This document discusses advocating for scientific research methodologies to be evaluated based on output criteria rather than being strictly defined. It supports a structured approach but acknowledges exceptions. The preferred approach is: 1) a standard scientific method, 2) a rigorous scholar-defined method, or 3) a flexible method that is documented and aims to meet criteria like objectivity, reliability, and reproducibility. Overall it argues that research quality should be the priority over rigidly defining methods, and methods should be evaluated based on how well they achieve reliable and useful outputs.
Sujay Horizontal collaboration in science FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL (3).pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
In a previous paper on cross-cultural research design, we had underlined the importance of crosscultural research design in scientific activity. We had also underlined the importance of obtaining
various types of emic and etic perspectives on various kinds of issues, and had also attempted to bucket
cultures into various categories. In this paper, we attempt to take those concepts a step forward, and
call for a horizontal collaboration among nations. We also define the terms horizontal collaboration and
vertical collaboration as being the two types of collaboration involved in cross-cultural research. Thus,
this paper adds on meaningfully and significantly to the concepts introduced in our paper on crosscultural research design, and introduces several new concepts and terms as well. The concepts proposed
in this paper hold good for all branches and fields of sciences, though they assume added meaning for
various fields of the social sciences where culture-specific data plays a major role in the formulation of
hypotheses. Horizontal collaboration must not replace vertical collaboration entirely, but only
complement it in places where such collaboration makes eminent sense. Western science has
contributed greatly to human welfare, and developing countries must also not be self-centric. They must
also contribute to human welfare and human progress in general. This also assumes added importance
because the dividing line between developed countries and developing countries will become thin in the
times to come as economic performance of various nations also converges.
Sujay Horizontal collaboration in science FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL (3).pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
In a previous paper on cross-cultural research design, we had underlined the importance of crosscultural research design in scientific activity. We had also underlined the importance of obtaining
various types of emic and etic perspectives on various kinds of issues, and had also attempted to bucket
cultures into various categories. In this paper, we attempt to take those concepts a step forward, and
call for a horizontal collaboration among nations. We also define the terms horizontal collaboration and
vertical collaboration as being the two types of collaboration involved in cross-cultural research. Thus,
this paper adds on meaningfully and significantly to the concepts introduced in our paper on crosscultural research design, and introduces several new concepts and terms as well. The concepts proposed
in this paper hold good for all branches and fields of sciences, though they assume added meaning for
various fields of the social sciences where culture-specific data plays a major role in the formulation of
hypotheses. Horizontal collaboration must not replace vertical collaboration entirely, but only
complement it in places where such collaboration makes eminent sense. Western science has
contributed greatly to human welfare, and developing countries must also not be self-centric. They must
also contribute to human welfare and human progress in general. This also assumes added importance
because the dividing line between developed countries and developing countries will become thin in the
times to come as economic performance of various nations also converges.
Sujay Inductive, nomothetic approaches and grounded theory FINAL FINAL FINAL ...Sujay Rao Mandavilli
This paper evaluates both inductive and deductive methods with respect to theory building particularly
in the social sciences. The former is an approach for drawing conclusions by proceeding from the specific
to the general, while as per the latter, a hypothesis is usually developed and subsequently tested based
on further evidence. This paper also evaluates nomothetic approaches in opposition to idiographic or
stand-alone approaches with respect to theorization or theory-formulation as well, and recommends
that a combination of the two be used. It also discusses the application of grounded theory in social
sciences research besides other approaches to theorization as well. While choosing a appropriate
research method is the prerogative of the researcher, based on the research question involved, the
researcher’s personal inclinations, besides time and cost considerations, this paper hopes to generate
awareness of more globalized and inclusive approaches to scientific endeavour. This is as such, our fifth
paper on the philosophy of science, and extends our earlier work which primarily focused on the
importance of the social duties of every researcher and scholar, the principle of exceptionism or the
sociological ninety ten rule, the certainty uncertainty principle, and the importance of cross-cultural
research design. This paper is also therefore the logical culmination of all our earlier endeavours, and
forms an integral part of our “Globalization of science” movement, with particular emphasis on the
social sciences.
Sujay Cultural Frame of Reference FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
This is an important part of our ‘globalization of science movement’ particularly for the social sciences
because it allows a multi-cultural and a multi-dimensional interpretation of issues, and also allows
solutions to various intractable and seemingly complex problems and issues birthed in various cultural
contexts. The ideas and concepts of “Cultural frame of reference” and “Cross-cultural frame of
reference” were already introduced by us in passing in our papers on the certainty uncertainty principle,
cross-cultural research design, structured apperception tests, extended identity theory, ethnography of
enculturation, and twenty-first century intellectualism, all of which were published in the year 2023.
This issue is not a trifle or a bagatelle, and not certainly a laughing matter. It therefore deserves to be
studied in all seriousness by social sciences researchers. It has several practical applications in fields such
as social and cultural change and betterment, religious reform, the design of contemporary education
systems, cross-cultural research design, behavioural studies, and even technological advancement and
betterment. These concepts must be brought into fruition through the use of various social science
research techniques such as ethnography, fieldwork, the participant observation method, interviews,
questionnaires, emic studies, and the like. This paper is therefore a logical culmination of all our earlier
efforts, and all the aforesaid papers besides our other papers have been linked together in a continuous
chain.
Standard Essay Format | Essay format, Essay layout, Essay. Standard Essay Format | Proper Essay Format Proper Essay Format Cover .... Get Writing Essay Examples Pdf most complete - scholarship. The Example of Essay. Essay sample. Standard Essay Format | Standard Essay Format | Essay format, Essay .... 021 Academic Essays Essay Example ~ Thatsnotus. College Essay Format: Simple Steps to Be Followed. 32 College Essay Format Templates & Examples - TemplateArchive. Standard Essays - Overview - YouTube. College Essay Examples - 9+ in PDF | Examples. Student Essay - 9+ Examples, Format, Pdf | Examples. 020 Maxresdefault Mla Format Argumentative Essay ~ Thatsnotus. Write My Paper For Me - essay exemple - 2017/10/11. Standard introduction essay. Standard Essay Format - Bing Images | Essay writing skills, School .... Definition essay: English essay outline example. Standard format essay writing. Five Paragraph Essays - Tips for Teaching and Grading - Thrive in Grade .... 001 Essay Example Professional ~ Thatsnotus. 006 Basic Essay Format Example ~ Thatsnotus. 001 Mla Format Example Essay ~ Thatsnotus. Sample Essays | Gold Standard Essays. 006 Essay Examplew5cu003d10005cu0026h5cu003d1294 Example Writing .... Best Basic Essay Examples Gif - Exam. Academic Essay Structure Tips [Writing Guide] | Pro Essay Help. 004 Essay Example Proper Format English Sample Essays Ap Lit Help .... What is the proper way to write a title of an essay. Standard Essay Format | ... Poster Company” Essay Format The following .... English Essay Writing Help: free Samples and List of Topics. Write Esse: Part of persuasive essay Standard Essay
A Primer about Mixed Methods Research in an Educational Context ........................................................................... 1
Elizabeth G. Creamer
The Pursuit of „Balance‟ by a Greenhorn Supervisor...................................................................................................... 14
Mark Prendergast
Language Barriers in Statistics Education: Some Findings From Fiji............................................................................. 23
Sashi Sharma
The Conundrum of Handling Multiple Grouped Statistics Class at a Tertiary Education and the Impact on
Student Performance ........................................................................................................................................................... 35
Victor Katoma, Innocent Maposa and Errol Tyobeka
Exploring Estonian Students‟ Ability to Handle Chemistry-Related Everyday Problem Solving ........................... 49
Klaara Kask
The Importance of Educational Technology to Pedagogy: The Relevance of Dewey ................................................. 58
Jamie Costley
Bridging Research and Practice: Investigating the Impact of Universally Designed STEM Curriculum on the
Concept Acquisition of At-Risk Preschoolers .................................................................................................................. 65
Michelle R. Gonzalez, PhD
An Education Leadership Program‘s Continuous Improvement Journey Toward a StandardsBased System ...... 79
Peters, R., Grundmeyer, T. and Buckmiller, T.
