adri broeke sportmanger new style

1. 1
Chapter 1 Sport and Management
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 2
1. The world of sport............................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Sport participation......................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 The sport infrastructure ................................................................................................................ 6
1.3 The sports capital .......................................................................................................................... 8
2. Sport managers in action..................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 The knowledge of the sport management professionals.............................................................. 9
2.2 The American perception on managing and organizing ............................................................. 10
2.3 The European perception on managing and organizing ............................................................. 11
2.4 The current landscape of sport organizations............................................................................. 12
2.5 Differentiated sports management practices ............................................................................. 12
3. Professional sports management: a profession in the making......................................................... 16
3.1 Managing professionally ............................................................................................................ 16
3.1 To aim for multiple benefits........................................................................................................ 17
3.2 Alternating management orientations........................................................................................ 19
3.4 Capabilities and qualities of new sports managers..................................................................... 20
References......................................................................................................................................... 22

2. 2
Introduction
The new-style sport management professional
The functional name of manager is an unprotected title. Anyone can call himself a manager.
Currently there are many amateur managers active in different fields. This publication is a
translated version of a part of a (text)book and guide (full Dutch-version: Basisboek sport
management) for future professional sports managers in The Netherlands. It is specifically
meant for those who will be working as a manager in the wide and varied field of sports and
motion where they will be conducting high quality and market conforming professional work.
Their professionalism and expertise is based on years of vocational education and the
necessary practical experience. This publication relates to and is for the future practicing
professional in the field of sports management. The action repertoire of the professional
practitioners is built up from a combination of three ‘driving’ roles related to:
entrepreneurship, leadership and management.
Figure 1: New style sport management professional.
In practice, these distinctive roles can be interpreted in many ways. It can vary from, on the
one hand, strict leading and directional influencing and on the other hand self-guiding and
freedom of choice within fixed frameworks. Be that as it may, the three basic roles are
performed in all situations. Sometimes they are performed at the same time, sometimes in a
specific order. Every newstyle sport management professional has to master the fundamental
principles of entrepreneurship, leadership and management. Traditional tasks such as
arranging, co-ordinating and organising belong to the role of being a manager. Searching for
new challenges, developing initiatives, daring to take calculated risks are part of being an
entrepreneur. Finding the right course, giving direction, inspiring and promoting the
involvement of others fall into the category of being a leader.

3. 3
Chapter 1. Sport and Management
1. The world of sport
During the 19th century sport developed from various forms of local and popular
entertainment. With the introduction of fixed rules, competitions and regulations a vast
amount of sporting activities were standardized. Since then the current sporting world mainly
consists of a system of organizations with fixed agendas. Besides the traditional sports clubs,
commercial organizations and the government also offer sport. The sporting world is a social
sector where thousands of clubs, organizations, companies and foundations are active in
organizing sport participation and events. It is a complex network of individuals, groups and
organizations built up in three layers. The core is shaped by sport participation. This includes
not only the active participation in sport but also the passive following of sport. Around the
core is the sports infrastructure. This refers to sports facilities, sports providers and support
organizations in their totality. Sports capital is the outer layer and includes the value and
availability of sport. The strength of sport regarding the financial-economic and the social-
cultural aspects are found in this layer.
Figure 1.1: The’ layered’ sporting world
The following paragraphs briefly describe the three interconnected layers of the modern
sporting world.
Sport
participation
Sports capital
Sports infrastructure

4. 4
1.1 Sport participation
The sport sector involves billions. Thousands earn their money and others carry out unpaid
tasks as volunteers. For many people sport is their passion and their life. They are actively
involved in it, they regularly watch it and they talk or read about it daily. Sport, in all its
appearances, cannot be ignored in our modern society. Sport can be very meaningful not only
for people but also for groups and institutions.
People participate in sport for various reasons. The motives can be intrinsic. This entails
going for a jog, hitting a ball around or playing a football game where the main aim is to have
fun. However, participation in sport can also arise from extrinsic motives. In this way sport
becomes an ‘instrument’ with which the condition or health of a person is improved, or to
make social contact. The motivation and experience of sport participators differ from person
to person and between different age groups.
Figure 1.2: Different purposes for participating in sport
Since the 1960s, a distinct shift has taken place within the European sporting world. Sports,
practiced traditionally in clubs, are now being supplemented by various forms of sport and
Personality development
sport activities
Talent development
Health promotion
Team bonding Economic growth

