Stephen graham cyborg dreams: urban warfare and military technoscience
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A detailed analysis of how the latest in US military thinking involves systematically targeting and disabling the infrastructure of cities
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Cyborg Dreams:
Urban Warfare and
US Military Techno-Science
This document discusses the US military's focus on urban warfare and developing new technologies to gain an advantage in cities. It outlines how cities have disrupted traditional military advantages and networks. The military is pursuing an "urban turn" in its Revolution in Military Affairs by developing technologies like networked soldiers, new surveillance systems, unmanned vehicles, and simulations to map and control urban environments. The document critically examines the dehumanizing language and fantasies of painless, automated killing that accompany these new technologies and strategies for urban warfare.
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The document discusses the US military's "urban turn" and its attempts to optimize warfare strategies for urban environments through surveillance, simulation, and robotics technologies. It argues that cities are increasingly seen as "battlespaces" where residents become "targets." The military seeks to reconfigure urban spaces, mobilize simulations for training, and develop persistent surveillance systems to "unveil" cities and track potential threats. However, the strategies are contested within the military and unlikely to achieve the level of control desired in unconquerable urban insurgencies. The "urban turn" says more about domestic political and social fantasies than objective assessments of military options.
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The US has developed extensive capabilities for penetrating underground facilities, including advanced sensors, bunker-busting bombs, and proposals for low-yield nuclear weapons. However, targeting underground sites risks catastrophic consequences from radioactive fallout.
There is a need for a "critical, vertical geopolitics" that examines the interaction between US/allied vertical dominance above ground and underground activities by those deemed illegitimate
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This document discusses how infrastructure has become a key site of geopolitical conflict through deliberate attacks designed to disconnect and demodernize societies. It outlines three driving factors: the increasing vulnerabilities of networked societies, changing political economies of infrastructure development, and the evolving nature of asymmetric war. The document then examines the discourse around "cyber-terror" threats and how states more commonly engage in direct attacks on civilian infrastructure as a warfare strategy. It provides case studies of the de-electrification of Serbia in 1999 and the sustained bombing and disruption of Iraq's infrastructure from 1991-2003. The document concludes that everyday urban technologies have emerged as central geopolitical targets, with war becoming a strategy of orchestrated assaults on networked infrastructure to cause large
Making Sense of Cyberwar 2014
Company names mentioned herein are the property of, and may be trademarks of, their respective owners and are for educational purposes only.
Research Paper
This paper explores how advancing military technology has gradually removed humans from warfare by dehumanizing the process. As technology evolves, weapons become more advanced and indirect, distancing soldiers from the human impact of killing. Guns are developing new automated and explosive capabilities. Chemical weapons were devastating in World War I and militaries planned to use bombers to spray cities. Future technologies like robots, drones, and autonomous weapons further reduce the human role in war, making individuals insignificant against powerful machines of war. The human element is eroding from warfare as technology races ahead.
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This document discusses the US military's focus on urban warfare and developing new technologies to gain an advantage in cities. It outlines how cities have disrupted traditional military advantages and networks. The military is pursuing an "urban turn" in its Revolution in Military Affairs by developing technologies like networked soldiers, new surveillance systems, unmanned vehicles, and simulations to map and control urban environments. The document critically examines the dehumanizing language and fantasies of painless, automated killing that accompany these new technologies and strategies for urban warfare.
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The document discusses the US military's "urban turn" and its attempts to optimize warfare strategies for urban environments through surveillance, simulation, and robotics technologies. It argues that cities are increasingly seen as "battlespaces" where residents become "targets." The military seeks to reconfigure urban spaces, mobilize simulations for training, and develop persistent surveillance systems to "unveil" cities and track potential threats. However, the strategies are contested within the military and unlikely to achieve the level of control desired in unconquerable urban insurgencies. The "urban turn" says more about domestic political and social fantasies than objective assessments of military options.
Stephen graham switching societies off: war, infrastructure, geopolitics
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This document discusses the concept of "vertical geopolitics" and the targeting of underground spaces. It notes that geopolitics traditionally ignores the vertical dimension. However, underground spaces have become increasingly important due to factors like urban warfare, border tunnels, and efforts by adversaries to evade aerial surveillance and attacks.
The US has developed extensive capabilities for penetrating underground facilities, including advanced sensors, bunker-busting bombs, and proposals for low-yield nuclear weapons. However, targeting underground sites risks catastrophic consequences from radioactive fallout.