A Survey on Assessment of the Prevailing School Fees for Private Secondary Schools in Tanzania ....................... 97
Veronica R. Nyahende & Benedicto C. Cosmas
Qualitative Inquiry in the History of PsychologyFrederick .docxmakdul
Qualitative Inquiry in the History of Psychology
Frederick J. Wertz
Fordham University
Despite the importance and ubiquity of qualitative inquiry, a comprehensive account of
its history in psychology has not been written. Phases and landmark moments of
qualitative inquiry are evident in variations that range from informal, implicit, and
unacknowledged practices to philosophically informed and scientifically sophisticated
methodologies with norms and carefully specified procedures. After the founding of
psychology in 1879, qualitative inquiries were conducted by Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund
Freud, and William James, who assumed their scientific status. During the 20th century,
with a rising emphasis on hypothesis testing by means of quantification, psychologists
continued to use qualitative practices but did not include them in general accounts of
scientific research methods. Although Gordon Allport (1942) called for bold innovation
and an increasingly rigorous accountability, a delay in the systematic development of
qualitative methodology took place even as practices continued to yield fruitful re-
search in work such as Flanagan (1954); Maslow (1954, 1959), and Kohlberg (1963).
Only between the late 1960s and 1990 did phenomenologists, grounded theorists,
discourse analysts, narrative researchers, and others articulate and assert the general
scientific value, methodologies, and applicable tools of qualitative inquiry in psychol-
ogy. Between the 1990s and the present, a revolutionary institutionalization of quali-
tative methods has taken place in publications, educational curricula, and professional
organizations. Examples of ground breaking, well-known psychological research using
qualitative methods have begun to be examined by research methodologists. The
historical study of qualitative methods offers a treasure trove for the growing compre-
hension of qualitative methods and their integration with quantitative inquiry.
Keywords: qualitative research methods, history of psychology, philosophy of science, phenom-
enology, grounded theory
Qualitative inquiry has been practiced from
long before the establishment of psychology as
an independent science and predates the current
organization of knowledge into the various sci-
ences, humanities, arts, and professions. An in-
terdisciplinary cross-fertilization of qualitative
methods continues to flourish today.
A rough sketch of a history of qualitative
inquiry in psychology might differentiate
phases from the founding of psychology to the
present. This sketch, the aim of this article,
highlights landmark events as an invitation to
appreciate and identify some crucial contribu-
tions rather than to bring any closure to what is
historically important. Some examples of psy-
chology conducted before the term “qualitative
research” entered our vocabulary are presented
in order to illustrate the potential of historical
exploration of the hidden treasures of this field
for contributing to research m ...
Sujay Inductive, nomothetic approaches and grounded theory FINAL FINAL FINAL ...Sujay Rao Mandavilli
This paper evaluates both inductive and deductive methods with respect to theory building particularly
in the social sciences. The former is an approach for drawing conclusions by proceeding from the specific
to the general, while as per the latter, a hypothesis is usually developed and subsequently tested based
on further evidence. This paper also evaluates nomothetic approaches in opposition to idiographic or
stand-alone approaches with respect to theorization or theory-formulation as well, and recommends
that a combination of the two be used. It also discusses the application of grounded theory in social
sciences research besides other approaches to theorization as well. While choosing a appropriate
research method is the prerogative of the researcher, based on the research question involved, the
researcher’s personal inclinations, besides time and cost considerations, this paper hopes to generate
awareness of more globalized and inclusive approaches to scientific endeavour. This is as such, our fifth
paper on the philosophy of science, and extends our earlier work which primarily focused on the
importance of the social duties of every researcher and scholar, the principle of exceptionism or the
sociological ninety ten rule, the certainty uncertainty principle, and the importance of cross-cultural
research design. This paper is also therefore the logical culmination of all our earlier endeavours, and
forms an integral part of our “Globalization of science” movement, with particular emphasis on the
social sciences.
Sujay Cultural Frame of Reference FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
This is an important part of our ‘globalization of science movement’ particularly for the social sciences
because it allows a multi-cultural and a multi-dimensional interpretation of issues, and also allows
solutions to various intractable and seemingly complex problems and issues birthed in various cultural
contexts. The ideas and concepts of “Cultural frame of reference” and “Cross-cultural frame of
reference” were already introduced by us in passing in our papers on the certainty uncertainty principle,
cross-cultural research design, structured apperception tests, extended identity theory, ethnography of
enculturation, and twenty-first century intellectualism, all of which were published in the year 2023.
This issue is not a trifle or a bagatelle, and not certainly a laughing matter. It therefore deserves to be
studied in all seriousness by social sciences researchers. It has several practical applications in fields such
as social and cultural change and betterment, religious reform, the design of contemporary education
systems, cross-cultural research design, behavioural studies, and even technological advancement and
betterment. These concepts must be brought into fruition through the use of various social science
research techniques such as ethnography, fieldwork, the participant observation method, interviews,
questionnaires, emic studies, and the like. This paper is therefore a logical culmination of all our earlier
efforts, and all the aforesaid papers besides our other papers have been linked together in a continuous
chain.
Standard Essay Format | Essay format, Essay layout, Essay. Standard Essay Format | Proper Essay Format Proper Essay Format Cover .... Get Writing Essay Examples Pdf most complete - scholarship. The Example of Essay. Essay sample. Standard Essay Format | Standard Essay Format | Essay format, Essay .... 021 Academic Essays Essay Example ~ Thatsnotus. College Essay Format: Simple Steps to Be Followed. 32 College Essay Format Templates & Examples - TemplateArchive. Standard Essays - Overview - YouTube. College Essay Examples - 9+ in PDF | Examples. Student Essay - 9+ Examples, Format, Pdf | Examples. 020 Maxresdefault Mla Format Argumentative Essay ~ Thatsnotus. Write My Paper For Me - essay exemple - 2017/10/11. Standard introduction essay. Standard Essay Format - Bing Images | Essay writing skills, School .... Definition essay: English essay outline example. Standard format essay writing. Five Paragraph Essays - Tips for Teaching and Grading - Thrive in Grade .... 001 Essay Example Professional ~ Thatsnotus. 006 Basic Essay Format Example ~ Thatsnotus. 001 Mla Format Example Essay ~ Thatsnotus. Sample Essays | Gold Standard Essays. 006 Essay Examplew5cu003d10005cu0026h5cu003d1294 Example Writing .... Best Basic Essay Examples Gif - Exam. Academic Essay Structure Tips [Writing Guide] | Pro Essay Help. 004 Essay Example Proper Format English Sample Essays Ap Lit Help .... What is the proper way to write a title of an essay. Standard Essay Format | ... Poster Company” Essay Format The following .... English Essay Writing Help: free Samples and List of Topics. Write Esse: Part of persuasive essay Standard Essay
A Primer about Mixed Methods Research in an Educational Context ........................................................................... 1
Elizabeth G. Creamer
The Pursuit of „Balance‟ by a Greenhorn Supervisor...................................................................................................... 14
Mark Prendergast
Language Barriers in Statistics Education: Some Findings From Fiji............................................................................. 23
Sashi Sharma
The Conundrum of Handling Multiple Grouped Statistics Class at a Tertiary Education and the Impact on
Student Performance ........................................................................................................................................................... 35
Victor Katoma, Innocent Maposa and Errol Tyobeka
Exploring Estonian Students‟ Ability to Handle Chemistry-Related Everyday Problem Solving ........................... 49
Klaara Kask
The Importance of Educational Technology to Pedagogy: The Relevance of Dewey ................................................. 58
Jamie Costley
Bridging Research and Practice: Investigating the Impact of Universally Designed STEM Curriculum on the
Concept Acquisition of At-Risk Preschoolers .................................................................................................................. 65
Michelle R. Gonzalez, PhD
An Education Leadership Program‘s Continuous Improvement Journey Toward a StandardsBased System ...... 79
Peters, R., Grundmeyer, T. and Buckmiller, T.
