthe fieldof business, actionscanbe takenbya person, rulesorthe
passage of time
o The model is a visual representation thatmayinvolvemanual activities, automatedor
combinationof both, endswhen the objective orgoal of the processiscompleted
 Elements
o There are several differentnotations, suchas flow diagramandactivitydiagramof UML,
and BPMN
o Elementsof notation
 Activities –Stepsthatmustbe completed
 Decisions –bifurcations where the flow…
 Events– Outside the scope of the process, actionsor messages
 Flow – Direction of the sequence stepbystep of the flow
 Paper– Type of personor group
 Streaksand pools – Activitiesperformed byarole
 Endpoints – Start or end of a process or flow
o Processimprovements
 Six Sigma,Lean and otherapproaches
 Value streammapping, analysisand statistical control,process simulation,benchmarking and
other
 Commonchanges:
 Identify andremove activitiesthatdonot addvalue
 Reducingthe time required tocompletethe process
 Improvingthe interfaces
 Reductionoreliminationof bottlenecksand backlogs
o Advantages
 Comfortof stakeholders withthe basicelements andconceptsbehind the model, are
effectiveinpresentinghowtohandle large numberof scenarios
o Disadvantages
 Can become complex if notstructuredcarefully

Prototyping
 Purpose
o Details of the REQ userinterface, integrateswith REQas use cases, scenarios, dataandbusiness
rules, methodstoidentify,describe andvalidate interface needs
 Description
o Functional scope
 Horizontal – Surface and comprehensive,withno businesslogic
 Vertical – Limitedanddeepslice of functionality
o Use throughoutthe life cycle of the systemdevelopment
 Disposable:
 Clarify interface requirements, simpletool
 Featureswith conflictingviews
 Evolutionary/Functional:
 From initial requirements tofullyfunctional systemrequires specialized prototypingtools
 Elements
1. Preparationforprototyping
o Determine the approach
 Disposable x evolutionary+Vertical x Horizonal
o Identifyfunctionalitytobe modeled
2. Prototyping
o Iterative process, initial effortonhigh-level view
o Future iterations mayadddetails
o Report– Listof attributes REQdata, selectioncriteriaandrules foraggregation, until detailed
layout
o Interface (screen device)–Understandingthe full flow of the interface, addeddetailswhen
appropriate
o Storyboard – Paths navigation components,abstraction screenswith directional arrowsinthe
flow
o Graphical representation of the elements
3. Evaluate the prototype
o Verifylogical elementsof the interface x usuaryREQ
o Validate representationneeds(testthe interface)
0. Advantages
o User interactionand earlyfeedback
o Discoverand confirmREQ range beyondthe interface
o Demonstrate whatis feasibleorgapswithtechnology
o Inputto designers aboutthe interface needs
1. Disadvantages
o Complex case,ittakes a longtime, requiresknowledge of technology, generatesnot
realisticexpectations inusers
o It may looklike afunctional system,limiting the conceptionof solutionand
developmentidentical tothe prototype

Requirements Workshops
 Purpose
o Structuredway of capturingREQ, usedtoinvestigate, discover,define,prioritizeandachieve
the closure of the REQ
o Effective wayto deliverpromptly highqualityREQ,promoting trust, mutual understanding
and strongcommunication amongstakeholders,producing deliverablesthatstructure and
guide future analysis
 Description
o Eventhighlyproductive andfocused, withthe participation of keystakeholders andsubject
matterexperts, selectedforashortand intense work
Facilitatedbyateam member
Scribe / recorderdocumentsthe elicitedREQandquestions
AN shouldbe the facilitatororscribe, or serve asa participantof the workshop (withcaution, not
to influence/confuse)
o Generate ideasfornew featuresorproducts
o Consensus onanissue or revise REQ
 Elements
1. Prepare forthe workshopof REQ
o To clarify stakeholderneeds andpurpose of the workshop
o Identify critical stakeholders toparticipate
o Setagendaand determine the means of documentation
o Schedule sessions andorganize logisticsof the room, seating andequipment
o Sendmaterialsinadvance
o Conductpre-workshop interviews toensure understanding of the purpose of the workshop
o Determine the numberof participants
2. Conductthe workshopof REQ
o Elicit, analyze and documentREQ
o Obtainconsensuson conflictingviews,maintaining focus
o Facilitator
 Establish objective andprofessional tone forthe meeting
Presentgoalsandagendaof the meeting
Imposingdiscipline,basicrulesandmanage the meeting
Facilitate decision makingand buildingconsensus, ensuringthatall views wereheard
3. Closingpost-workshopof REQ
o Track openitems of recordedactionsinthe meeting
o Complete anddistributedocumentation tostakeholders
0. Advantages
o A wayto elicitdetailedREQina short period of time
o Provides collaborativeenvironmentforstakeholders tomake decisionsand mutual
understanding
o Generallylowercostto conductseveral interviews
o Workingtogethertoachieve consensus
o Immediate feedback,interpretation providedimmediately
1. Disadvantages
o Availability of stakeholders