There is a need for a "critical, vertical geopolitics" that examines the interaction between US/allied vertical dominance above ground and underground activities by those deemed illegitimate
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This document discusses how infrastructure has become a key site of geopolitical conflict through deliberate attacks designed to disconnect and demodernize societies. It outlines three driving factors: the increasing vulnerabilities of networked societies, changing political economies of infrastructure development, and the evolving nature of asymmetric war. The document then examines the discourse around "cyber-terror" threats and how states more commonly engage in direct attacks on civilian infrastructure as a warfare strategy. It provides case studies of the de-electrification of Serbia in 1999 and the sustained bombing and disruption of Iraq's infrastructure from 1991-2003. The document concludes that everyday urban technologies have emerged as central geopolitical targets, with war becoming a strategy of orchestrated assaults on networked infrastructure to cause large
Making Sense of Cyberwar 2014
Company names mentioned herein are the property of, and may be trademarks of, their respective owners and are for educational purposes only.
Research Paper
This paper explores how advancing military technology has gradually removed humans from warfare by dehumanizing the process. As technology evolves, weapons become more advanced and indirect, distancing soldiers from the human impact of killing. Guns are developing new automated and explosive capabilities. Chemical weapons were devastating in World War I and militaries planned to use bombers to spray cities. Future technologies like robots, drones, and autonomous weapons further reduce the human role in war, making individuals insignificant against powerful machines of war. The human element is eroding from warfare as technology races ahead.
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The document discusses the effectiveness of tanks in urban warfare, both historically and currently. It notes that in 1968 in Hue, Vietnam, tanks and artillery fire helped US Marines seize the city with relatively few casualties despite fighting 12,000 enemy troops. Today, the document reports that senior tank officers say tanks remain effective in urban areas, as their firepower deters gunmen who then flee. For the future, the document proposes exploiting new technologies like robotics and unmanned systems to reduce risks to soldiers in urban combat.
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The document discusses the US military's "urban turn" and its attempts to optimize warfare strategies for urban environments through new technologies. It outlines 4 key aspects: 1) reconfiguring urban spaces, 2) mobilizing simulations and collective training, 3) enhancing surveillance systems to "unveil" cities, and 4) pursuing robotics and autonomous weapons. However, the author argues this urban focus says more about domestic politics and techno-fantasies than effective strategy, and full control of cities is unlikely due to their unconquerable nature. The military seeks vertical visibility and tracking through persistent surveillance and simulated training to dominate battlespaces, but cities remain politically and physically contested zones.
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AT-6C Texan II Observation/Attack Aircraft
This document proposes procuring armed Hawker Beechcraft T-6 aircraft, called AT-6Cs, to provide a new capability for US counterinsurgency operations. It suggests establishing a training unit in the continental US and deploying about 20 aircraft to Iraq/Afghanistan and 10 to the Philippines/Horn of Africa. The document reviews the historical use of aircraft in counterinsurgency, why a new aircraft may be needed, potential alternatives, and scenarios showing how the AT-6C could be used. It proposes having the Air National Guard operate the aircraft to provide a rapidly executable option for increasing US and coalition counterinsurgency capabilities.
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RobowarTM dreams US military technophilia and global south urbanisation
Graham, Stephen. "Robowar™ dreams: US military technophilia and global south urbanisation 1." City 12.1 (2008): 25-49.
This paper seeks to open up to critical scrutiny the attempts currently being made to re- engineer post-cold war US military power to directly confront global south urbanisation. Through analysing the discourses produced by US military commentators about ‘urban warfare’, and the purported military, technological and robotic solutions that might allow US forces to dominate and control global south cities in the near to medium-term future, the paper demonstrates that such environments are being widely essentialised as spaces which necessarily work to undermine the USA’s military’s high-technology systems for surveillance, reconnaissance and targeting. The paper shows how, amid the ongoing urban insurgency in Iraq, widescale efforts are being made to ‘urbanise’ these military systems so that US military forces can attempt to assert high-tech dominance over the fine-grained geographies of global south cities in the future. This includes an examination of how, by 2007, US forces, in close collaboration with the Israeli military, had already begun to imple- ment ideas of robotised or automated urban warfare to counter the complex insurgencies in Iraq. The paper concludes with a critique of the urban and robotic turns in US military doctrine.