5. 5
movement which are organized differently and often take place in an informal context
(jogging, running, cycling). Moreover, different forms of aerobics and fitness classes are
being held in well-equipped studios and sport centres. Lately, the so-called lifestyle sports
have also started advancing. Mountain biking, surfing, skate boarding and various forms of
urban sport belong to the current sporting culture. The sporting landscape is in motion.
The motivation which is based on participation in sport can be reduced to two universal basic
motives: the S-motive and the O-motive (Hermans, 1993). With the S-motive, Self-
acknowledgment is central. The O-Motive refers to the search for connection with Others.
Depending on the personal history and the living conditions it can be that one or both of the
motives are temporarily dominant. Ultimately, when participating in sporting activities it is all
about finding and preserving a balance between the S- and the O-motives.
Figure 1.3: Motivation for participation in sport
During the past century, sport has developed from a luxury activity, only meant for a few
thousand rich participants, to a recreational sporting activity for millions of ‘ordinary’ people.
Participation in sport differs in each stage of life. In general sport participation is at its highest
at the age of ten. At the age of 18, more than 50% participate in sport. In the age group 18 –
65 the number of participants are between 45 - 50%. Even though people have more free time
after their 65th
year, they actually participate less in sporting activities as both the motivation
and the physical abilities have become less. In the age group 65 – 75 only 38% participate in
sporting activities. Besides age, other factors, which also play a role in the background
characteristics of sport participation, include aspects such as the educational level, the culture
and household income.
Involvement in sport can be experienced either actively, as a sportsman or woman, or
passively while watching sport on TV, the internet or as a spectator. Watching sport can also
contribute to the quality of life and social bonding of the sports lover. The older generation, in
contrast to the younger generation, usually stay informed through the older forms of media
(TV, newspaper and radio). In addition, the younger generation use the internet and the social
media to follow sporting news or to join a sporting related community. Currently, sport and
media are inevitably connected with each other. Sport changes due to pressure from the
media. After all, the spectacle value should be as high as possible. The increased media
attention for sport does not affect the attendance at sporting games. On the contrary, it causes
match
competition
co-operation
alliance
achievement
expression
beauty
impression
fitness
health
practice
experience
S-motive
O-motive

6. 6
more people to go to sports halls, playing fields and the greater venues. To attend a game in
person is seen as a unique experience. The search for mutually experienced activities belongs
to modern life and the enriching of society.
1.2 The sport infrastructure
In order to take part in sporting activities, facilities are needed. The physical sports facilities
and the sports accommodation together constitutes the hardware of the infrastructure.
Municipalities (supplying sports parks, sports fields, sport halls, skate tracks) and commercial
parties (supplying fitness centres, riding schools, tennis halls, golf courses) adapt to the
changing wishes and demands with regard to the provision of sporting facilities.
Changes in the sporting needs and behaviour require additional facilities. Re-adjustments to
the physical sports infrastructure demand time, money and political willingness. This is
certainly true when it concerns changing public areas into sporting facilities in neighborhoods
and districts. For this reason the instrumental value of sport could be placed higher up on the
political agenda. To promote a sporting and vital community, more space, literally and
figuratively, should be provided in towns and cities. In addition, there should be a complex of
sports facilities. Over the next few years, both the outdoor and indoor sports are going to take
place in multi-functional locations and facilities. Keeping in mind the nature and content of
the sports motivation and participation in the different age groups, capital intensive sports
facilities are going to disappear. Therefore, flexibly designed sports facilities situated in the
neighborhoods and districts aimed at the target group, will replace these capital intensive
sports facilities in the coming years. Public and private co-operation as well as investment are
indispensably linked to these changes.
The sporting sector consists of a great variety of ‘orgware’. In the community, business and
government, the organizational contexts of sport participation take up different positions.
Figure 1.4: Different coordinating forms in the sports sector
It starts with the home situation, the social community (from the Greek word Oikos!) in which
we are raised. The ‘Oikos’ is the ethos which we share with each other. Our association with
each other is based on love and/or loyalty. The first play or sport experience happens in the
Society
Government
Business
Civil
Society

7. 7
family, the kibbutz or the tribal situation. Traditionally, organized sport stands in the centre of
the diagram (the civil society). Within this environment there is an ethos of value, harmony
and being of service to one another. Based on the solidarity and mutual trust, like-minded
people meet each other. They become members of a club or association based on their mutual
interest.
Associations still form the basis of an international system of voluntary sports organizations.
In Europe alone, more than 500.000 sports clubs are coaching and instructing people.
Traditionally, these organizations, unions and associations fulfil five core functions regarding
sports and games (Stokvis, 2010). These functions are:
 the creating and maintaining of sports facilities;
 the organizing of matches, tournaments and competitions;
 the administrating of training, instructing and coaching of sportsmen and women;
 the constructing, arranging and accompanying of sports teams;
 the regulating and refereeing of matches.
The business sector and the government each apply a different logic. Commercially you
negotiate. You undertake transactions based on contracts and exchanges. According to Adam
Smith, it is a matter of supply and demand and the price mechanism, like an invisible hand,
takes care of the balance between commercial sports providers and the private sports
applicants. On the other hand, the government works with different incentive programmes and
takes care of rules and services which apply and are useful for everyone. These rules and
democratic laws are kept objective and impartial as much as possible. Everyone with equal
circumstances has equal duties and rights. The government exercises the logic of equal rules
and treatment where the interests of the general public is foremost.
For a while now, the non-commercial sports providers have not had the monopoly on the
market concerning sport and movement. The professionalization and commercialization have
gained more ground regarding the regular sporting world. Almost all of the traditionally
organized sports have been commercialized in some way or another. Ice-rinks, riding schools,
sailing clubs and swimming pools have always offered the opportunity to participate in sport
and recreation separate from the sports clubs. The organizational landscape of the sports
providers has been enriched with, among others, tennis and squash halls, fitness companies
and indoor facilities where climbing and skiing can take place. Even the public sports
providers of municipalities have grown enormously. Sport in the neighbourhood, a wide
selection of school activities, playgrounds and multi-functional sport parks provide informal
sport participators with the opportunity to take part in sporting activities without having to
join a club or association. However, the interference of the different authorities have led to
sport being used as a tool to bring about certain political goals. Apart from influences of a
commercial nature, political powers have also drastically changed the original landscape of
the traditional sports organizations resulting in several advantages and disadvantages.