o Successhighlydependenton the skill of the facilitatorand participants’knowledge
o Many participantsmay make the process slow
o Few participantscanignore REQ

Requirements Workshops
 Purpose
o Structuredway of capturingREQ, usedtoinvestigate, discover,define,prioritizeandachieve
the closure of the REQ
o Effective wayto deliverpromptly highqualityREQ,promoting trust, mutual understanding
and strongcommunication amongstakeholders,producing deliverablesthatstructure and
guide future analysis
 Description
o Eventhighlyproductive andfocused, withthe participation of keystakeholders andsubject
matterexperts, selectedforashortand intense work
Facilitatedbyateam member
Scribe / recorderdocumentsthe elicitedREQandquestions
AN shouldbe the facilitatororscribe, or serve asa participantof the workshop (withcaution, not
to influence/confuse)
o Generate ideasfornew featuresorproducts
o Consensus onanissue or revise REQ
 Elements
1. Prepare forthe workshopof REQ
o To clarify stakeholderneeds andpurpose of the workshop
o Identify critical stakeholders toparticipate
o Setagendaand determine the means of documentation
o Schedule sessions andorganize logisticsof the room, seating andequipment
o Sendmaterialsinadvance
o Conductpre-workshop interviews toensure understanding of the purpose of the workshop
o Determine the numberof participants
2. Conductthe workshopof REQ
o Elicit, analyze anddocumentREQ
o Obtainconsensuson conflictingviews,maintaining focus
o Facilitator
 Establish objective andprofessional tone forthe meeting
Presentgoalsandagendaof the meeting
Imposingdiscipline,basicrulesandmanage the meeting
Facilitate decisionmakingandbuildingconsensus, ensuringthatall views wereheard
3. Closingpost-workshopof REQ
o Track openitems of recordedactionsinthe meeting
o Complete anddistributedocumentation tostakeholders
0. Advantages
o A wayto elicitdetailedREQina short period of time
o Provides collaborativeenvironmentforstakeholders tomake decisionsand mutual
understanding
o Generallylowercostto conductseveral interviews
o Workingtogethertoachieve consensus
o Immediate feedback, interpretation provided immediately
1. Disadvantages
o Availability of stakeholders

Root Cause Analysis
 Purpose
o Determine the implicityformof a problem
 Description
o Structured examination of aspectsof a situation toestablishthe rootcausesand effectsresulting
fromthe problem
o Keyelementtoensure challengethe thoughtof the businessandprocesses
 Elements
1. Diagram Fishbone /Ishikawa/Cause andEffect
o Capture the question inabox at the top of the diagram
o Draw linesonthe categoriesof potential causes
o Draw minorlines onthe deepercauses
o Use brainstormingtosearchforcategories andcauses
o Analyze the results (future detail)
o Use brainstormingtofindsolutions
2. Five whys
o Questionandanswerprocess toexplore the nature and cause of a problem, throughrepeated
questions
o Write the problemandask (1x + 4x):
 “Why do youthinkthe problemoccurs?”+ “Why?”
o Use singlyoras part of the diagramof Ishikawa
0. Advantages
o Provides astructuredmethod toidentify the rootcauses of the identifiedandunderstood
problems
1. Disadvantages
o It worksbetterwhen someone trainedfacilitates the expertsteam, the facilitatormustremain
objective