War and Technology
War has historically driven scientific and technological progress by creating needs that stimulate innovation. Throughout history, wars have prompted advances in areas such as chemistry through the development of explosives, astronomy through improvements to navigation, and metallurgy through advances in weapon manufacturing. Even today, wars continue to spur new technologies across many fields as militaries pursue superior weapons, equipment, and strategies. Future armament projects now seek innovations like powerful electromagnetic guns, high energy lasers, and cavitation torpedoes, though it is hoped that such technologies will ultimately be applied to peaceful ends.
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More from Stephen Graham
Elite Avenues: Flyovers, Freeways and the Politics of Urban Mobility
Flyovers and elevated highways are built in many global cities to privilege the movement of elites and separate spatial movement. However, they often displace large numbers of poorer residents and further segregate access to mobility. While touted as symbols of modernity, these projects actually reflect ongoing struggles over who can freely move and are contested by those with constrained mobility. Alternatives are being explored in some cities that repurpose this space for equitable public use rather than private automobility.
Bunkering down the geography of elite residential basement development in london
Much has been written about the “luxified skies” – “high-rise”, “super-prime” housing for the super-rich – that has been sprouting up across London. Thus far, less attention has been paid to what has been happening to the subterranean city. The “luxified skies” are highly visible reminders of elite “verticality” but, what we might term, “luxified troglodytism” is also an important aspect of London’s changing geometries of wealth, power and architecture. In this paper, we map out in detail the emerging subterranean geography of residential basement development across London since 2008. The very wealthy, it turns out, have been “bunkering down” across certain parts of London, to an extent hitherto little understood. Some 7,328 new residential basements underneath existing houses had been granted planning permission up to late-2019. Over 1,500 of them are of a size that their locations might best be thought of as marking out a distinct plutocratic “basement belt”.
Vertical : The city from satellites to bunkers
A revolutionary reimagining of the cities we live in, the air above us, and what goes on in the earth beneath our feet
Today we live in a world that can no longer be read as a two-dimensional map, but must now be understood as a series of vertical strata that reach from the satellites that encircle our planet to the tunnels deep within the ground. In Vertical, Stephen Graham rewrites the city at every level: how the geography of inequality, politics, and identity is determined in terms of above and below.
Starting at the edge of earth’s atmosphere and, in a series of riveting studies, descending through each layer, Graham explores the world of drones, the city from the viewpoint of an aerial bomber, the design of sidewalks and the hidden depths of underground bunkers. He asks: why was Dubai built to be seen from Google Earth? How do the super-rich in São Paulo live in their penthouses far above the street? Why do London billionaires build vast subterranean basements? And how do the technology of elevators and subversive urban explorers shape life on the surface and subsurface of the earth?
Vertical will make you look at the world around you anew: this is a revolution in understanding your place in the world.
Upright: Verticality, Language and the Politics of Bodies and Cities
An analysis oh how vertical metaphors in language intersect with the politics of upright human bodies and rapidly verticalising cities.
Smart cities: A sceptic's view
Offering a critical response to the dominant vision of the smart city, this talk seeks to look beyond the seductive imagery and hype that surrounds emerging smart city paradigms. In their place, it explores arrange of critical perspectives to smart city planning that are emerging across the social sciences and activist communities, in various places across the world. These critiques centre, broadly, on ways in which smart city paradigms radically deepen urban surveillance ; the way they embed power into corporate urban operating systems; the way the glossy hype and marketing hides tendencies toward authoritarianism and centralized power ; and the way in which ‘smart’ city labels are used to camouflage the construction of highly elitist urban enclaves. The talk will finish by exploring efforts to mobilise digital media to more democratic and egalitarian urban vision.
Transcending the surface graham: The New Techno-Utopian Dreams (and Realities...
A presentation about a range of utopian projects for moving about cities above and below the surface via tunnels. orbital travel, supersonic airliners and vertical take off and autonomous 'sky taxis'.
Subterranean urban politics: Insurgency, sanctuary, exploration and tourism
A presentation, drawing on my book 'Vertical', exploring the politics of the urban subterranean. The wide-ranging discussion explores the subterranean as a source of class threats and insurrections; as a sanctuary; as a space of exploration; and as a site for tourism.