8. 8
1.3 The sports capital
Sport possesses both material and immaterial capabilities. The sociologist Bourdieu (1989)
describes these capabilities as forms of capital with which you can exert power and/or control.
Different forms of capital can be attributed to sport. Economic capital concerns the production
value of the sports industry as a whole. For example, on the fitness, wellness and leisure
market, the sports entrepreneurs provide a booming trade in sports products and services. The
fitness branch has also grown into a gigantic industry, not to mention the many billions
circulating the professional media sport (broadcasting rights, sponsorship, merchandising
etc.). However, for a while now, the economic capital and the significance of sport is not an
extra any more.
The social capital of sport is formed by the size and intensity of the network of relationships.
Both the joint sports as well as the voluntary work done in the club situation strengthens the
underlying unity of the bonding. The power of sport can also be utilized with the aim to
increase the understanding and co-operation between different groups, known as bridging.
Besides the bonding power and the shaping of the community, sport also offers many
possibilities for self organization. Separate from the business logic or the government
bureaucracy, people can realize their expectations and ambitions in the social sports
organizations in a pleasant way. For many the feeling of ‘for each other’ and ‘with each other’
has much value. The social cohesion and the mutual trust between the people is worth its
weight in gold. Sport contributes to this in an important way.
The sporting world also accommodates much cultural capital. This can be found in the
knowledge and expertise which was involved, and still is, with the development of modern
sports. This includes general knowledge about the unwritten game rules as well as the
technical and scientific knowhow regarding the effectiveness of the training and coaching
processes or the development of advanced sports equipment. Sports grounds (e.g.
Wimbledon) and football stadia (e.g. Camp Nou) literally belong to the cultural heritage.
Someone who is good at sport commands authority. People distinguish themselves from each
other not only by their excellent achievements but also by the type of sport chosen, golf,
extreme sports etc. However, the symbolic capital of sport is probably unique. Winning cups
or medals or the position on the ranking list of a competition speaks to the imagination of
many people. The social value of a world championship or an Olympic title is considerably
larger than the actual cost of the cup or medal suggests. The proper utilization of the sporting
capital and the monetizing of the different forms of capital, which should be socially justified,
is the core business of the management of sports organizations.
2. Sport managers in action
The managers involved in sport have the task of getting things done with and for the people.
Management is getting things done through others. Managers come in different shapes and sizes. They
are, more or less, the executives in different organizations who are responsible for the end result.
Public sport managers work for the government. Sport clubs have club managers working for them.

9. 9
Private companies are led by commercial managers. These are all people who fulfil a line or staff
function or are working as a project or programme manager. Henri Mintzberg, a world famous
management guru from Canada, has recently (2010) presented the different activities, done by
managers, in a model.
Figure 1.5: Eight different management activities (Mintzberg, 2010)
There are three layers, lying like slices on top of each other, which can be distinguished. The layer of
information concerns the managing of information. Communication with your co-workers or external
contacts happen through verbal, written or digital information with which you try to influence them
indirectly. Leading, motivating and supporting people means that you are directly managing people.
You encourage individuals, build team spirit or start a relationship with another on an individual
level. Finally, on the action plane, you as the manager are extremely busy with managing through
action. This concerns the solving of daily problems, the leading of projects or dealing with external
parties. The abilities needed to be able to fulfil the different management roles in sport, will be
discussed in more detail. First, we will discuss the different tasks and specifications of professional
sport management which can be distinguished in professional practises.
2.1 The knowledge of the sport management professionals
Long before world war II, the USA already saw the role of a manager as a fully-fledged
professional. A person could prepare for this profession by following a specifically targeted
academic MBA education. Following the example of the classic professions, such as doctors
and lawyers, people strived for the development of an ‘evidence based’ knowledge foundation
in the field of managing and organizing. The profession of managers was seen as a situation
within which the scientific knowledge gained in a rational manner, could be applied directly.