A Survey on Assessment of the Prevailing School Fees for Private Secondary Schools in Tanzania ....................... 97
Veronica R. Nyahende & Benedicto C. Cosmas
Qualitative Inquiry in the History of PsychologyFrederick .docxmakdul
Qualitative Inquiry in the History of Psychology
Frederick J. Wertz
Fordham University
Despite the importance and ubiquity of qualitative inquiry, a comprehensive account of
its history in psychology has not been written. Phases and landmark moments of
qualitative inquiry are evident in variations that range from informal, implicit, and
unacknowledged practices to philosophically informed and scientifically sophisticated
methodologies with norms and carefully specified procedures. After the founding of
psychology in 1879, qualitative inquiries were conducted by Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund
Freud, and William James, who assumed their scientific status. During the 20th century,
with a rising emphasis on hypothesis testing by means of quantification, psychologists
continued to use qualitative practices but did not include them in general accounts of
scientific research methods. Although Gordon Allport (1942) called for bold innovation
and an increasingly rigorous accountability, a delay in the systematic development of
qualitative methodology took place even as practices continued to yield fruitful re-
search in work such as Flanagan (1954); Maslow (1954, 1959), and Kohlberg (1963).
Only between the late 1960s and 1990 did phenomenologists, grounded theorists,
discourse analysts, narrative researchers, and others articulate and assert the general
scientific value, methodologies, and applicable tools of qualitative inquiry in psychol-
ogy. Between the 1990s and the present, a revolutionary institutionalization of quali-
tative methods has taken place in publications, educational curricula, and professional
organizations. Examples of ground breaking, well-known psychological research using
qualitative methods have begun to be examined by research methodologists. The
historical study of qualitative methods offers a treasure trove for the growing compre-
hension of qualitative methods and their integration with quantitative inquiry.
Keywords: qualitative research methods, history of psychology, philosophy of science, phenom-
enology, grounded theory
Qualitative inquiry has been practiced from
long before the establishment of psychology as
an independent science and predates the current
organization of knowledge into the various sci-
ences, humanities, arts, and professions. An in-
terdisciplinary cross-fertilization of qualitative
methods continues to flourish today.
A rough sketch of a history of qualitative
inquiry in psychology might differentiate
phases from the founding of psychology to the
present. This sketch, the aim of this article,
highlights landmark events as an invitation to
appreciate and identify some crucial contribu-
tions rather than to bring any closure to what is
historically important. Some examples of psy-
chology conducted before the term “qualitative
research” entered our vocabulary are presented
in order to illustrate the potential of historical
exploration of the hidden treasures of this field
for contributing to research m ...
Similar to Sujay Rao Mandavilli IJISRT23AUG1759 Advocating output criteria.pdf (20)
Making India a scientific and intellectual powerhouse FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
Humans have let their creative juices flow since early times; the invention of fire, proto-writing, pottery,
arts and crafts, agriculture and metal-making would bear ample testimony to this. Among early
contributions to science and technology, the contributions made by early Mesopotamians are highly
impressive. They made stellar contributions to metal-working, glass and lamp making, architecture, the
production of textiles and weaving, flood control, water storage and irrigation. They also invented the
earliest form of true writing, namely Cuneiform in the middle of the fourth millennium before Christ.
Writing was usually mastered by scribes who were small in number in relation to the total population,
and was composed on clay tablets. The Epic of Gilgamesh is among the world’s earliest literature, and is
attributed to ancient Mesopotamia. Libraries are also believed to have existed in Ancient Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamians made stellar contributions to mathematics, map making, medicine and astronomy too,
though true intellectualism in the modern sense of the term probably did not exist then....
Sujay Religion in the twenty-first century and beyond FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
The term "Religion" refers to a wide range of social-cultural systems, which include beliefs, morals,
ethics, religious practices, thought worlds, worldviews, holy texts and scriptures, sanctified holy
places, and institutions that typically relate to the general belief in a God or a supernatural entity.
Religion has been known in a wide variety of geographical contexts and situations, and attested since
very early times; as a matter of fact, even before the dawn of human civilization. As a matter of fact,
there have been very few known human societies without some form of an organized or an informal
religion. In the past few centuries, technology has progressed at a rapid pace, and at a rate that
would have been unimaginable just two centuries ago. Many pundits predicted that the role played
by religion in society would invariably and inevitably diminish; alas, such prophecies have not come
to pass. Religion, and the role played by it in society, remains as deeply entrenched as ever before. As
a matter of fact, globalization has unleashed a clash of civilizations, and has brought different and
widely differing ideologies into direct contact with each other, often unleashing waves of terror. In
the wide array and assortment of papers that we have been publishing over the years, we have
introduced many different concepts that we believe can greatly help in understanding the role
religion plays in relation to society. Readers can easily reference these papers. In this paper, we
attempt to take our endeavours to a much higher level, to analyse how the beneficial aspects of
religion can be magnified and amplified, and the negative implications of religion curtailed. We also
lay out the contours of social science research that can effectively tackle the menace of religious
fanaticism and hatred, and draw out a road map and a course of action other researchers and
scholars can easily relate to.
Rebooting Pedagogy and Education systems for the Twenty-first Century: Why ...Sujay Rao Mandavilli
Education is the fundamental pillar upon which any human civilization rests. As a matter of fact, no civilization in any meaningful form or degree has been possible in human history that has not been built on the bulwark and edifice of education. While literacy may have been limited to the privileged few in early ancient civilizations, it was these privileged few who controlled the masses and set the tempo for meaningful progress in such civilizations; educational systems have proven to be the
bedrock and foundational pillar upon which much of human accomplishment and achievement have rested, too. In spite of the naysayers, the cynics and the pessimists, education has expanded greatly in the twentieth century; while the worlds’ earliest civilizations were not western in the canonical sense of the term, there is no denying that western civilizations have pulled away strongly since then. Riding on the shoulders on ancient Greece, western intellectualism has been the bulwark upon which the superstructure of modern civilization has been built. Even as recently as the middle of the twentieth
century, the rest of the world (as opposed to the west) had a lot of catching up to do.
