This document discusses the development of complement clauses used with copular perception verbs (CPVs) like look, sound, smell, taste and feel in American English over the past 200 years. It finds that the ratio between verbs of seeming (like seem) and CPVs was reversed in the early 20th century for as if clauses. For like clauses, CPVs increased drastically in the 20th century, especially after the 1980s. Expletive it constructions increased for seem but were low for look. Seem as if remained the most frequent construction. Seem like increased in the late 19th century. The development has been bidirectional between seem and CPVs, not just from seem to CPVs.

1. On the Changes in the Clausal Complement of the
Copulative Perception Verbs in American English
Fuminori NAKAMURA
Keio University
September 2nd, 2012
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2. Copular Perception Verbs
The members are mainlylook, sound, smell, taste and feel
copulative in that they require a complement.
(1) a. John looks happy.
b. This cake tastes good.
c. This cloth feels soft.
d. That sounds reasonable.
e. This flower smells sweet.
Even finite clauses in the complement position.
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3. CPVs with as if clauses
Taniguchi (1997, 2005) maintains that this complement comes from
the semantic similarity to verbs of ‘seeming.’
(2) a. John seems as if he’s seen a ghost.
(Taniguchi 2005:245)
b. John looks as if he’s seen a ghost.
(ibid.)
c. John sounds as if he’s seen a ghost.
(ibid.)
d. It appears as if/as though I was wrong.
(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)
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4. CPVs with like clauses
Like can also appear in the complement position.
(3) a. It seems like the weather is improving.
(Quirk et al. (1985:1175))
b. It doesn’t look like it’s going to rain. [”It looks like it isn’t
going to rain.”]
(Quirk et al. 1985:1033)
c. Your car sounds like it need a new clutch.
(Gisborne 2010:281)
d. “But it appears like he was right this time, ma’am, ”
Matthew said.
(Bloodline, [FIC], 1968, from Corpus of Historical American
English)
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5. Previous studies
In Present day English, they are all regarded as synonymous
expressions.
Seem⇒CPVs based on the semantic similarity (‘inference’)
No study has been carried out on how each expression has developed
or declined.
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6. Aims of this research
to trace how they have developed and been related to each other in
American English.
to argue that the development of complement is not unidirectional,
from seem to CPVs, but bidirectional.
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7. The corpus used
Corpus of Historical American Englsih
American English from 1810 to 2009 (200 years)
contains about 400 million words
compiled by Mark Davies (Brigham Young University)
balanced by 4 written genres
Fiction: consists about 50% in every decade
Popular Magazines
Newspapers; no data from the 1810s to the 1860s,
Non Fiction Books
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8. Data collection and classification
classified according to the subject
expletive it is closely connected with the impersonal construction
expletive it cannot be taken with other complements such as
adjectives or nouns
(4) a. Expletive it + V + as if (though) C
b. Referential Subject + V + as if (though) C
c. Expletive it + V + like C
d. Referential Subject + V + like) C
Some scholars calls the constructions with expletive it as a sort of the
impersonal construction (Huddleston and Pullum 2002:962; Whitt
2010:121), based on the semantic interchangeability of that and as if.
(5) It seemed that/as if he was trying to hyde his true identity.
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9. As if complement..
As regards as if (though) complementation, the ratio between verbs
of seeming and copulative perception verbs was reversed in the
beginning of the 20th century.
Figure 1: Frequency of the verbs with as if (though) normalized per a
million words
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10. Like Complementation..
As regards like complementations, the drastically increase of
copulative perception verbs in the 20th century, in particular from the
1980s to the present, has been followed by the stead increase of seem
like.
Figure 2: Frequency of the verbs with like normalized per a million words
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11. Expletive it with the as if (though) complement..
Seem almost always occurs in this frame.
Look in this frame increased since the 1870s.
Figure 3: Percentage of it subject with as if (though) complementation pattern
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12. Expletive it with the like complement..
Seem increased the expletive subject.
Look shows rather low frequency.
Figure 4: Percentage of it subject with like complementation pattern
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13. Seem as if with expletive it
the most frequent use in every decade.