10. 10
The assumption was the achievability and manageability of the conduct of business and
working processes. However, by looking closer it seems as if this assumption was an illusion.
It appeared that the professional handling of management situations in practice did not benefit
from the standard knowledge gained outside the specific organization or context. Human
behaviour is more complex and multi-dimensional than the rational approach suggested.
Management behaviour becomes more effective when it is based on situational knowledge
which has become part of the management practices. Professional knowledge is practice-
based and hardly abstracted from the specific context. The focus of professionals is aimed at
‘knowing how to deal with’. In the background, general management concepts and
objectively gained general knowledge might play a modest role. There is an enormous gap
between general valid knowledge based on knowing what is going on, evidence based
management, and personally restricted general knowledge which supports a suitable
approach, known as practice-based management.
Scientist Professional
Objective, reliable Subjective, useful
Data-based rules Interaction-based heuristics
Scientific publications Popular management literature
General valid regularity Context specific action knowledge
Know what is happening Know how to deal with it
Refining the skills of this group of professional practitioners is an ongoing process. The
professionally qualified sport manager applies a systematic and rational approach when it
comes to the solving of awkward problems in the field of organizing and managing sports
activities. This includes the use of the valid ‘body of knowledge’. In this case, both the
practical ‘know-how’ and the theoretical ‘know-how’ play an important role. Professionals in
sports management are specialists who can also bring about achievements of high quality
under difficult circumstances and under pressure. The demands which the quality of the
professional achievements have to meet, depend on the vision of managing and organizing as
well as the nature of the problems within the professional practice. Management problems can
be approached from a European or American perspective.
2.2 The American perception on managing and organizing
The way in which organizations are managed is closely related to the historical context within
which it has been placed. The British and North Americans have always lived in a society
marked by enterprising individualism, smaller governmental institutions and many official
rules and regulations. The ‘American dream’ serves as an example and symbol for achieving
success. For many years the dream of Americans has been to climb up the ladder from
‘newspaper boy to millionaire’ through their own strength and hard work. Even in industry,
managers often have an individualistic approach and the short term profit of the shareholders

11. 11
is at the forefront. Everything is aimed at quantity: more market shares, higher turnovers and
more profit.
Thus, sport is organized like a money-making machine. The purpose of the sports managers is
therefore to increase the financial profitability to its maximum. The one who is the boss, may
state and determine what is going to happen.
2.3 The European perception on managing and organizing
The European way of thinking about managing and organizing has its roots in the system of
guilds during the late Middle Ages. Learning was done ‘on the job’. Colleague testing
guaranteed the quality of the product delivered. Management skills were based on
craftsmanship. The Central European values strive towards commonality and collective
solidarity. Not everything that is important needs to be quantified. Through consultation, and
based on equality, attempts are made to level out conflicts and to continue long term
relationships. People strive to reach a consensus and build mutual trust whether it is between
different countries or between negotiating partners. Even in industry, durability, co-operation
and serving the shared interest, are central. Employees are treated as responsible, adult,
professional people whose initiatives are stimulated and valued, and not only the boss, but the
employees can also influence decisions. Earning money is the result of delivering quality and
adding value for the client. The qualifications and responsibilities are decentralized in the
managing of the organization and a great deal of professional freedom exists within the
appointed framework.
American football can be used as a metaphore for the American perspective on managing and organizing.
The game is played by two teams and 60 players, of which only 11 are on the field. The game plan is clear:
win as much ground as possible within a set of strict rules. A legion of coaches, referees and assistants
lead the game. The players accurately execute the large number of moves, outlined earlier. Through an
endless series of statistics it is calculated whether the ‘target’ has been met or not. The game is continually
stopped for the coaches to connect the players. During these time-outs, the spectators are being
entertained with much noise and fuss while the TV audience at home are being treated to some
commercials. Sport is business!
A parallel can be drawn between the European way of organizing and the professional sports club. The
club takes care of the unity between the different members who are allowed to think and decide about
the policy which has to be implemented. Apart from striving for profit, a club also has a social duty. Each
club has its own identity and culture of which the local population and the fans are proud. A paid sports
club, for example, may or may not be managed as an isolated financial profit machine. The quality of the
sporting achievements are central. The trainer, players and specialists in the field, only act after
consultation with the managers and the Board Members. This is done based on a communal mission and
perception. When they want to attract new co-workers, trainers or players, they always take the identity
of the club into consideration. The direction for the long term is rooted in the culture of the club and their
distinctive style of play. In this way, for example, the professional sports club does not only create value
for the sponsors, but also for the fans, the members and the local community. When it comes to policy
and decision making, the continuity of the club is always in the centre.
business!