Elite avenues: Flyovers, freeways and the politics of urban mobility
This document provides a summary and analysis of the politics and impacts of elevated highways known as flyovers. It discusses how flyovers have been promoted by urban elites and planners as symbols of modernity and progress, yet often privilege the mobility of the wealthy while negatively impacting poorer communities. The document is divided into several sections that discuss the genealogy of flyovers, their role in social segregation, and examples of how they have been implemented in cities like Manila, the West Bank, South Africa, and Mumbai. It argues that flyovers should be viewed as part of broader processes of three-dimensional social segregation and exclusion within cities.
luxified skies stephen graham
This presentation is a call for critical urban research to address the vertical as well as horizontal aspects of social inequality. It seeks, in particular, to explore the important but neglected causal connection between the demonisation and dismantling of social housing towers constructed in many cities between the 1930s and 1970s and the contemporary proliferation of
radically different housing towers produced for socio-economic elites. The argument begins with a critical discussion of the economistic orthodoxy, derived from the work of Edward
Glaeser, that contemporary housing crises are best addressed by removing state intervention
in housing production so that market-driven verticalisation can take place. The following two sections connect the rise of such orthodoxy with the ‘manufactured reality’—so
central to neo-liberal urban orthodoxy—that vertical social housing must necessarily fail because it deterministically creates social pathology. The remainder of the paper explores
in detail how the dominance of these narratives have been central to elite takeovers, and ‘luxification’, of the urban skies through the proliferation of condo towers for the super-rich.
Case studies are drawn from Vancouver, New York, London, Mumbai and Guatemala City and the broader vertical cultural and visual politics of the process are explored. The discussion finishes by exploring the challenges involved in contesting, and dismantling, the hegemonic dominance of vertical housing by elite interests in contemporary cities.
Vertical noir: Histories of the future in urban science fiction
This document provides an overview of how science fiction has influenced visions and depictions of future cities. It discusses early 20th century works like H.G. Wells' When the Sleeper Awakes that featured vast, towering urban architectures. More recent sci-fi from films like Blade Runner and works by Syd Mead portrayed divided cities with the wealthy inhabiting skyscrapers while the poor lived in underground slums. The document also examines how sci-fi visions shaped urban planning and concepts of ideal cities, and how works like these both depicted dystopian futures but also inspired dreams of vibrant, dense urban environments.
Vertical: The City From Satellites to Bunkers Stephen Graham
A presentation outlining some of the themes to my new book, 'Vertical: The City From Satellites to Bunkers' (Verso, 2016).
"A revolutionary reimagining of the cities we live in, the air above us, and what goes on in the earth beneath our feet
Today we live in a world that can no longer be read as a two-dimensional map, but must now be understood as a series of vertical strata that reach from the satellites that encircle our planet to the tunnels deep within the ground. In Vertical, Stephen Graham rewrites the city at every level: how the geography of inequality, politics, and identity is determined in terms of above and below.
Starting at the edge of earth’s atmosphere and, in a series of riveting studies, descending through each layer, Graham explores the world of drones, the city from the viewpoint of an aerial bomber, the design of sidewalks and the hidden depths of underground bunkers. He asks: why was Dubai built to be seen from Google Earth? How do the super-rich in São Paulo live in their penthouses far above the street? Why do London billionaires build vast subterranean basements? And how do the technology of elevators and subversive urban explorers shape life on the surface and subsurface of the earth?
Vertical will make you look at the world around you anew: this is a revolution in understanding your place in the world."
See https://www.versobooks.com/books/2237-vertical
Vertical noir: Histories of the future in urban science fiction
Unerringly, across its whole history, urban science fiction has offered up imagined cities that operate about remarkably similar and highly verticalised visions. These are heavily dominated
by politics of class, resistance and revolution that are starkly organized around vertically stratified and vertically exaggerated urban spaces. From the early and definitive efforts
of H.G. Wells and Fritz Lang, through J.G. Ballard’s 1975 novel 'High Rise', to many cyberpunk classics, this essay – the latest in a series on the vertical dimensions of cities –reflects on how vertical imaginaries in urban science fiction intersect with the politics and contestations of the fast-verticalising cities around the world. The essay has four parts. It begins by disentangling in detail the ways in which the sci-fi visions of Wells, Lang, Ballard and various cyberpunk authors were centrally constituted through vertical structures, landscapes, metaphors and allegories. The essay’s second part then then teases out the complex linkages between verticalised sci-fi imaginaries and material cityscapes that are actually constructed, lived and experienced. Stressing the impossibility of some clean and binary opposition between ‘factual’ and ‘fictional’ cities, the essay explores how verticalised
projects, material cities, sci-fi texts, imaginary futures, architectural schemes and urban theories mingle and resonate together in complex, unpredictable and important ways which do much to shape contemporary urban landscapes. The third section of the essay explores such connections through the cases of retro-futuristic urban megaprojects in the Gulf and forests of towers recently constructed in Shanghai’s Pudong district. The
essay’s final discussion draws on these cases to explore the possibilities that sci-fi imaginaries offer for contesting the rapid verticalisation of cities around the world.