(6) a. It seems as if the scene was closing.
(Novels, [FIC], 1827)
b. It seemed as if every adult in town adored her.
(A Walk to Remember, [FIC], 2000)
c. It seems as though it was six years instead of six months since I
left that part of the country,....
(The Select Letters of Major Jack Downing, [FIC], 1834)
d. It seemed as though there were an overpowering nausea upon
him.
(The Adventures of Jimmie Dale, [FIC], 1917)
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14. Seem with omitted subjects,
The subject can be omitted, in conversation
(7) a. “ Seems like I’d just like to lie down there and sleep with my face
clost up to it, all wet and cool-like, all night! ”
(The Witness, [FIC], 1917)
b. “Hello,” he said. “Seems like I know you.”
(Passions Spin the Plot, [FIC], 1934)
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15. Seem as if with referential subjects..
the subject of the matrix verbs and the subject of the complement
clause is coreferential.
(8) a. Sometimes the fire may smoulder and seem as if it were going
out, or were quite extinguished, and again it will find some new
material to seize upon, and flame up as fiercely as ever.
(A Mortal Antipathy: first opening of the new portfolio,
[FIC],1886)
b. It was beginning to get dark, and the tiny lights seemed as if
they were twinkling.
(Flamingo, [FIC], 2001)
c. ...they seemed as though they would devour each other
embracing and caressing.
(The Tennessean: A Novel, Founded on Facts, [FIC], 1927)
d. None of that seemed as though it had anything to do with the
war, or with the grand political theories that my professors
espoused.
(Ploughshares, [MAG], 1993)
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16. Seem like with expletive it
increases from the end of the 19th century.
(9) a. It always seemed like I was going to succeed, but somehow I
never did.
(Stories of a Western Town, [FIC], 1893)
b. But he was the kind I hadn’t known, and it seemed like he was
part of the whole thing – like the girls with title that Ann said I
must get next to.
(T. Tembarom, [FIC], 1913)
c. It seemed like she was saying for me to shut up.
(Imani all mine, [FIC], 2000)
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17. Seem like with omitted subjects
omitted subjects: as frequent (254 instances) as expletive it (275
instances).
(10) a. Seem like he had two wounded gray and nasty-looking birds
folded up in his hands.
(Imani All Mine, [FIC], 2000)
b. Seems like there was something I should remember....
(Jinx High : a Diana Tregarde Investigation, [FIC], 2006)
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18. Seem like with referential subjects
not frequent in the data.
(11) a. He seems like he’s plenty of money, an’ we takes it he’s all right.
(Wolfville, [FIC], 1897)
b. Brambles tore at us, rocks slashed our bare feet, our hearts
seemed like they must burst within our breasts.
(Gates of Fire: an Epic Novel of the Battole of Thermophylae,
[FIC], 1999)
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19. Appear as if with referential subjects
No omitted subject
(12) a. It appeared as if these people had never before seen a European,
or American.
(North American Review, [MAG], 1842)
b. “It doesn’t appear as if the windshield was broken, ” Saperstein
said. ” But I bet there’ll be clothing fibers on the wipers, and
probably on the bumper or fender area. ”
(False Accusations, [FIC], 2000)
c. At first it appeared as if I were the most fortunate of men, for a
caravan headed for Baghdad was departing within the month, and
I was able to join it.
(The Merchant and the Alchemist’s Gate, [FIC], 2007)
d. I need not tell you of our misery. It appeared as though God had
turned his face from his chosen people.
(Rabbi and Priest: A Story, [FIC], 1892)
e. The murder was done by someone who wanted it to appear as
though Stubbs had done it.
(Bartholomew Fair Murders, [FIC], 1986)F. NAKAMURA (Keio) On the Changes September 2nd, 2012 19 / 35

20. appear as if with referential subjects
(13) a. The room was neatly arranged, and appeared as if no one had
lately used it.
(The Novels, [FIC], 1827)
b. Seen from behind, they appeared as if they wore a helmet.