12. 12
2.4 The current landscape of sport organizations
The sports world consists of a complex network of people and organizations involved in
various sporting activities. On the whole, two types of sports practices can be distinguished.
On the one hand there are those practices where games and competitions are central. The
Germans (Dietrich & Heinemann, 1989) refer to it as ‘der sportliche Sport’ (the sporting
sport).
On the other hand there are those sports practices where the participators are focused on not
only becoming fitter or having more vitality but also on getting slimmer. Competition plays a
minor role. Relaxation, sport recreation and improving health are the centre of these ‘nicht-
sportliche Sport’ (not sporting sport).
The organizational context in which both these sport practices takes place are equally
diversified. Sportsmen and women who take part in matches are mainly active in club context.
On the other hand sports clubs are part of an international union or federation. Practicing sport
without competition is connected to a system of commercial fitness and well-being providers,
private sports recreational companies and public sports facilities, such as public playgrounds,
Cruijff courts and physical education in schools.
Sport suppliers can therefore focus on sport lovers, sportsmen/women, fans and spectators,
who are united in a traditional, often structured, social connection (clubs, bonds, federations)
or in a modern, often casually organized setting (playgrounds, ski-slopes, gyms) where they
participate in a sporting experience. Presently, those who want to participate in sport have a
wide variety of choices.
2.5 Differentiated sports management practices
The increasing interference of the business world as well as the government in the sport and
recreation sector has had drastic consequences. Apart from the traditional work of voluntary
supervisory officials, new employment opportunities were generated for entrepreneurs, policy
advisors and managers who have insight into the way things happen in the field of sport. They
were the paid forces who saw the business functioning of sport suppliers regarding the
‘sportliche Sport’ and the ‘nicht sportliche Sport’ as their business operational field. For this
reason sport management training grew overnight. With experience came a new business field
with sport orientated and management trained professionals. These sport management
professionals searched and found employment in all sectors of the growing market of sport
and movement.
Managing an organisation which provides sporting services in the market, could eventually be
based on explicit Anglo-Saxon or Rhineland principles. The creation of value can be aimed at
the actors (regular sportsmen, fans) who participate in sport in a close knit social unit
(organisations, unions) or on actors (occasional sportsmen, spectators) who participate in
sport in a casually organised practise (empty lots, ski-slopes). When we keep this in mind, we
can clearly define the ultimate sport orientated practise axis, ‘sportlichte’ sport versus ‘nicht-

13. 13
sportlichte’ sport, with that of the management principle axis, Rhineland versus American,
creating a characterisation of the professional domain in a schematic diagram:
Figure 1.6: Characterisation of the professional practices in the sport management domain (Broeke, 2010)
Professional practices can be interpreted as: ‘relatively stable and coherent forms of socially
established professional activities in which managers strive to realize corresponding
objectives and values’. Professional development in the field of sport management means
modelling the professional practices with the following characteristics (Jochemsen, 2006):
 The professional tasks which are performed are socially established in society.
 The professional practitioners are part of a professional group and develop their own
professional knowledge base.
 Within the professional practise concerned, the quality criteria determines to what
extent a person can be considered a professional practitioner.
 The demands which have been laid down regarding the quality of practising the
profession and the professional achievements are constantly reflected upon and
negotiated.
Professional practices are imbedded in organisational contexts. Based on the function which
the organisation fulfils, three organisational concepts can be distinguished: business, task and
hybrid organisations (Simon, 1989). Within the business organisations the management
independently decides about strategies and managerial matters. They are independent
organisations that supply products, services or skills to others. Task organisations are
dependent on supervisory policy making committees - the principal. The principal decides
which products, services or skills will be delivered and to whom. This type of organisation
can have some freedom regarding its operations. Task and business organisations can be
found in various mixed forms as well as in the public and private domain. Among the industry
and the government in most European countries there is a rich variety of hybrid social and
Professional practice III
 Private market organisations
 Clients & users
 Economic value of sport
Rhineland-European
management principles
Professional practice I
 Private civil organisations
 Members & volunteers
 Function: participation in
sport
Professional practice II
 Semi - public
task organisations
 Citizens & companies
 Social value of sport
Professional practice IV
 Hybrid profit
organisations
 Spectators & fans
 Function: Entertainment
of top sport
Anglo-American
management principles
Casual ‘nicht
sportliche’
sport practices
Close-knit
‘sportliche’
sport practices

14. 14
civil organisations. These include voluntary organisations, sport associations, unions and so
on. They supply services to members, promote the interest of the members and ensure the
meaningfulness and standard value formation.
Within the professional domain of sports management, four professional practices (figure 1.6)
can therefore be distinguished: two Rhineland orientated and two Anglo-Saxon orientated
sports management practices.
Social or civil organisations - professional practice I
In Europe, private civil organisations, associations, clubs and federations, still play a
dominant role in facilitating and coordinating sport participation of the members who pay a
subscription fee. In turn the municipal governments have, for the last decade, facilitated
thousands of sport associations with the setting-up and maintaining of accommodation and the
supplying of subsidies. There are many sport managers who operate free of charge and there
are also those who, in accordance with the principles of ‘kitchen table’ management, manage
these organisations.
During the last few years, a change has been noticed. External demands have become more
pressing. Due to the rising social interest for sport on the one hand, and the increasing
problems in society on the other hand, the traditional sport practices have become more
socialized. Over the past years, the government has begun to exert their control more directly
in order to raise the social efficiency (such as promoting health/ social integration) of the
social infrastructure in the field of participating sport. The sport unions and associations have,
in turn, developed new organisational concepts, strategic alliances, and services - after school
care including sport activities - in order to strengthen the social aspect of their right to exist.
This has caused higher demands on the voluntary sport managers. Furthermore, the internal
democracy of the sport association has also been placed under pressure. Due to the increased
complexity of the environment as well as the competition, managing the sport associations
now requires new ways of managing and organising. The need for professionally trained sport
managers who can fulfil different tasks on various managerial levels, has visibly increased.
Public, governmental organisations - professional practices II
Midway through the last century a new governmental function was created, the ‘sport
development officer’. The first assignment was to develop a domestic sport policy on local,
provincial and/or national level. Since the 1960s this sport policy has been rapidly expanded.
These expanded, well-being goals by semi-public task organisations were seen as objectives
that needed to be aimed for. This could be done through the planning and utilizing of
provisions for physical education in schools and sport associations, and also through the
stimulating of participation in sport by inactive adults as well as through the sport
infrastructure outside organised sport competition.
From the beginning of the 1980s, after the oil crisis and the economic recession, the emphasis
has been placed on the economical and effective organising and managing of public
organisations (Osborn, 1992). New professional and business orientated models and