Scenarios and use Cases
 Purpose
o Describe how anactor interactswith asolutiontoachieve one ormore goals of the actor, or
respondingto anevent
 Description
o Scenariodescribes only one wayinwhich aplayercan reacha targetin particular,through a
seriesof stepsperformed bythe actors
o Use case describes all possible outcomes of anattemptto achieve aparticulargoal
that supports the solution throughvarious scenariosinthe formof primaryflow (basic,simplest)
and alternative (specialsituationsand exceptions)
 Elements
1. Name – Unique inside the project, describes the goal oreventwhichhe treatsandincludes a
verb+ noun
2. Actors – A person,system orexternal eventtothe system thatinteractswiththe systemthrough
the use case, unique name that represents the role, shouldneverbe the name of a person
3. Preconditions –Any fact that the solution musttake as true for whenthe use case begins
4. Flowof events – Describeswhatthe actor andthe system are doingwhile runningthe scenario
or use case,primary or alternate
5. Postconditions –Any fact thatmust be true whenthe use case iscomplete
6. Relationships
o Associations –Between actorsanduse cases
o Stereotypes –Between the use cases. ExtensionorInclusion.
o Advantages
 Good to clarify the scope andprovidingahigh-level understandingof the goals of user
behavior, normal situations, alternativesorexceptions
o Disadvantages
 There are manyresources tosupportthe interactionordiscoveryof elements incommon

Scope Modeling
 Purpose
o Usedto describe the scope of the analysis orscope of the solution
 Description
o Serve asthe basisforthe definition anddelimitationof the scope of workof the AN and of the
project
o Allowthe definitionof “complete”scope,containing the boundariesof abusinessdomain
 Elements
1. ContextDiagram
o DFD high-level, usesaunique dataprocess todescribe the scope andfeatures external
entities anddatastoresthatprovide and receive datafrom SYS
2. Events
o Occur in an external entity,time determinedby businessrules,how toprovide response tothe
event
3. Resources
o High-level abstractions of the solution expandedin functional andadditional requirements
4. Use Case Diagrams
o Usually describes the use cases,actors andrelationships betweenthem
5. BusinessProcess
o High-level model tomodel the scope
0. Advantages
o Make iteasierto determinewhichshouldbe insideandoutof the scope toa solution
1. Disadvantages
o Can leave detailstobe investigated further

Sequence Diagrams
 Purpose
o Model the logicof usage scenarios throughthe presentationof information passed
between objectsinthe system, fromthe execution of the scenario
 Description
o Showshow objectsandclasses interactduringone scenario
o Usedto show how the components of the userinterface orsoftware componentsinteract
 Key Features
o Presents particularinstancesof eachobject,with alifeline beneatheach object,whenitis
createdand destroyed
o Specifies the orderof events,not the exacttime
o Procedural Flow ->Senderdoesnotact until the returnmessage isreceived
o Asynchronousstream ->Processingcontinuesaftersendingsignal
1. Advantages
o Usedin orientedanalysisof objects tovalidate the classdiagramx use case diagram
2. Disadvantages
o Must be definedforeachpossible scenario,requiringafullydefined model of classes

State Diagrams
 Purpose
o Showshowthe behaviorof a concept, entityorobjectchanges inresponse toevents
 Description
o Specifiesthe sequence of statesthatanobjectgoesthrough duringits lifetime and defines
whicheventscause atransitionbetween these states
o State Machine Diagram, State TransitionDiagram, Diagramof Entity Life Cycle
 Elements
1. States
o Represents aunique conditionthat anobjectmaybe or the state that he mayhave, can only
be in one state at a time, musthave aninitial state and manyintermediateandfinal states
2. Transitions
o Represents adynamicbehaviorthatmoves anitemfromone state to another,are
triggeredforcompletedactivities, eventsorothersstimulations
0. Advantages
o Useful toclarifyconfude orconflictingREQ
1. Disadvantages
o Each state mustbe validatedtodetermineif itisrelevanttothe scope of the solution, careful
not to expandthe scope