Thankfully and mercifully, a lot has changed since then. India in the 1950’s and 1960’s emphasized higher education but neglected universal primary education as evidenced by low primary school enrollments, and a high rate of dropouts. Since then, programs and schemes such as the Sarva Siksha
Abhiyan or education for all programs have increased primary school enrollment considerably; India now comfortably stands on the threshold of universal adult literacy. While the quantity of education has been augmented, quality has often failed to keep pace. The tenets and the essential doctrines forming a part and parcel of the foundational pillars of pedagogy and education are antiquated and are still steeped in the western experience. What is worse is that is very little awareness on the issue
of the need for change; this must be the foundation of all meaningful change, but alas, that foundation has yet to be built. In this book, we draw upon our long list of papers on the social science, particularly
anthropological pedagogy and the sociology of science, and propose the direction we believe
pedagogy must take in the twenty first century. This can be no one man army; we invite other scholars to contribute in eminent measure. We also believe that this i.e., a foundational assessment of the
concepts of pedagogy must become one of the more important and vital movements of the twenty-first century.
This work is also at the heart of our globalization of science movement as many, if not most concepts in various fields of the social science are based on old and archaic western-centric paradigms. There is
also an unnatural gap between various fields of social sciences and the non-social sciences too, just as careerism is rampant across disciplines and what we called ....
Sujay Rethinking Journal classification FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
In this paper, we challenge Jeffrey Beall’s still dominant in the psyche approach to journal classification
and some other ill-conceived approaches to journal classification, and attempt to show why such
reductionist views are harmful to the healthy growth of science. While scientific fraud in any form must
be horsewhipped and must not be exonerated or absolved at any cost and under any circumstances,
journal classification and all other attendant issues and factors impacting and affecting science and
healthy scientific progress must be taken in all the seriousness they deserve and merit, and must be
assessed holistically and comprehensively. The scholars’ and the researchers’ point of view must also be
taken into account and consideration at all times, and they must be asked to provide a reasonable and an
elaborate justification and validation for all their actions including justifications for their publications in
less prominent or less prestigious journals. We also propose an alternative approach to journal
classification and ranking, but as no one researcher may be able to think through all the factors impacting
and affecting the issue comprehensively enough, we invite other interested and concerned scholars,
authors, scientists, researchers and educators to contribute more meaningfully to the benefit of the entire
process.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
1. Volume 8, Issue 8, August – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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Advocating Output Criteria based Scientific and
Research Methodologies: why the Reliability of
Scientific and Research Methods Must be Measured
based on Output Criteria and Attributes
Sujay Rao Mandavilli
Institute for the Study of the Globalization of Science
Abstract:- This is one of our several publications on
research method and research methodology. In this
paper, we support the idea of a structured and formal
approach to scientific research. However, there may be
many different exceptions to this as all types of research
problems may not lend themselves to research in the
form of pre-determined steps. Thus, the first preference
would be to follow a standard and a highly structured
and formalized scientific method wherever this is
possible. In case this is not possible, the second
preference would be to follow a self or scholar defined
scientific method, but the latter is usually equally
rigorous as well, with pre-defined and pre-determined
steps. The third and last preference: is to follow a free-
form approach where the steps are not pre-defined to a
high degree. In such as case, the researcher refines the
method as the research evolves and progresses and the
time goes by. However, we can only support a structured
and a graduated approach to free-form method, and the
reliability of output must also be always borne in mind.
As such, this is expected to be a vastly superior approach
to a completely free-form method, and could lead to a
vastly superior research output. The method followed
must preferably be documented, but this may not always
be possible or necessary. At the very least, the essential
characteristics of good science such as objectivity,
reliability, accuracy, comprehensiveness, rigour, and
precision besides may others must be adhered to. We are
aware that the quality of research output in developing
countries is low. Therefore, this paper also keeps in mind
our philosophy of the globalization of science, and the
enhanced quality and quantity of scientific output in all
contexts and situations.
I. INTRODUCTION
“Dispassionate objectivity is itself a passion, for the
real and for the truth.” Abraham Maslow
This is one of our several publications on research
method and research methodology over the last one year or
so, though the foundation of much of our work has been laid
over the past two decades. In this paper, we support the idea
of a highly structured and formal approach to scientific
research, as far as this is possible or attainable. However,
there may be many different exceptions to this as all types of
real-world and practical research problems may not lend
themselves to research in the form of a set of pre-determined
steps. Thus, the first preference would be to follow a
standard and a highly structured and formalized scientific
method wherever this is possible. In case this is not possible,
the second preference would be to follow a self or scholar
defined scientific method, but the latter we believe, must be
usually equally rigorous as well, with both pre-defined and
pre-determined steps. The third and last preference: is to
follow a free-form approach where the steps are not pre-
defined to a high degree. In such as case, the researcher
either refines and formulates the method as the research
evolves and progresses and the time goes by, or follows his
gut feel or instinct on most matters.
However, we can only support a structured and a
graduated approach to free-form method, and the reliability
of research output must also be always borne in mind along
with reproducibility of results. As such, this is expected to
be a vastly superior approach to a completely free-form
method, and could logically and naturally lead us to a vastly
superior research output as well. This would essentially be a
via media approach, and would sit in between the
approaches proposed by traditionalists, and the free-for-all-
approached proposed by radicalists such as Karl Popper, and
is such designed to provide a consistent high-quality output.
The method followed must preferably be rigorously and
thoroughly documented, but this may not always be possible
or necessary. At the very least, the essential characteristics
of good science such as objectivity, reliability, accuracy,
comprehensiveness, rigour, reproducibility, consistency, and
precision besides may others must be adhered to. Many of
these are derived from our core principles of Twenty-first
century historiography while others are extensions of the
characteristics of good scientific research. We are aware that
the quality of research output in developing countries is
presently quite low, and a handful of nations dominate
scientific research in most fields.
Therefore, this paper also keeps in mind our
philosophy of the globalization of science, and the enhanced
quality and quantity of scientific output in all contexts and
situations. This approach would serve the interests of all
peoples and denizens from across the world regardless of
their nationality and cultural orientation. It would
particularly help people of the Global South (This term was
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invented by Carl Oglesby and others) who have thus far
lagged behind in science and scientific research. This would
naturally lead us to a better quality of scientific output on
the whole, and lead us to intellectual pyrrhonism too by
reconciling diverse sets of ideas and castigating all forms of
dogma. It would also lead to what we had called “Scientific
progress at the speed of light”. For example, there is scantly
any scientific tradition worth its salt in modern
contemporary India, and in many other developing nations
too. All this needs to change in due course, and this can
have a major multiplier effect on scientific activity as a
whole. We also need more horizontal and vertical
collaboration in science, ahem!
We had also spoken about Horizontal collaboration
and Vertical collaboration in our earlier paper. Both are
extremely important in their own ways. We also request that
developed countries reach out to developing countries
collaboratively, and in a true spirit of mutual amity and self-
respect. We need to mark the end of the era of western-
centric and western dominated research and mark the
beginning of a more globalized and a collaborative era of
research. At the same time, we must also mark the transition
from an ideology-driven research era (including religious
ideology driven scholarship) to an ideology-free research
era. On both counts, we need to declare boldly and
unequivocally that the transition is complete when it really
is. There is no room or scope for the old ways to continue.