Megastructures Graham
Histories of the Future in Contemporary Megastructures
An exploration of the development of multi-level cities around the world, and their links to historic futurism
Super-tall and ultra-deep: The Politics of the Elevators
Entire libraries can be filled with volumes exploring the cultures, politics and geographies
of the largely horizontal mobilities and transportation infrastructures that are
intrinsic to urban modernity (highways, railways, subways, public transit and so on).
And yet the recent ‘mobilities turn’ has almost completely neglected the cultural
geographies and politics of vertical transportation within and between the buildings of
vertically-structured cityscapes. Attempting to rectify this neglect, this article seeks,
first, to bring elevator travel centrally into discussions about the cultural politics of
urban space and, second, to connect elevator urbanism to the even more neglected
worlds of elevator-based descent in ultra-deep mining. The article addresses, in turn:
the historical emergence of elevator urbanism; the cultural significance of the elevator
as spectacle; the global ‘race’ in elevator speed; shifts towards the ‘splintering’ of
elevator experiences; experiments with new mobility systems which blend elevators
and automobiles; problems of vertical abandonment; and, finally, the neglected vertical
politics of elevator-based ‘ultra-deep’ mining.
Vertical ground: making geology graham icus 2016
Key note presentation at the Island Cities and Urban Archipelagos 2016. 07-12 March 2016, Hong Kong, University of Hong Kong
See http://www.islandcities.org/icua2016.html
Life support: The political ecology of urban air
This article discusses the need for a political ecology of urban air to address several key themes. It notes that while political ecology has analyzed urban nature like water and green space, urban air remains understudied despite public health crises. The article reviews links between global warming and lethal urban heatwaves. It also examines urban air pollution crises, paradoxes of pollution patterns, horizontal air movements, vertical politics of air, construction of elite high-rises, feedback loops in air-conditioned cities, and deaths of workers building air-conditioned structures. Developing a political ecology of urban air can help explain how unequal power relations shape the production and flows of good and bad air in cities.
Vertical cities: Representations of urban verticality in 20th-century science...
Vertical cities: Representations of urban verticality in 20th-century science fiction literature
Lucy Hewitt and Stephen Graham
This paper seeks to intersect two recent trends in urban research. First, it takes seriously the recognition that established traditions of research concerned with urban space have tended to privilege the horizontal extension of cities to the neglect of their vertical or volumetric extension. Second, the paper contributes to the resurgence of interest among social scientists in the validity of fiction – and especially speculative or science fiction – as a source of critical commentary and as a mode of knowledge that can exist in close reciprocity with non-fictional work. From these two starting points the paper develops a reading of the dialogue between the representations of vertical urban life that have featured in landmark works of 20th-century science fiction literature and key themes in contemporary urban analysis.
Water Wars in Mumbai
Water Wars in Mumbai
Stephen Graham, Renu Desai, and Colin McFarlane
Beyond the Pale
The Mumbai Mirror, January 8, 2010. A photograph shows a line of proud Mumbai police officers standing behind row upon row of what appear at first sight to be rusted machine guns (see fig. 1). But this is not one of the arms caches regularly unearthed to demonstrate the force’s effectiveness against the myriad terrorist networks that regularly target urban sites in contemporary India. Rather, the objects are water booster pumps, confiscated in a new campaign of dawn raids targeting “water theft” by slum dwellers in the Shivaji Nagar and
Govandi districts (see fig. 2 map below).
