The document outlines steps for observing student behavior, including identifying behaviors, selecting measurement systems, and setting up data collection systems. It also discusses reliability and validity in assessments for special education and introduces universal design principles to create inclusive environments. Additionally, it mentions practical classroom observation techniques and provides guidelines for integrating observations without disrupting teaching.

1. STEPS IN OBSERVING
STUDENTS’ BEHAVIOR

2. Identify and pose
description of the
behavior to be
observed.
Select a
measurement
system.
Step 1 Step 2
Set up the data
–collection
system
Step 3

3. Step 1: Identify and pose description of the
behavior to be observed.
Types of Behavior
a. Discrete behaviors
behaviors that have clearly defined beginnings and endings; can be
measured by counting the frequency or timing the duration.
b. Not discrete behavior
measurable behaviors during any given time period because an
observe can determine whether a student is displaying any behavior.

4. Step 2: Select a measurement system
a. Frequency – refers to the number of times a
certain behavior occurs.
b. Duration – is the measure of the length of
behavior, that is, how long it lasts in terms of
seconds, minutes, or hours.

5. a. When and where will the observation take
place?
b. How many observation periods will there
be, and how frequently will these occur?
c. Who will act as the observer?
d. How will observable data be recorded?
Step 3: Set up the data –collection system

6. Classroom Observation Techniques
for Teachers

7. A. It is not necessary to stop teaching t observe. In fact, it is almost impossible to teach without
observing. Try the following suggestions for integrating observations into your classroom
procedures
a. Carry a small card as such as an index card. List the names
of the two target students and the problem behaviors you
wish to observe on the card.
b. Require students to record
on their in-class work: their
starting and finishing time.
d. To count behaviors without interfering with the
operation of the class, use wrist counters, supermarket
counters, paperclips moved from one pocket to another,
navy beans a cup, and other inexpensive devices.
e. Have a seating chart in front of you as
you talk to the class.
c. Carry a stopwatch to
measure the duration of
behaviors.
f. Recruit volunteers to
observe in the classroom.

8. ASSESSMENTS
STANDARDS IN
SPECIAL EDUCATION

9. Normative Groups
Set the standards for measuring
the capability of the child with
disability.

10. Validity
A test measures what its
authors or users claim it to
measures (Salvia et al., 2010).

11. Types of Validity
1. Content Validity - a logical process where connections between the test
items and the job related tasks are established
2. Concurrent Validity - a statistical method using correlation, rather than
a logical method.
3. Predictive Validity - it measures the relationships between examinees’
performances on the test and their actual status.
4. Face Validity - determined by a review of the items and not through the
use of statistical analysis.

12. Reliability
Reliability
An observation of a specific behavior
observed at a specific time by a specific
person to observations conducted on similar
behaviors, at different times, or by different
observers. (Salvia et al., 2012)

13. Three types of Reliability
1. Item – similar performance on similar items.
2. Stability – similar performance in the future.
3. Inter-observe agreement – similar performance
with a different person.

14. UNIVERSAL DESIGN
FOR SPECIAL
EDUCATION

15. What is Universal Design?
the design of products and environments to
be used by all people, to the greatest
extent possible, without the need for
adaptation or specialized design.

16. Mace’s (1977) Seven Principles of the Universal Design
Equitable Use Flexibility in
Use
Perceptible
Information
Tolerance for
Error
1 2
4 5
Simple and
Intuitive Use
Low Physical
Effort
3
6 7
Size and Space for
Approach and Use
The design is
useful and
marketable to
people with
disabilities.
The use of
the design is
easy to
understand.
The design can
accommodate
a wide range
of individual
preferences.
The design
communicates
necessary
information
effectively to
the user.
The design
minimizes hazards
and the adverse
consequences of
accidental or
unintended actions
The design can
be used
efficiently and
comfortably with
a low minimum
level of fatigue.
Appropriate size
and space
provided for
approach, reach,
manipulation,
and use.

17. THANK YOU!

18. This is our team.
Erika V. John S. Marie M.
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19. Cats love to
sleep.
A fifteen-year-old cat has
probably spent ten years of its
life sleeping.
Also, cats use their whiskers as
feelers to determine if a space
is too small to squeeze
through.

20. And this is a timeline.
1999
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Date Signature
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32. Koalas are
even more lazy
than cats.
Koalas don’t have much energy and, when not feasting on leaves, they spend their time dozing in the
branches. Believe it or not, they can sleep for up to 18 hours a day!

33. Did you know?
Did you know that elephants can sense storms?
Elephants may be able to detect a thunderstorm from hundreds of
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