Thus, the old Witzel, Asko Parpola and Gregory Possehl era
in Indology, Indus studies and Ancient India studies must
also concomitantly come to a rapid end. Indian Marxist
historians are likewise, relics of a bygone age, and do not
really partake in twenty-first century values. This is just a
stray example. Parallel examples can be culled from various
other related fields of study, and completely different
disciplines too. At the same time, we look forward to
changing individual mind-orientations among citizens in
countries like India, and collective or societal mind-
orientation to tally with a more scientific temperament and
aptitude. It should also be characterized by a smaller pre-
occupation and obsession with religion. There is virtually no
knowledge of scientific method in India even among the
highly educated and the elite. All this must change within a
generation, and if this happens, will be a major triumph for
science in general. We had discussed this in our two papers
dealing with socio-cultural change.
The entire approach proposed in this paper is also
highly recommendatory in nature. This approach it is
expected, could distinguish high quality research in the real
world from less than high quality research as well. More
than a completely free-form approach, this approach is
expected to lead to a more controlled, repeatable and a
verifiable process. We do not therefore essentially
recommend an entirely free-form approach, but an approach
with multiple checks and balances. We also do not
recommend any no holds barred approaches, or highly
subjective postmodernist research philosophies either. This
approach will not be useful just in historiography, not even
just in various fields of social sciences, but in virtually any
field of scientific activity and endeaovur under the sun. For
example, we have used such approaches in our research
publications on the Aryan problem, the identity of the
Harappans and the origin of Brahmi all of which were
conceptualized, formulated and written between the years
2005 and 2013. In these papers, we did not specify the
research method used in a separate section of the research,
but made it amply and abundantly clear to anyone who
would read it carefully. Thus, a controlled approach to
research was followed in these papers, and well
communicated to audiences. In addition to all this, there is
one thing we have emphasized all along. Every researcher
must possess an “objectivity in mindset”. This will naturally
be an essential pre-requisite for progress, and we have been
emphasizing this all along. This cannot naturally be
represented by means of an event, not even a seismic one,
but by a paradigm shift spanning several decades. The
Indian Hindutva pre-scientific far right has a penchant for
coming up with weird, untenable theories that do not cut the
ice, examples of these being the Out of India theory, and
theories based on “Archaeoastronomy” (which is already
dubious, but is used by them in a much more twisted and a
warped sense) among other things. 1
Not only do many pseudo-scientists follow their own
dubious methods, but their methods are not qualitatively tied
to output. Such tendencies must be nipped in the bud, and
relegated to the background. This is because the proof of the
pudding lies in the eating. The far left also does not often
adhere to objectivity, and we primarily look forward to an
ideology-free approach to scientific research in the days and
years to come. The left has also destroyed itself in the years
the Author since has commenced his work, and has more or
less vanished into oblivion; this has simplified things a little
bit, but the far right (which has considerably weakened
remained a potent force) This effort is also in keeping with
our idea to develop and to formulate down to earth and real-
world based approaches rather than highly philosophical and
unworkable or unimplementable abstractions. Thus, simple,
workable, practical and pragmatic approaches, it is
expected, will highly boost the quantum of high quality
research in all parts of the world. It will also give research
from developing countries and other parts of the world more
teeth. Everything must be tied to the quantum and quality of
scientific output, in fact everything. Science, particularly the
social sciences must serve society or societies in such a way
that such a society or societies can produce better and more
reliable science, and a greater scientific output. Thus, this
approach is in humble service to more and better science,
and better scientific and human progress without unwanted
digressions and deviations. All other attributes of good
research must also of course be followed such as
referencing, citations, and attributions, and our work and
approach stands neutral to such generic principles. The ideas
and ideals of this paper were not born from the Author’s
fecund imagination alone; they are a product of nearly two
1
Howell, Kerry E. An Introduction to the Philosophy of
Methodology. SAGE
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decades of research in solving complex and intractable
problems. 2 3 4 5
Characteristics of this Approach
The following are therefore, the essential
characteristics of this approach.
Wherever possible, a highly structured, rigid, a
predefined and a standard research methodology must be
followed, with steps in the research methodology clearly
delineated and rigorously and assiduously so. There are
standard steps in the scientific method that are available
from most scientific literature, and these are followed for
most part of the time.
Wherever the above is not possible, the scholar or
research may develop his own structured and pre-defined
approach to research and research methodology with a
similar level of rigour, exactitude and precision. This
would often and typically comprise of the steps in the
standard scientific method but would include some
variations. Some steps could be skipped or some
amplified, i.e. pursued at a greater level of detail. Thus, a
researcher may synthesize or reconcile contradictory
primary or secondary data as a part of this research
method or strategy. Thus, we had advocated the adoption
of generic principles over static methods in our paper on
the core principles of twenty-first century
historiography, and had recommended even that scholar
defined methods be used. This philosophy can be
extended to all fields of scientific activity but of course
comes with a caveat; wherever possible, a standard
scientific methodology can be used. There would also of
course be variations based on the field of scientific
inquiry; for the field of historiography, the standard
sequence of steps in the scientific method could be used
less often.
Wherever either of the two is not possible, the researcher
may follow his own flexible method, based on his own
considerations or exigencies, and this may evolve or
change as the research progresses. It must also be
mentioned at the very outset, that the methodology
employed must be robust enough notwithstanding the
output characteristics it may yield. The research
methodology employed. It must also not be blatantly
2
Unveiling the Sociological Ninety-ten rules for Social
Sciences research: Towards better hypothesis formulation in
the Social Sciences in the interests of higher quality research
and intellectual multi-polarity Sujay Rao Mandavilli
Published in IJISRT, February 2023
3
Elucidating the Certainty uncertainty principle for the
Social Sciences: Guidelines for hypothesis formulation in
the Social Sciences for enhanced objectivity and intellectual
multi-polarity Sujay Rao Mandavilli IJISRT, March 2023
4
Operationalizing cross-cultural research design: Practical,
cost-effective, and a minimalistic application of cross-
cultural research design to minimize cultural bias in research
and reconcile diverse viewpoints IJISRT, April 2023 Sujay
Rao Mandavilli
5
Grover, Vijey (2015). "RESEARCH APPROACH: AN
OVERVIEW". Golden Research Thoughts
wrong or weak from the start. Can the substratum
method employed to identify the languages of the Indus
valley civilization be considered foolproof? Almost
certainly not. Neither will approaches followed by most
Indian Marxist historians ever be. Asko Parpola’s
research methods are certainly not robust either.
However, methods and techniques employed by
researchers must be critiqued by other researchers
thoroughly; this must be done purely and solely in the
interests of science; there must be no personal vendetta
or any other hidden agenda.
The key philosophy here is that the quantum or quality
of research output must not be compromised, and the
presence or absence of a pre-defined research
methodology must be geared towards this singular
objective i.e. the singular objective of promoting more
and better research.
The approach to be followed for the research or the
investigation being carried out must preferably be
documented thoroughly. This may not however always
be possible, and the quality of the research in that case,
must be evaluated against the research output criteria.
An approach note must also be prepared if possible
detailing all aspects of the research methodology, the
possible key points and limitations.
If the approach changes, the changed approach must also
be documented, and the details of changes must also be
highlighted.
It must be stated upfront why a standard research
methodology cannot be followed. A detailed justification
must be provided, along with the potential problems that
may ensue if a standard model is followed.
List of output criteria must be defined. The standard list
of criteria encompassing good research criteria must be
used, and any omissions must be justified. Examples of
these criteria as reliability, accuracy, precision, rigour,
comprehensiveness etc. These have been discussed in
detail as a part of this paper.