Survey/Questionnaire
 Purpose
o Elicitinformationfrommany people(anonymousornot) in a shortperiodof time,collecting
information aboutcustomers,products,workpractices andattitudes
 Description
o Setof writtenquestionstothe stakeholdersand expertsonthe subject, requestinganindication
of the degree of agreement inrelationto aseriesof statements, toanalyze the responses and
distribute toappropriate parties
o Closedquestions –Selectingarange of responsesavailable well understood, easyto
analyze, linkedtonumerical coefficients, quantitative language
o Openquestions –answerfree questions,questionsare known butthe answersare
not known, larger/higherspectrum, qualitative language
 Elements
1. Prepare
o Define the purpose of researchand targetgroup
o Identify goalsandgroup tobe searched
o Choose the type of search: Semi-structuredinterview (openquestions) x structured (closed
questions)
o Selectthe sample group:Small interview of all/ Grandsubsetof users
o Geographical distribution, regulatory differences,lackof standardization inoffice orbusiness
processes
o Selectdistributionmethods
o Projectingdesiredlevel of response (% acceptable return)
o Relyingonindividual interviews
 Preliminary –Ideal forall surveyquestions
 PostResearch– Specificresponses andfuture themes
o Communicate the purpose, goalsandreasonof the search
o Be aware of group characteristics, historical,environment andterminology
o Focuson REQ, the questionsmustbe directedtowardsthe statedobjectives
o Easy search, quick to be answered, limitedandordered
o Clearand concise questions,addressing aspecifictheme
o Avoidnegative,complex anduncomfortable questions
o Testthe search for possible adjustments
2. To send the surveybasedon:
o Organizational policies
o Urgency inobtainingresults
o Securitylevel required
o Geographical distribution of participants
3. To documentsearch results:
o Collectthe responses,evaluate detailsandemergingthemesof openquestions
o Analyze andsummarize the results
o Reportfindings tothe sponsor
0. Advantages
o Closedquestions effective forstatistical analysis
o OpenQuestions effectivetobringthe insightsandopinions

o It doesn’trequires timeandcangenerate large numberof responses
1. Disadvantages
o Openquestions require highanalysis
o Resultsare notbiased, andquestionsare notanswered

SWOT Analysis
 Purpose
o Tool to analyze various aspectsof the currentstate of businessprocesses thatare goingthrough
changes
 Description
o EnglishacronymforStrengths,Weaknesses,Opportunities andThreats
o Framework forstrategicplanning, opportunityanalysis, competitive analysis,product
developmentandbusiness
 Elements
o Stepsto conductthe SWOT analysis
 Draw a grid or matrix
 Describe the issue orproblemunderdiscussion
 Conductbrainstormingsessiontocomplete the sectionsof:
 Strengths /Weaknesses /Opportunities /Threats
 Facilitate discussion toanalyze the results
 Conductsolutionsbrainstorming tosolve the problem
1. Advantages
o Assistsanalysisof various aspectsof the currentstate of the ORG andthe environment
2. Disadvantages
o Highlevel view,more detailedanalysisisalmostalwaysneeded

User Stories
 Purpose
o Brief descriptionsof functionalityneeded forusers inresponsetoa needand businessgoal
 Description
o Textaboutthings that the solution mustallow the usertodo
o One or two sentences describingwho usesthe history, the goal tobe achievedandadditional
informationforunderstandingthe history
 Key Features
o Short description of the problem fromthe userperspective
Includes actor(benefited),description (highlevel) andbenefit(amountgiven)
 Whento Use
1. Advantages
o Create environmentof customerproperty inrelation toresourcesand prioritiesincrementally
and iteratively
2. Disadvantages
o It may notbe accessible in environmentswith regulatoryrestrictions

Vendor Assessment
 Purpose
o To evaluate the abilityof apotential suppliertoattendcommitments inrelation toaproduct or
service
 Description
o For solutions providedby external suppliersoroutsourcedsolution,theremayhave
specificREQinrelationtothe involvement of thirdparties
o Ensure that the supplieris financiallysecure, able tomaintain specificlevelsof personnel,
design skilledemployees tosupportthe solution
o Non-functional REQcan be usedto define level of expectedservice
 Elements
o Validation andevaluationof scenarios tomitigate the risksof notattendingthe following
considerations:
1. KnowledgeandExpertise –the supplierhas knowledge andskill not availablein the ORG?The
skill will be transferred?Whatisthe capacityof the suppliertodoit?
2. Licensingandpricingmodels –Case of purchasingoroutsourcingsolutionora
component, determinewhichoptions offerthe bestcost-benefit
3. Reputationand marketposition of the product– How manycustomers are currentlyusing the
productor service?
4. Termsand conditions –The servicesprovided are temporary orpermanent?
5. Experience and reputationof the supplier–Reviewed forconformity andcompliance
to external standards andrelevantquality,safety andprofessionalism
6. Stabilityof supplier–The supplierwill be able to provide the services inthe future?
1. Advantages –Reduces riskof relationshipwithinappropriate supplier
2. Disadvantages –High consumptionof time tomultiple suppliers

Techniques used by Business Analyst

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