15. 15
techniques were imported in order for public task organisations to be more results orientated
and to operate more efficiently. By becoming more independent and through privatisation,
more public organisations have started to aim for and to make their way into the market. On
both a managerial as well as an implementation level, sport started to become an integral part
of the policy. The economic and the social profitability now became central. In the framework
of city marketing sport functioned as a ‘promotion agent’. In order to promote the quality of
life and social cohesion in disadvantaged districts and neighbourhoods, sport was used as a
common bond. Operational policy officials, tried to balance out the sporting services to
schools, organisations and welfare institutions in the frontline. Accommodation controllers
functioned as committee members of independent public sport parks and multi-functional
sports centres. Sport is continually being utilized to promote a city or region and hence trying
to increase the number of visitors or to improve the reputation of the city concerned.
Private, commercial enterprises - professional practice III
During the second half of the 20th
century, the service provision of a sports provider which
operated in an organised and non-profit making way, was supplemented by new commercially
operating business organisations. By using an effective marketing method, they aimed for the
more appropriate, active lifestyle market of a ‘fitter, harder and more beautiful’ post-industrial
society (Stokvis, 2008). Fitness companies, offering aerobics, steps, spinning etc., knew
exactly how to enthuse the target group for a new type of physical exercise without a
competitive element. Maximum profit was central and the manager needed to have the
necessary expertise regarding business economics. Based on the client-orientated principles
from the commercial services, a flexible adaptation to the new needs in the field of sport and
movement was made. This led to a complete new offer of business orientated sport services
and products in the sports sector.
Other sports companies with an aim to make a profit also offered sport orientated services.
Apart from an offer for fitness/well-being, the industry was improved with the commercial
services of riding schools, sailing clubs and organisers of sports travel and, where applicable,
activity holidays and those who are self-employed and work alone, offered their services as
teachers or trainers of casually organised groups or individuals.
Hybrid, professional top sport organisations - professional practice IV.
Through the application of new knowledge and technology in the fields of training, support
and care, the gap between professional top sport and the wide range of amateur sport has
become wider. To meet the need of a higher quality in the professional sports market, new
external money sources had to be found. The income from the raising of contributions and
entrance fees, gave no relief. Performance management and methods to improve the
monitoring of the return on investments presented itself. During the last quarter of the
previous century, a growing number of union entrepreneurs, event organisers and professional
managers controlled many hybrid organisations. Furthermore, an increase in
commercialisation and economising of the top sporting events were put under pressure by the
business sector (Slack, 2004). Sporting goals were under pressure and were sometimes

16. 16
obliged to play a secondary role with regards to the commercial interests and the exchange
value of sportsmen, expressed in money. The ‘people’s club’ became a sharp contrast to the
‘money club’.
The more dominant role of the economic capital, separate from sporting successes, also
created much media attention to remove doping, corruption, gambling scandals, vandalism,
violence, etc. and exploitation in and around top sporting events. At the same time, attention
for good governance and socially justified actions regarding the comings and goings of
directors and managers of professional top sport organisations have increased dramatically
during the last few years.
3. Professional sports management: a profession in the making
Based on the most common activities and duty lists of managers, Birkinshaw (2010) has developed a
simple Management Model. This model reduces the most important ‘value-adding’ activities of
executive managers to four clusters. According to Birkinshaw, responsible managers should,
regardless of the type of organisation they work for, always be able to give a suitable answer to four
central statements:
1. Set goals. How do we deal with the goals which we, as an organisation have set? Do we choose a
direct approach in the short term or an indirect approach in the long term?
2. Motivate people. How do we motivate our co-workers and shareholders? Do we try to get and keep
them motivated with bonuses or recognition rewards?
3. Coordinate projects. How do we create the correct balance between the different types of tasks and
contributions? Do we use fixed structures and rules or a more spontaneous and informal approach?
4. Organise decision making. How are decisions made in our organisation? Are they organised at the
top and then imposed or do we accept the participation from those in a lower position through the
input of ‘collective ideas’?
Summarized in a diagram:
Management activities: Possible choices:
Set goals short term / direct ↔ long term / indirect
Motivate people Extrinsic / material ↔ intrinsic / immaterial
Coordinate projects Bureaucratic / formal ↔ ad hoc / informal
Organise decision making Hierarchical / top down ↔ collective / bottom up
The following paragraphs will discuss the professional performances of the new style of sports
manager. Which qualities should a skilled professional sports manager possess?
3.1 Managing professionally
Managing is often fragmented and diverse. Common problems are alternated with complex
issues. Routine tasks are followed by awkward issues which require much thinking.
Interruptions of activities, which are being concentrated on, are the rule rather than the