It must be explained how output criteria are proposed to
be met or satisfied through the research methodology
being used.
Attributes and values may also be defined and provided
if possible, for the research criteria, and these could also
be extended to cover pass or fail criteria.
The complete traceability matrix to output criteria must
be provided. It must be shown how output criteria are
proposed to be accomplished.
If certain output criteria cannot be accomplished, a
proper, and a thorough justification must be provided.
The approach must also state how exceptions will be
documented and handled (Refer our paper on the
“Sociological Ninety-ten rule” which was published by
us earlier in 2023)
The approach must also state if possible how
uncertainties and grey areas will be handled (Refer our
paper on the “Certainty Uncertainty principle” which
was also published by us earlier in 2023)
Any cross cultural issues must also be tackled and
handled, and must form a part of the research design.
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We also recommend inductive approaches over
deductive approaches, grounded theory and nomothetic
approaches to rule building. We had discussed these in a
paper on inductive approaches earlier in 2023.
Relevant aspects of the above may be carried forward to
the peer-reviewed journal submission, and relevant
aspects documented in the main paper itself. If this
cannot be suitably accomplished, (too much information
may clutter up the main paper) the researcher should
retain his own traceability. An informal or formal
traceability matrix should therefore be an essential part
of an sound research exercise.
This kind of approach and documentation will ensure
that other researchers can use the techniques and output
of the research in question in their own downstream
research if need be, much more reliably and consistently
, and it will also be much more easily understandable to
the general public.
This approach is only recommendatory. All the steps
above need not be formally documented as a part of the
research paper or research output, but we suggest that it
be followed in letter and in spirit, and built into the
research method and methodology nonetheless.
The core tenets of this approach must be reflected in the
research output. This would be the acid test of this
approach.
II. OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODS
The concept and the idea of research refers to, and
encompasses the systematic gathering of data and
information and its analysis for advancement of knowledge
in any subject. Research attempts to find answers to
intellectual and practical questions regarding unknown and
uninvestigated phenomena through application of systematic
methods. It also leads to the uncovering of hidden truths
regarding various natural and manmade phenomena. It is
thus an exciting voyage of discovery which leads to the
advancement of human knowledge by understanding
different phenomena more thoroughly. Research must also
be carried out in the service of society, though there is still a
gap between the two; we have always believed that this gap
can be bridged through a more globalized and a hands on
approach to science. The English word research originates
from the French word researcher, and is comprised of two
parts, namely “re” and “search”. The term has been traced
all the way back to the year 1577. (Thyer, 2001) According
to a definition provided by the Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary, research is "a methodological and a studious
inquiry or examination; (especially an investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of
facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of
new facts, or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws". Many other definitions of research have
been provided by different thinkers and intellectuals, and it
is pointless and unnecessary to repeat them ad nauseum;
readers may simply refer to our earlier published research
papers on the scientific method and philosophy of science,
of which there are indeed many, to get those definitions. We
had discussed the essential characteristics of social science
research as well, but the concepts and postulates of this
paper would apply to any form of research. 6
Scientific method may be defined as a process of
establishing facts systematically and objectively through a
continuous process of testing and experimentation. There
are many different steps involved in the scientific process,
but the most basic steps and the steps common to all
processes involve defining the research question or problem,
making a series of systematic observations, reviewing both
primary and secondary literature, formulating hypotheses
(which may be derived from older hunches and conjectures),
making predictions about dependant and independent
variables and establishing relationships between the two,
conducting experiments as a part of the research process and
finally validating the results. Good research also applies
rigorous skepticism, and minimizes the number of
assumptions used. Good research also has universal
applicability, and lays bare the exceptions wherever
necessary. It also does not follow any ideology. Good
research is also often interdisciplinary and multicultural.
Thus, the outcomes of scientific activity must also be
credible, dependable, reliable, repeatable, verifiable,
coherent, comprehensive, reproducible, transferable to other
contexts, and self-correcting, and these attributes would set
good research apart from bad ones. The hypothesis which is
initially formulated may be modified, or additional tests
conducted wherever necessary.
Scientific method has existed since ancient times, and
was employed by the Ancient Greeks as well in the ideas of
philosopher Leucippus and his pupil Democritus who
developed the idea of atomism. We also had Thales and the
pre-Socratic school. Aristotle also made contributions to
scientific method through the publication of Organon and
Metaphysics. The British historian De Lacy O'Leary even
goes as far as to call him the father of modern science. The
Greek philosopher Epicurus is also said to have contributed
to scientific method. Some contributions to scientific
method were also made by the Ancient Egyptians (as
evidenced from the ancient medical text Edwin Smith
papyrus) and the Ancient Indians. The Arabs also made
contributions to scientific method during the Islamic Golden
Age. It has however come of age only in the seventeenth
century, during the scientific and intellectual revolutions of
the Post Dark Ages Europe. Thus, while Ancient India did
make some contributions to science, modern say Indians
must stop winnowing the past for glory, and focus on
contemporary excellence.
Research is also broadly categorized into quantitative
and qualitative research. If case of the former, mathematical
or statistical tools and techniques are widely used, while in
the case of the latter, such tools are not generally employed.
Certain kinds of research employ both quantitative and
qualitative research techniques, and this approach is referred
to as mixed methods research. Research is also sometimes
6
Research Methodology: Methods and techniques, Second
Revised Edition, CR Kothari, New Age India Publishers,
1990
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accepted, but follow a reliable method. must also be grounds
up wherever required, and where there is too much clutter or
ideological baggage. This would also be one of the
requirements of good research, but only in some case. 11 12 13
Objectivity
Objectivity in scientific research occurs or is said to
take place when there are no personal biases or personal
opinions involved in the process of research. Scientists must
always strive to reduce bias and subjectivity in their output,
which may arise when personal judgments and beliefs
override objective considerations. This is however, by no
means always easy. The underlying assumption of
objectivity is the idea that truth exists independently of an
observation or investigation, and that the researcher should
not contaminate the truth. Also note that objectivity is
indeed always necessary to formulate an accurate
explanation of how things work in the world, and further
downstream researcher would greatly benefit from it.
However, poor quality research would have an aggregate net
negative downstream effect, and we had introduced a
concept called QEPIS (Quantification of the effects of poor
or Ideologically-driven scholarship) in our paper on Twenty-
first century historiography.
Objectivity must be aggressively pursued not only in
quantitative research, but in qualitative research also. Some
groups of individuals particularly post-modernists have
harped ad nauseum on the subjectivity of interpretation. We
cannot concur with this except in extreme circumstances,
such as where new and meaningful hypotheses are being
formulated. There is also a world of difference between
objectivity and objective-driven approaches. The latter
refers to a fulfillment of the research objectives of the study
at hand, and must be accomplished nonetheless. This alone
would not however indicate that the research is objective.
The idea of objectivity is also linked to the idea of
positivism which states that only information gathered from
real-world observations and real-world data is reliable.
Objectivity is must also eliminate all forms of cognitive
biases such as confirmation biases. Conformation bias, as
proposed by the English psychologist Peter Wilson, refers to
selective processing of data; people mentally process and
accept data which confirms to their belief systems, and
reject almost everything else.