“Stealing Water to Earn a Few Bucks?” the headline reads. “Pay a Hefty
Price!” (Sathe 2010). The article details how the raids are being backed up by new legal moves to criminalize certain uses of water. Hundreds of people, arrested for installing and using the pumps, are to be prosecuted under draconian and nonbailable laws such as the Prevention of Damages to Public Property Act. All this activity is portrayed unproblematically as a heroic response to the threat that water theft in slums poses to the wider, formal, legitimate, and law-abiding city. “Pilferages, if not controlled,” writes the author, “could exhaust the potable water reserves before the next monsoon” (Sathe 2010).
Such statements tap into a mainstream discourse according to which recent poor monsoons have led to a major “water crisis” in Mumbai, necessitating radical, emergency measures to address widespread “water theft” or “water pilferage”— especially by the urban poor. What such discourses occlude, however, are the ways that current systems of urban water provision work to systematically dehydrate and profit from urban slum communities, while water wastage by the affluent and their preferred urban facilities goes unchecked.
Super-tall and Ultra-deep: The Cultural Politics of the Elevator
Entire libraries can be filled with volumes exploring the cultures, politics and geo- graphies of the largely horizontal mobilities and transportation infrastructures that are intrinsic to urban modernity (highways, railways, subways, public transit and so on). And yet the recent ‘mobilities turn’ has almost completely neglected the cultural geographies and politics of vertical transportation within and between the buildings of vertically-structured cityscapes. Attempting to rectify this neglect, this article seeks, first, to bring elevator travel centrally into discussions about the cultural politics of urban space and, second, to connect elevator urbanism to the even more neglected worlds of elevator-based descent in ultra-deep mining. The article addresses, in turn: the historical emergence of elevator urbanism; the cultural significance of the eleva- tor as spectacle; the global ‘race’ in elevator speed; shifts towards the ‘splintering’ of elevator experiences; experiments with new mobility systems which blend elevators and automobiles; problems of vertical abandonment; and, finally, the neglected ver- tical politics of elevator-based ‘ultra-deep’ mining.
'Smart cities’ : Seduction, simulation, scepticism
‘Smart Cities’: Seduction, Simulation, Scepticism
A presentation made at the 2015 Transmediale festival in Berlin, February 1st
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Bunkering down the geography of elite residential basement development in london
Bunkering down the geography of elite residential basement development in london
Upright: Verticality, Language and the Politics of Bodies and Cities
Upright: Verticality, Language and the Politics of Bodies and Cities
Transcending the surface graham: The New Techno-Utopian Dreams (and Realities...
Transcending the surface graham: The New Techno-Utopian Dreams (and Realities...
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Subterranean urban politics: Insurgency, sanctuary, exploration and tourism
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Elite avenues: Flyovers, freeways and the politics of urban mobility
Vertical noir: Histories of the future in urban science fiction
Vertical noir: Histories of the future in urban science fiction
Vertical: The City From Satellites to Bunkers Stephen Graham
Vertical: The City From Satellites to Bunkers Stephen Graham
Vertical noir: Histories of the future in urban science fiction
Vertical noir: Histories of the future in urban science fiction
Super-tall and ultra-deep: The Politics of the Elevators
Super-tall and ultra-deep: The Politics of the Elevators
Vertical cities: Representations of urban verticality in 20th-century science...
Vertical cities: Representations of urban verticality in 20th-century science...
Super-tall and Ultra-deep: The Cultural Politics of the Elevator
Super-tall and Ultra-deep: The Cultural Politics of the Elevator
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Howard Fineman, Veteran Political Journalist and TV Pundit, Dies at 75
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Stephen graham cyborg dreams: urban warfare and military technoscience
- 1. Cyborg Dreams Urban Warfare and US Military Techno-Science Stephen Graham Department of Geography University of Durham, UK
- 2. I US-Dominated Neoliberal Empire: Imaginative Geographies
- 12. Scale Mismatch: Megacities vs Professional Army
- 13. Popular Orientalism: Unveiling Intrinsically Devious Arab Cities
- 19. Popular Geopolitics Meets Voyeuristic Verticality
- 28. Networked Soldier as Cyborg
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- 32. Urban Terrain Zone Mapping
- 35. ‘ Urban Resolve’: Jakarta 2015
- 37. New Surveillance Systems & Unmanned Vehicles
- 44. Tirpak (2001): humans required only “until UCAVs establish a track record of reliability in finding the right targets and employing weapons properly”. Then “machines will be trusted to do even that”. LOCPAD (Low Cost Persistent Area Design); ‘entire kill chain executed by the munition’. (Ewing, 2005)