(North American Review, [MAG],1829)
c. A young man, who appeared as though he had just made his
debut from Bond-street, tried it once, but he signally failed.
(The Adopted Daughter; Other Tales, [FIC], 1859)
d. The trade problem with the Common Market is beginning to
appear as though it will make things worse before they get
better.
(The Atlantic Monthly, [MAG], 1963)
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21. appear like with expletive it
Only type in the data
(14) a. ... and it appeared like I could have no peace till I saw you.
(Clovernook, or Recollections of our Neighborhood in the West.
Volume 2, [FIC], 1853)
b. “But it appears like he was right this time, ma’am, ” Matthew
said.
(Bloodline, [FIC], 1968)
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22. Look as if with expletive it
inference is foregrounded more and perception is backgrounded.
(15) a. It looks as if he had lived a pretty narrow life.
(The Web of Life, [FIC], 1900)
b. It looked as if they were having a good day.
(The Cat Who Robbed a Bank, [FIC], 2000)
c. It looked as though the Knight of the Cumberland had grown
rebellious and meant to choose whom he pleased, but on his way
back the Hon.
(A knight of the Cumberland, [FIC], 1906)
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23. Look as if with referential subjects
(16) a. ... but Fayette looked as if he did not understand. (Reels and
Spindles: A Story of Mill Life, [FIC], 1900)
b. Pierre’s daughter looks as if she is going to cry, it is so hot. (The
Hush in This Heat, [FIC], 2000)
c. The other members looked as though they would willingly have
dispensed with this appeal to their opinion, ....(Xingu 1916, [FIC],
1906)
d. The garment looked as though it had been deliberately fashioned
to make its wearer appear shorter and heavier than she actually
was. (The Paid Companion, [FIC], 2005)
Similar to the examples of as if (though) clause, look with like-clause
takes a dummy subject
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24. Look like with expletive it
(17) a. It looks like we were going to lose some of our own territory,
don’t it?
(Wearing of the Gray: Being Personal Portraits, Scenes and
Adventures of the War, [FIC], 1867)
b. It looked like I’d just dropped from heaven when he first saw me.
(T.Tembarom, [FIC], 1913)
c. The coast was an end in itself now, and on maps it looked like
they were nearly there.
(March to the Sea, [FIC], 2002)
(18) a. “Looks like they’re going to raise the roof, doesn’t it? ” he said.
(Out of the Primitive, [FIC], 1911)
b. “ Everything about her is impressive, ” insisted Colonel Payton. ”
Looks like we’re all in agreement. ”
(Identity Crisis, [FIC], 2004)
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25. Look like with referential subjects
(19) a. Mr. Gregory, here, looks like he would be willing to take odds,....
(Oak Opening, [FIC], 1848)
b. Stolen fruits may look like they are sweet, but taste them, and
they are bitter.
(Tales of the Road, [FIC], 1905])
c. For a second, Dad looked like he might mention her tone.
(Red Feather Filly, [FIC], 2004)
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26. Sound as if with expletive it
(20) a. I It sounds as if it came from the Red Room.
(Dragonwyck, [FIC], 1944)
b. It sounded as if he required the services of a private discriminator.
(The Gist Hunter, [FIC], 2005)
c. “ It sounds as though you had won, sir! ” he cried.
(The White Mice, [FIC], 1909)
d. “ It sounds as though you expect them to have a real combat! ”
(Innocent, [FICT], 1968)
(21) She hears a strange scraping sound – it sounds as though something
is being dragged.
(Grudge [Movie script], [FIC], 2004)
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27. Sound as if with referential subjects
(22) a. It was the first neighing of a youthful steed, in his impatience for
the trial, when his voice sounds as ifhis arteries are ruptured with
the effort.
(Logan: A Family History, Volume 1, [FiC], 1822)
b. It sounds as if he were speaking from the far end of a long, long
tube.
(Reels and Spindles: A Story of Mill Life, [FIC], 1900)
c. Finally they stopped. Ryan heard a garage door open, then they
drove inside. It sounded as if the two men carried the other kid
away. (The Search, [FIC], 2000 )
d. your voice sounds as though you were going to tell us something
awful!