Reliability
The idea of reliability means that the research output is
capable of being used by downstream researchers without
any further investigation or modification. Thus, the research
11
Enunciating the Core principles of Twenty-first Century
Historiography: Some additional extrapolations and
inferences from our studies and observations on
Historiography Sujay Rao Mandavilli ELK Asia Pacific
Journal of Social Science (ISSN: 2394-9392) in Volume 2,
Issue 4 July to September 201
12
Introduction to research methods: A hands on approach,
Bora Pajo, Sage Publications, 2017
13
The practice of qualitative research, SNH Biber, 2013,
Sage Publications
must not have a myopic outlook and must be able to
envisage the downstream implications of his research. This
good research has an ampiliative quality to it, and begets
further good downstream research. Research reliability
refers to the idea whether research methods can reproduce
the same results when experiments are carried out
repeatedly or multiple times. If research methods can
produce consistent results whenever the experiment is
repeated, then the methods are likely to be reliable and not
influenced by any extraneous factors. Reliabilism on the
other hand, is the idea that scientific output is reliable only if
it is produced by a reliable process.
Validity
The idea of validly refers to how well a scientific test
or research activity actually measures what it seeks to
measure, or how well it reflects reality and real-world
considerations. Validity may also be categorized into
internal validity and external validity. Internal validity refers
to the extent to which evidence is valid within the context of
a particular study. External validity on the other hand, refers
to the extent to which a claim is valid against external data
or observations. It also refers to whether the results of a
study can be vetted or ratified against external ideas or
concepts. We may also refer to the theory of paradoxes here;
any theory, hypothesis or paradigm is effectively useless if it
contains a large number of internal and external paradoxes.
Precision
The concept of precision refers to how close
measurements of the same item are to one other. The idea of
precision is independent of the ideal of accuracy. This is
because accuracy refers to how close observations are to the
widely accepted value. Therefore, it is possible to be
extremely precise without being very accurate, and vice
versa. Both precision and accuracy are required for science
to be accepted as high-quality science.
Accuracy
Accuracy refers to how well an observed value tallies
with a more widely accepted value. It may also sometimes
refer to the match between the sample population and target
population. Accuracy must thus be differentiated and
distinguished from precision, and both these are absolutely
required for research to qualify as high-quality research.
Both accuracy and precision must be constantly measured
and verified by a researcher as a part of his study, and red
flags raised whenever these are compromised. In addition to
precision and accuracy, data validity and reliability are also
necessary for research to be categorized as high-quality
research.
Rigour
Rigour refers to the quality of being extremely
thorough and careful. It also at times refers to the principle
and characteristics of following rules, regulations, processes
and procedures in an extremely thorough way, and
communicating them effectively as well. Rigorous research
is also often accompanied by a thorough analysis and
handling of data or exceptions. Rigour does not always
necessarily mean precision and accuracy, and rigour does
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not necessarily guarantee us objectivity. However, rigour is
an important cog in the wheel and takes us closer to the
truth. For example, the Indian Marxist historian DN Jha was
rigorous, but arguably not objective as he was driven and
motivated by ideology. These people can be given away by
their cherry-picking of data or one-sided and limited
interpretation of data. The same holds good of Hindutva
proponents who often subscribe to victimhood narrative, and
cry out foul over alleged unfair play and discrimination.
Systematicity
Systematicity from the standpoint of research output
refers to the idea that the output has been arrived at
systematically and methodologically, and that all non-
correct alternatives and hypothesis have been systematically
eliminated from the result. This approach will guarantee us
that the research output is fair, objective, credible and
reliable. A classic and an ideal example of a systematic
scientific study is a experimental study where there is a
blind assignment of subjects to control and experimental
groups. This approach will however, not necessarily
guarantee us success by itself, and other attributes and
characteristics of a good research need to be followed.
Verifiability
Verifiability means that the result must be capable of
being verified. A phenomenon is said to be scientifically
verifiable if it can be tested and proven to be true, or
alternatively falsified. Verifiability also implies
measurability, and it means that the phenomena is capable
of being observed and measured. At the same time, the
research must be transparent, and other researchers must be
aware as to how a conclusion has been reached; thus, the
entire traceability of research methods and methodologies
must be established. This is necessary because the
researchers study will be used by several other researchers
in the field and in other fields for the downstream research.
Thus, DN Jha’s research must not be supported or idealized
because it is highly one sided and biased and misleads other
researchers as well. We would look forward to a thorough
and a meticulous critique of DN Jha’s works (which do not
certainly constitute good and healthy science) by other
scholars in the days and years to come.
Measurability
Measurability means the research output must be
capable of being measured by means of suitably designed
metrics and measurements. This may not however be always
be possible or necessarily, and may not be possible in case
of qualitative research. A range of mathematical models and
statistical tools and techniques may be used to measure
research output, and other quantification techniques such as
time and spatial measurements are also sometimes used.
Sometimes, other techniques such as the computation of
threshold values and Likert’s scale can also be used.
Falsifiability
Falsifiability is the capacity or the ability of some
proposition, theory, statement, or hypothesis to be falsified
or proven incorrect or wrong. According to Karl Popper,
falsifiability is an important characteristic of a good
research, and in this connection, the famous white swan and
black swan analogy was used. Falsifiability also makes a
theory predictable, testable and eminently usable. The
notion and idea of falsifiability is also related to the problem
of demarcation which discussed the demarcation between
science and pseudo-science. The Certainty uncertainty
principle on the other hand, would imply looking for
uncertainties in a hypothesis and seeking to eliminate them.
It would also imply ranking evidence for and against a
hypothesis on the basis of their certainty and uncertainty.
Repeatability
Repeatability refers to the measure of the ability of a
given research or scientific method to generate either the
same or closely similar whenever a test is designed to be
repeated and re-executed a multiple number of times. This is
however subject to certain factors and considerations; for
example, the experiment must be controlled, and all the
other factors involved must be exactly identical. This
characteristic is of particular importance to quantitative
research; however, repeatability and reproducibility is less
likely in case of qualitative research, and most fields of
social science research.
Reproducibility
Reproducibility from our perspective, is somewhat
different from repeatability. Though similar, reproducibility
refers to how the results of an experiment can be reproduced
in other contexts and situations. Reproducibility allows for
more accurate and widely usable research, whereas
repeatability measures the accuracy of research and
confirms the accuracy of the results. Reproducability is also
similar to the idea of replicability, Replicability is
replicating the study under different circumstances, and is
usually done by a different researcher or by the same
researcher. Research must also usually have universal
applicability unless explicitly stated.
Credibility
Credibility is an English term which means the quality
and attribute of being trusted and believed in. It is also
synonymous with trustworthiness. Credibility in research
may refer to many different things; it may refer to the
credibility of the researcher himself, or it may refer to the
credibility of the research method employed. It may also at
times refer to the credibility of the research output as well.
The idea of credibility may be either subjective or objective,
and may be used for both qualitative and quantitative
research. The term credibility may also often refer to
sources of data used in the research. Different researchers
are associated with different levels of credibility, and
researchers must attempt to build up credibility slowly, and
over a period in time.
Coherence
The term coherent with respect to an argument, theory,
premise, or philosophy means that it is logical, lucid,
reasonable, well-argued, well-reasoned, well-rounded and
internally and externally consistent, cogent and sound. In
other words, it is also sound in a holistic sense, and formed a
consistent and a unified whole. A coherent paper is
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comprehensive, and possesses the traits, attributes and
characteristics of logical consistency. It traces all aspects of
the research consistently from the cradle to the grave, and
embraces all important internal and external touch points for
a complete and a comprehensive research.