17. 17
exception. It has been said that managers usually put much effort into well thought-out plans,
organising and monitoring, but the reality is often different. In fact, managers often act more
instinctively and informally, preferring clear concrete activities and different forms of verbal
interaction. Managers liaise with clients, co-workers, suppliers and lobbyists. With these
people they prefer to have direct contact. When it concerns decision making they are more
likely to be influenced through direct conversations in meetings and consultations than
through the reports of staff members.
Research into the behaviour of managers has concluded that many of them are
creatures of habit.
 Approximately 20% of those investigated showed mainly inactive,
defensive behaviour.
 More than 40% showed, to a large extent, hyperactive behaviour in the
short term.
The time when you could be a manager in the sports sector as an ‘extra’ has long gone. Even
in the field of management there are an increasing number of professionals active. Managing
at the cutting edge with respect to sport and business has become more complex than a few
decades ago. Higher demands are required for the quality of the sports offered, the sports
facility and its organisation. During the second half of the previous century, the special
education and in-service training with regards to sports management and policy in Europe, did
not happen by coincidence. Since then, more Advanced and Secondary Educational Training
has been added. The need for skilled professional trainers in sports management has grown in
both the public and private sectors. Finally, sports managers are judged by their contribution
to the creation of value for the organisation of which they are in charge. Good management
increases the value of that which the organisation offers its clients, members and other
interested parties.
The professional sports manager is a specialist in the field of the production and marketing of
sports services. It is someone who has up-to-date knowledge regarding the procedure of and
solution to organisational problems and management issues in the multi-disciplinary sport
domain. As professionals they have a vision concerning the problems as well as the
possibilities for change. This vision is based on the coherent and complete knowledge of the
theory, practise and experience. This basic, professional knowledge belongs to the conceptual
theories with a ‘capital T’ as well as methodological practical theories with a ‘small t’. True
professionals in the field of sports management strive for the best possible solutions regarding
problems in reality. They also constantly aim to improve the quality of their own work. To
this type of professionalism belongs an attitude which can be described as experimental,
educating and critically reflective.
3.1 To aim for multiple benefits
Products and services related to sport are developed and offered with the aim to create value
for potential customers. Club members, clients or other interested parties make use of the

18. 18
relevant products and services and provide the turnover, profit, return or the growth of fortune
expressed in a different valuation of the sports organisation. To adapt to the wishes and needs
of the direct users, clients and members, client value can be attained. The value of the co-
worker is established when the employer supplies, for example, a pleasant working
environment, an adequate salary or excellent training possibilities. To a certain extent,
external parties and interest groups also profit by the value created by the sports organisations.
The quality of life in the neighbourhood is increased by the sports facilities available, as
activities for school children are offered free of charge. In general, different shareholders
(donors, sponsors, shareholders, governments, charities) also share in the distribution of the
benefits. The results can be expressed in terms of finances (Profit), preservation of the
ecological environment (Planet) or in the improving of the enjoyment and well-being of the
neighbourhood (People).
Apart from the financial-economic value of the managing of sport and motion, social-
economic values are also important.
Figure 1.7: Creation of value for internal/external shareholders.
In the new style of sport business it is no longer only about the money or the maximum profit,
on the contrary, health, belonging somewhere, safety and sportsmanship are also valuable. In
the new business models of the sports sector it, more and more, evolves around transactions
without money and the making of connections. The private sector, neighbourhood initiatives,
local governments and commercial companies create some form of co-operation with each
other. It concerns those projects where a connection between sport and other sectors such as
health care, education and tourism can be accomplished.
Creation of value
Social value
Economic value
Client value
Co-workers value
organisational
context
primary
services
municipalitymarket
area
An example of a project where a link is made between sport, tourism and recreation, a
new Product-Market-Partner Combination (PMPC) is created:
1. A canoeing association came up with an educational canoe route where canoeing is
done along the river, with a stop at a nature activity centre and they are then given a
route description and taken back to the starting point with a tourist boat.
2. A golf club arranged an activity stretching over several days. On the first day there
was an elaborate golf clinic, a lunch consisting of products from the area and a nature
walk with a guide. After an overnight stay at a hotel, it continued with an historical
city walk, then lunch again and afterwards a guided cycling tour along the coast.