(Grandfather’s chair, [FIC], 1842)
e. I know I sound as though I don’t care about Sparrow.
(The Project, [FIC], 2001)
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28. Sound as if (though) with omitted subjects
(23) a. He said, “Sounds as if you get very involved with your work,
your clients, Mr. Howe ....”
(DoWithMeWhatYou, 1973)
b. Sounds as though he were thinking over that Paris proposition.
(Nowadays: A Contemporaneous Comedy, [FIC], 1914)
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29. Sound like with expletive it
(24) a. “ I don’t just see it yet, ” said Old Hosie slowly, ” but it sounds
like there might be something mighty big there. ”
(Counsel for the Defense, [FIC], 1912)
b. It sounds like they broke the horse.
(Ride, Vaquero, [FIC], 1953)
c. It sounded like she was crying, and when I asked her what was
wrong she asked me to meet her in the reading room at the
school’s library.
(Just Too Good to be True, [FIC], 2008)
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30. Sound like with omitted subjects
(25) a. “Sounds like they haven’t had a very good relationship, ” Vicki
said.
(Horsemen of terror, 2002)
b. “ That traffic backup you ran into on the interstate just now? It
was Tracy Johnson. She smashed into an overpass. ” “What? Is
she okay? ” He shook his head. “Sounds like she died instantly.
” I stood there with my mouth open.
(Rituals of the Season, [FIC], 2005)
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31. Sound like with referential subjects
(26) a. I guess every word I say sounds like I’m lying.
(T. Tembarom, [FIC], 1913 )
b. He sounds like he’s got a problem.
(Down and Our in the Magic Kingdom, [FIC], 2003)
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32. The development of As if (though) complement
from verbs of ‘seeming’ (seem and appear) to verbs of
perception (looksound)
because of the semantic similarity (inference)
perception is semantically bleached and the subject role is lightened.
The subject is no longer a percept, what is perceived.
(27) a. I’ve heard the forecast and tomorrow’s weather sounds fine.
b. I’ve seen the forecast and tomorrow’s weather looks fine.
The complement shifts (i) from the standard to compare with the
subject referent (ii) what the speaker want to communicate.
Then, CPVs are in competition with verbs of ’seeming’ and
have been replacing them.
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33. The development of Like complement
Verbs of seeming are not the source of this use.
From copulative perception verbs to verbs of ‘seeming’
Since this is new use, the development is on the process.
Unnaturalness. (see Quirk et al. 1985, Huddleston and Pullum 2002)
CPVs has been followed by verbs of ‘seeming’
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34. Conclusion
In spite of the current similarity, these two complements, as if
(though) clauses and like clauses, has developed in a different
manner. The influence between CPVs and verbs of ’seeming’ is not
unidirectional but bidirectional.
...1 The ratio with The ratio between seem as if (though) and look as if
(though) was reversed in the beginning of the 20th century.
...2 The sharp increase of look like, in the 20th century, has been followed
by the stead increase of seem like.
...3 Seem shows a strong tendency to take expletive it as their subject,
whereas look and sound tend to take fully referential subjects.
There seems the competition between the as if (though complement
and the like complement based on the similarity because they have
converged on similar syntax and semantics.
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35. Bibliography I
Gisborne, Nikolas. 2010. The event structure of perception verbs. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Huddleston, Rodney, and Geoffrey K. Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge grammar of the English
language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Scartvik. 1985. A comprehensive
grammar of the English language. London: Longman.
Taniguchi, Kazumi. 1997. On the semantics and development of copulative perception verbs in
English : A cognitive perspective. English Linguistics 14:270–299.
Taniguchi, Kazumi. 2005. Jitai-gainen-no kigouka-ni kansuru ninchi-gengogaku-teki-kenkyu [a
cognitive linguistic approach to symbolization of event conception]. Tokyo: Hitsuzi Shobo.
Whitt, Rechard. 2010. Evidentiality and perception verbs in English and German. Oxford: Peter
Lang.
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