Comprehensiveness
The term comprehensive as an English word means to
include or deal with all or nearly all elements or aspects of a
particular issue or problem. For research to be
comprehensive, it must cover the issue or the topic at hand
completely or almost completely, by accounting for or
encompassing all or nearly all important and relevant
considerations. No stone must be left unturned to make the
study as comprehensive or as all-encompassing as possible,
and no significant aspects must be left out from the study.
Thus, the research output must be multi-dimensional, and
must take into account all relevant facts from all relevant
fields of science. It must also satisfy the principle of
exceptionism, and take into consideration all kinds of
exceptions, even cultural ones. Refer to our paper on the
Sociological ninety ten rule.
Holism
Holism refers to the theory and idea that parts of a
whole are interconnected with each other, such that they
cannot exist independently of the whole, or cannot be
completely understood without reference to the entire
whole, which is always greater than the sum of its parts.
Methodological holism in science and research is an
approach to research that emphasizes the interdependencies
of parts in the study of complex systems, and that
approaches to science must be methodologically holistic.
This approach would naturally lead us to a holistic research
output. Another related concept is that of confirmation
holism. In the philosophy of science, confirmation holism,
also known sometimes as epistemological holism, refers to
the idea that no individual statement can be confirmed or
refuted by an empirical test, but only by a set of congruent
statements constituting an entire theory. Thus, a healthy
scientific temper is lacking sorely in India, and probably
other developing countries as well, as people there often
make appeals to authority, and resort to other pseudo-
scientific practices as well.
Coherentism
The doctrine of coherentism states that for a belief to
be justified it must belong to a coherent system of beliefs,
and the beliefs that make up that system must cohere with
one another. We also have the coherence theories of
truth which characterize truth as a property of whole
systems of propositions where individual propositions must
confirm to the whole. Thus, if any Indian scholar or
researcher makes a statement about a real or imagined
Indian epic age, it must also satisfy the principle of
coherentism, and draw data or information from all relevant
fields or study. Thus, the principle of coherentism must also
be satisfied with respect to research output, and this would
distinguish good quality science from poor quality science.
Transparency
In normal English parlance, the quality of transparency
is the quality of being easily seen through. Research must
also necessarily be made transparent, and all assumptions of
the research, the data employed, and the tools and
techniques used must also be made transparent such that
other researchers can trace the research easily. However,
this is seldom adhered to in practice due to careerism (i.e.
the desire to protect their careers and dissuade rivals from
entering the field) and other factors.
Abstraction
The process of abstraction involves the induction of
ideas and the synthesis of particular facts into a general
complete or comprehensive theory about a particular issue,
along with the formulation of rules and laws. Smaller, less
important concepts are then interconnected into a much
larger and an interconnected whole. Abstraction is the exact
and diametric opposite of the concept of specification,
which refers to the analysis or breaking-down of a general
idea or abstraction into concrete facts.
Predictability
In science, predictability refers to the degree to which a
prediction regarding an event or an occurrence can be
reliably made, either in qualitative or in quantitative terms.
Good science must also encompass reliable and predictable
processes, and makes it clearly known what is to be
expected. Scientists must also make reliable predictions
about future events on the basis of the research conducted.
In some cases, scenarios can be formulated; for example,
researcher may come up with various climate change
scenarios, and population growth scenarios since the
outcomes in these two cases are less than certain.
Consistency
Research must also be internally and externally
consistent. In case of internal consistency, all aspects of the
research including data, are internally consistent with one
another, while in the case of external validity, the research is
consistent with external data or phenomena. Consistency is
sometimes qualitatively and statistically expressed in terms
of co-relation metrics. Theories must also be internally and
externally consistent, and must not only cover all observable
data, but must also be logically consistent.
Empiricism
We then also have the concept of empiricism which
states that true knowledge and justification comes primarily
from sensory experience. As such, this represents an
epistemological view or position. The idea of empiricism
competes with the doctrines and philosophies of skepticism
and rationalism from an epistemological standpoint. Thus,
research output must also justify the principle of empiricism.
We then also have the doctrine of methodological
naturalism which states that all explanations to phenomena
must lie within the realm of natural causes.
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Ethics-based Research Output
A good research is carried out by following research
ethics, and all times and this commitment to research must
translate to research output as well. An ethical research
work safeguards the virtues of truth, honesty, impartiality,
accountability and integrity at all times. Good research also
protects the rights and dignity of the study subjects, and
does not violate or transgress their data rights. A good
research also ensures that researchers uphold principles like
impartiality, honesty, integrity, and accountability in their
work.
Non-Dogma and Openness to Research Results
There must be non-dogma and openness to research
results (and various outcomes) at all times, and the
researcher must not influence the research results in any
way. This is a golden principle to be followed at all times,
and in practically any kinds of research. Thus, however hard
it may be, researchers must not harbour pre-conceived
notions of any kind, or any cultural bias as well. These can
be eliminated by means of techniques such as dialectical
approaches.
Provisionality
Research output must be deemed to be provisional at
all times, and no researcher can stake claim to the absolute
truth, Thus, the research results must be capable of being
revised as and when more data is collected and analyzed, or
as an when assumptions become untenable. This would be
an essential characteristic of a high-quality research. We had
also proposed the idea of qualified historiography in a paper
published in 2022. As per the tenets of this paper, historical
narratives could be qualified as being provisional, and then
worked upon later as more evidence is collected or found.
Output Derived from Controlled Process
A controlled process and a sound research
methodology must be adopted and followed at all times.
Thus, the overall quality and success of a research study is
by and large determined by the research methodology that it
uses (Thattamparambil 2020). It is the prerogative of the
researcher to choose the research methodology that he
wants. However, it must make sense in the context of the
research problem and nature of study, and must be reliable
and economical to operate. From our perspective, it must
also lead to all the research characteristics presented in this
paper, and lead to valid an reliable results. (Jansen &
Warren, 2020)
Non-Excludability
We must also follow what we may call the principle of
non-excludability. Thus, according to this principle, one
characteristic of a good research output cannot exclude
others from being followed. Thus, in other words, all the
characteristics of a good research output must be adhered to
at all times, and in tandem. Any scenario where only a few
characteristics of a high quality research are realized, and
some others ignored, won’t pass muster.
Universal Applicability
Let us save the best for last. Last but not the least,
research output must have universal applicability, and this
principle lies at the heart of our philosophy of the
globalization of science. Exceptions may of course arise,
and these must be properly documented in the context of the
situations in which they have arisen. Readers may refer to
our paper on the Sociological Ninety ten rule to understand
the principle of exceptionism.
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper has been one of our several publications on
research method and research methodology. In this paper,
we supported the idea of a structured and formal approach to
scientific research. However, we argued that there could be
several different kinds of exceptions to this rule as all types
of research problems may not lend themselves to research in
the form of pre-determined steps. Even though the research
may modify the research methodology in such cases or
utilize a more free-form approach, it must be borne in mind
that the proof of the pudding is in the eating. Thus, the
quality of the research output must be borne in mind at all
times, and will be the anchor on the basis of which all
research will be judged. Anything less than this would
simply be unacceptable. We fervently hope that this kind of
an output-driven analysis of research would lead to a higher
quantum and quality of research output in different parts of
the world, and serve the needs to society much better as
well.