19. 19
3.2 Alternating management orientations
According to Quinn (1983) there will always be contradictions regarding the direction and
development of organisations. He refers to it as competitive values. On the one hand, people
adapt themselves to the changing, external environment, while on the other hand they align
themselves to the internal relationships. Occasionally, organisations want to be flexible and
willing to change, but alternatively they also want to conserve their control and stability. Ten
Have (1996) developed this line of thought into a model with four quarters. The concepts of
change versus control and internal versus external are primarily related to the orientation of
the management activities. The concepts effectiveness, efficiency, flexibility and creativity
refer to the intended results by the efforts of the management.
Figure 1.8: Management orientation and criteria for performance (Ten Have, 1996)
For sports organisations to become successful they have to be ‘fluid’ and find a balance
within the different management orientations. In the left-hand upper quarter, which encloses
the orientation regarding control and external orientation, it revolves around the improvement
of the market orientation. Marketing management plays a dominant role here. However,
should one align oneself more to the right upper quarter, then improving the productivity
stands central. Most of the attention then goes to quality management. In the bottom right
quarter the emphasis lies on the radical change of the business processes. Through Business
Process Re-engineering (BPR) people try to enlarge the flexibility of the organisation.
Renovation belongs to the quarter at the bottom left, and is enclosed by external orientation
and change. The development of new sports products and services demand the necessary
innovation ability of the sports organisations.
control
internalexternal
change
effectiveness efficiency
creativity flexibility
The achievements of sports organisations are often looked at from a financial perspective.
Kaplan and Norton (1996) have developed an instrument – the Balanced Score Card (BSC) –
in order to focus on more areas of attention by the management. Besides the financial, the
internal conduct of business, the clients and the innovation perspective are also important.
Every sports organisation determines which perspective should be emphasized during which
period.

20. 20
Figure 1.9: BSC Students sports centre (according to Kaplan and Norton 1996)
Managers should be responsible for their activities, dealings and achievements, depending on
the management orientation. Effectiveness, therefore, refers to the extent in which the set
goals are achieved. Has more turnover been generated? Are new target groups being reached?
With the standard of achievement efficiency it relates to whether the real effort corresponds to
the planned standard. Have we controlled the cost? Do we waste unnecessary energy during
meetings? Flexibility can be described as being able to adequately adapt to drastic changes.
Have we succeeded in adapting the work method? Are we more capable of taking the
changing demands of the clients into account? Finally, creativity can be defined as to what
extent new ideas are being produced which will lead to suitable solutions. Have we developed
enough new products? Do all people, from the highest to the lowest, get the opportunity to
work on new concepts and approaches at work. Managers have to choose. They cannot do
everything at the same time. Once chosen, it requires consistent and consequential action.
This must be done in association with and adjustment to the intended results based on the
different orientation quarters.
3.4 Capabilities and qualities of new sports managers
The problems which professional sports management have to deal with do not lend
themselves to simple answers or ready-made solutions. Based on the available professional
knowledge foundation, the creative thinking and testing of useful solutions should be done in
a methodical and justifiable way. The richness and manoeuvrability of the content of personal
knowledge and ability determines the quality of the professional achievements. According to
Clients Financial
Conduct of
business
Innovation
Relationship
leadership
Cost leadership Production
leadership
Always important

21. 21
Martin (2009) the professional knowledge foundation consists of three fundamental building
stones:
* The view with which you look at reality, such as the image you have of people and the
world, are often used unintentionally to draw assumptions.
* The thinking tools and the working models which one employs when considering and
understanding one’s own actions as well as those of others.
* The practical experience which underlies one’s individual sensitivity, talent and behavioural
pattern in diverse, professional situations.
Under supervision, the professional works on the constructing of a manoeuvrable professional
foundation of knowledge regarding the wide professional spectrum of sports management.
The road from a new professional to a leading expert in the field of management, marketing
and consultancy in the sports industry, is long and with many pitfalls. To be able to deliver
excellent achievements at top level, one needs many hours of flying!
The following diagram represents the diverse areas of ability in which different qualities need
to be developed by Higher Vocational professionals.
Figure 1.10: Professional abilities of Higher Vocational professionals
Subsequent to the research of Mintzberg and Birkinshaw, the SHL, a renowned international
consultancy bureau, formulated the so called Great Eight abilities. The new professional
sports manager is able to:
1. On a personal level, build up and continue to develop an up-to-date professional
knowledge foundation regarding the broad spectrum of sports management;
2. On a personal level, efficiently deal with work stress and problems as well as to set
ambitious job related, but attainable, goals;
(inter)personal
(inter)organisational
informative
personal

22. 22
3. On an informative level, be able to effectively express oneself verbally and in writing
and to be able to communicate with others;
4. On an informative level, be able to analyse and interpret digital texts and research
documents adequately as well as giving useful feedback.
5. On a personal level, effectively work together with colleagues and co-workers and
external communities / interested parties within, as well as outside, the sports industry;
6. On a personal level, be creative in dealing with others and in doing so develop and
promote new knowledge, sports business concepts and combinations of sports
products and markets;
7. On an organisational level, be flexible in managing the development and execution of
strategic tasks and projects regarding one or more specific professional functions, such
as marketing, facilities, financial, and personnel management of sports organisations;
8. On an organisational level, contribute in an ethical and responsible way, to the
realisation of sports related social projects and the preservation of the sports economy
in a network of co-operation.
Naturally, it is expected that a prospective sports manager must be sports minded. The affinity
to sport shows in the personal experience with all ‘layers’ of the sporting world and their
effort to secure and represent the uniqueness of sport in a fitting way. An expert professional
sports manager is motivated to make something of his profession from within, now and in the
near future.
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